PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA BY ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD AND BERTRAND RUSSELL VOLUME II SECOND EDITION CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1927Published by the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London NWI 2DB American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York, N.Y. 10022 ISBN: 0 521 06791 X set of 3 vols. First published 1913 Second edition 1927 Reprinted 1950, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1968, 1973 First printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge Reprinted in Great Britain by Kingprint Limited, Richmond, Surrey NOTE Whilst every effort has been made to reproduce this book to the highest standard, the poor quality of the previous reprint is unavoidably reflected in this impression.CONTENTS OF VOLUME II PAGE PREFATORY STATEMENT OF SYMBOLIC CONVENTIONS . . «vii PART III, CARDINAL ARITHMETIC fbuinmary. of Pare [IEicceecisceseud ene aecs tenet anes gene eaanaaaes 3 Szorion A. Durryrriow anp Loctcan PRorerties oF CARDINAL NUMBERS 4 *100. Definition and elementary properties of cardinal numbers. 5 18 #101. On 0 and 1 and 2 : : : +102. On cardinal numbers of assigned types : toe BB +103. Homogeneous cardinals . eee eee eee cere 3b *104, Ascendingcardinls = | eet *105. Descending cardinle =. eee +106. Cardinals of relational types. 6 se eek Sxorron B, Apprtioy, Mutiriication AND EXPoNENTIATION. . . . 63 +110. : 2 x11. ty peteeerearea iene aBe +112. The arithmetical sum of a class of classes =: 08 +113. On the arithmetical product of two classes or of two cardinals =) 101 +114, The arithmetical product of a class of classes. . > lig +115. Multiplicative classes and arithmetical classes =... s 130 ¥116. Exponentiation =. wee 8B #117. Greater and less Siseeaeeetieae gees caaaeeaasAGy: General note on cardinal correlators 5 |) ] S18) . Finire ann Ixernire - oo. 181 . Avithmetical substitution and wniforin formal yume er . Subtraction. os 194 . Inductive cardinals: : 200 . Intervals. : See eee aes Pivcressions Reflexive classes and cardinals. «5 5 Fw eee 270 The axiom of infinity See eee ees aBn . On typically indefinite inductive cardinals =.) S385 PART IV, RELATION-ARITHMETIC Summary. of PartilVeg geese eeeeee eee ee 298 Szorton A. OnpinaL Sumtarrty ap Renation-Numpers . . .. (295 150. Internal transformation of a relation i eeeeree ae eeseeeeseeeE OOD) #151. Ordinal similarity . a a0) #162. Definition and elementary properties of relation, numbers ff B20 +163. The relation-numbers 0,, 2, and oo. 884 +154. Relation-numbers of assigned pa cae eae EERE EL EEO #155. Homogeneous relation-numbers ease 5 si + 4 334Srctron B. 160, #lTT. Szorion D. *180. +181. lt +184. #185. #186, CONTENTS Apprtion oF RELATIONS, AND THE PRODUCT OF TWO RELATIONS ‘The sum of two relations. . Addition of a term to a relation Tho sum of the relations of a field . | Relations of mutually exclusive relations . Double likeness. : . Relations of relations of couples . ‘The product of two relations . Tux PRINCIPLE or First DIFFERENCES, AND THE MULTIPLICATION AND EXPONENTIATION OF RELATIONS . On the relation of fst differences among the eubsdasef a given | ‘The principle of first differences (continued) « ‘The product of the relations of a Held. ‘The product of the relations of a field (coutinued) - ‘The associative law of relational multiplication Exponentiation ee Propositions connecting Par with products and powers . Arrrpmetic or RELATION-NUMBERS ‘The sum of two relation-numbers On the addition of unity to a relation-number On separated relations | ‘The stm of the relation-numbers of a field ‘Phe product of two relation-numbers — . ‘The product of the relation-numbers of & field Powers of relation-mum! zi PART V. SERIES Summary of Part V Section A. #200. #201. ¥202. Guyenat THxony oF SuRIES . Relations contained in diversity ‘Transitive relations Connected relations. Elementary properties of series . Maximum’and minimum points . Sequent points Limits The correlation of series | Ow Srortows, Seomnnts, SraeroHEs, AND DERIVATIVES Ou series of clases generated by the relation of inclusion On sections and segments ‘The series of segments . Sectional relations . Dedekindian relations . Stretches. : 3. Derivatives - ” On segments of sums and converses 1. Ow Covancency, AND THE Lpitrs oF FUNCTIONS . . On convergents | Limiting sections and ultimate oscillation of a function « Ou: the oscillation of a function as the he argument approsches a given limit . On the limits of functions Continuity of functions . 724PREFATORY STATEMENT OF SYMBOLIC CONVENTIONS Tue purpose of the following observations is to bring togetlier in one discussion various explanations which are required in applying the theory of types to cardinal arithmetic. It is convenient to collect these observations, since otherwise their dispersion throughout the several numbers of Part III makes it difficult to see what is their total effect. But although we have placed these observations at the beginning, they are to be read concurrently with the text of Part III, at least with so much of the text as consists of explanations of definitions, ‘The earlier portion of what follows is merely a résumé of previous explanations; it is only in the later portions that the application to cardinal arithmetic is made. I. General Observations on Types. Three different kinds of typical ambiguity are involved in our propositions, concerning: (1) the functional hierarchy, (2) the propositional hierarchy, (3) the extensional hierarchy. The relevance of these must be separately considered. We often speak as though the type represented by small Latin letters were not composed of functions. It is, however, compatible with all we have to say that it should be composed of functions, It is to be observed, further, that, given the number of individuals, there is nothing in our axioms to show how many predicative functions of individuals there are, ie their number is not a function of the number of individuals: we only know that their number > 2°*™", where “Indiv” stands for the class of individuals. In practice, we proceed along the extensional hierarchy after the early numbers of the book. If we have started from individuals, the result of this is to exclude functions wholly from our hierarchy; if we have started with fanetions of a given type, all functions of other types are excluded. Thus a fresh extensional hierarchy, wholly excluding every other, starts from each type of function. When we speak simply of “the extensional hierarchy,” we mean the one which starts from individuals. It is to be observed that when we have the assertion of a propositional function, say “t. ga,” the @ must be of some definite type, ie. we only assert that a is true whatever # may be within some one type. Thus eg. “k.a= 2” does not assert more than that this assertion holds for any @ of a given type. It is true that symbolically the same assertion holds in other types, but otherviii PREFATORY STATEMENT types cannot be included under one assertion-sign, because no variable can travel beyond its type. ‘The process of rendering the types of variables ambiguous is begun in #8 and #9, where we take the first step in regard to the propositional hierarchy. Before #8 and *9, our variables are elementary propositions. ‘These are such as contain no apparent variables. Hence the only functions that occur are matrices, and these only occur through their values. ‘The assumption involved in the transition from Section A to Section B (Part I) is that, given “t. fp,” where p isan elementary proposition, we may substitute for p “o! (q, y, 2, ...),” where ¢ is any matrix. Thus instead of “+. fp,” which contained one variable p of a given type, we have “F. {$1 (w, y, 2, ...)},” which contains several variables of several types (any finite number of variables and types is possible). This assumption involves some rather difficult points. It is to be remembered that no value of ¢ contains ¢ as a constituent, and therefore ¢ is not a constituent of fp even if p is a value of g. Thus we pass, above, from an assertion containing no function as a constituent to one containing one or more functions as constituents. The assertion “t . fp” concerns any elemen- tary proposition, whereas “Ff {$!(a, y, z, ...)}” concerns any of a certain set of elementary propositions, namely any of those that are values of ¢. Different types of functions give different sorts of ways of picking out elementary propositions. Having assumed or proved “F. fp,” where p is elomentary and therefore involves no ambiguity of type, we thus assert FF (bey. 2h where the types of the arguments and the number of them are wholly arbitrary, except that they must belong to the functional hierarchy including individuals. (The assumption that propositions are incomplete symbols excludes the possibility that the arguments to ¢ are propositions.) The note- worthy point is that we thus obtain an assertion in which there may be any finite number of variables and the variables have unlimited typical ambiguity, from an assertion containing one variable of a perfectly definite type. All this is presupposed before we embark on the propositional hierarchy. It should be observed that all elementary propositions are values of predicative functions of one individual, ie. of $12, where @ is individual. Thus we need not assume that elementary propositions form a type; we may replace p by “ta” in “F. fp.” In this way, propositions as variables wholly disappear. In extending statements concerning elementary propositions so as formally to apply to first-order propositions, we have to assume afresh the primitive proposition #1‘11 (#1-1 is never used), ie. given “F. pe” and “b, $e dpa,” we have “t. ya,” which is practically #912, This was asserted in #111 for any case in which gw and we are elementary propositions. There wasPREFATORY STATEMENT ix here already an ambiguity of type, owing to the fact that # need not be an individual, but might be a function of any order. Hg. we might use #1-11 to pass from “bi gta” and “b.pladgtd” to“h. pth,” where ¢ replaces the # of x1‘11, and $!a, $1 replace #@ and ya. Thus 1°11, even before its extension in #9, already states a fresh primitive propo- sition for each fresh type of functions considered. The novelty in *9 is that we allow ¢ and ¥ to contain one apparent variable. This may be of any funetional type (including Indiv); thus we get another set of symbolically identical primitive propositions. In passing, as indicated at the end of #9, to more than one apparent variable, we introduce a new batch of primitive propositions with each additional apparent variable. Similar remarks apply to the other primitive propositions of x9. What makes the above process legitimate is that nothing in the treat- ment of functions of order n presupposes functions of higher order. We can deal with each new type of functions as it arises, without having to take account of the fact that there are later types. From symbolic analogy we “see” that the process can be repeated indefinitely. This possibility rests upon two things: (1) A fresh interpretation of our constants—v, ~, !, («)., (qa) —at each fresh stage; (2) A fresh assumption, symbolically unchanged, of the primitive propo- sitions which we found sufficient at an earlier stage—the possibility of avoiding symbolic change being due to the fresh interpretation of our constants. The above remarks apply to the axiom of reducibility as well as to our other primitive propositions. If, at any stage, we wish to deal with a class defined by a function of the 30,000th type, we shall have to repeat our arguments and assumptions 30,000 times. But there is still no necessity to speak of the hierarchy as a whole, or to suppose that statements can be made about “all types.” We come now to the extensional hierarchy. This starts from some one point in the functional hierarchy. We usually suppose it to start from individuals, but any other starting-point is equally legitimate. Whatever type of functions (including Indiv) we start from, all higher types of functions are excluded from the extensional hierarchy, and also all lower types (if any), Some complications arise here. Suppose we start from Indiv. Then if 12 is any predicative function of individuals, 2($!z)=$!2. But if we adopt the theory of #20, as opposed to that suggested in the Introduction to the second edition, identity between a function and a class does not have the usual properties of identity ; in fact, though every function is identical with some class, and vice versa, the number of functions is likely to bex PREFATORY STATEMENT ater than the number of classes. ‘This is due to the fact that we may have B(plz)= pt? 2 (plz) =y!2 without having y!2=y 12. In the extensional hierarchy, we prove the extension from classes to classes of classes, and so on, without fresh primitive propositions (*20, 421) The primitive propositions involved are those concerning the functional hierarchy. From all these various modes of extension we “see” that whatever can be proved for lower types, whether functional or extensional, can also be proved for higher types*. Hence we assume that it is unnecessary to know the types of our variables, though they must always be confined within some one definite type. Now although everything that can be proved for lower types can be proved for higher types, the converse does not hold. In Vol. I only two propositions oceur which can be proved for higher but not for lower types. ‘These are q!2 and q!2,. These can be proved for any type except that of individuals. It is to be observed that we do not state that whatever is true for lower types is true for higher types, but only that whatever can be proved for lower types can be proved for higher types. If, for example, Ne‘Indiv =», then this proposition is false for any higher type; but this proposition, Ne‘Indiv=y, ia one which carmot be proved logically; in fact, it is only ascertainable by a census, not by logic. Thus among the propositions which can be proved by logic, there are some which can only be proved for higher types, but none which can only be proved for lower types. The propositions which can be proved in some types but not in others all are or depend upon existence-theorems for cardinals. We can prove q!0, q!1, universally, 12, except for Indiv, 13, q!4, except for Indiv, Cl‘Indiv, Ri‘Indiv; and so on. Exaetly similar remarks would apply to the functional hierarchy. In both cases, the possibility of proving these propositions depends upon the axiom of reducibility and the definition of identity. Suppose there is only one individual, 2 Then 9=2, 9 +2 are two different functions, which, by the axiom of reducibility, are equivalent to two different predicative functions. Hence there are at least two predicative functions of «, and at least two classes t‘2, A,. This argument fails both for classes and functions if either we deny the axiom of reducibility or we suppose that there may be two different individuals which agree in all their predicates, é.e. that the definition of identity is misleading. The statement that what can be proved for lower types can be proved for higher typos requires certain limitations, or rather, a more exact formulation. * But ef. next page for a more exact statement of this principle.PREFATORY STATEMENT xi Taking Indiv as a primitive idea, put Kl=Cl'Indiv Df, KP=ClKl Df, ete. Then consider the proposition Ne‘Kl= A. We can prove Ne‘Kl a tIndiv =A.q! No‘Kl a Kl. gq! Ne‘Kl a ‘Kl. ete. Thus Ne‘K1=A can be proved in the lowest type in which it is significant, and disproved in any other. The difficulty, however, is avoided if Indiv is replaced by a variable a, and Kl by Cl‘fa, ‘Then we have Ne‘Clitfanta=A, and this holds whatever the type of a may be. Thus in order that our principle about lower and higher types may be true, it is necessary that any relation there may be between two types occurring in a proposition should be preserved; in other words, when one constant type is defined in terms of another (as KI and Indiv), the definition must be restored before the type is varied, so that when one type is varied, so is the other. With this proviso, our principle about higher and lower types holds, With the above proviso, the truth of our statement is manifest. For we have shown that the same primitive propositions, symbolically, which hold for the lowest type concerned in our reasoning, hold also for subsequent types; and therefore all our proofs can be repeated symbolically unchanged. The importance of this lies in the fact that, when we have proved a proposition for the lowest significant type, we “see” that it holds in any other assigned significant type. Hence every proposition which is proved without the mention of any type is to be regarded as proved for the lowest significant type, and extended by analogy to any other significant type. By exactly similar considerations we “see” that a proposition which ean be proved for some type other than the lowest significant type must hold for any type in the direct descent from this, E.g. suppose we can prove a propo- sition (such as @!2) for the type Kl (where Kl=Cl‘Indiv); then merely writing Cl'‘Indiv for Kl, we have a proposition which is proved concerning Indiv, namely q!20 ¢‘ClIndiv, and here, by what was said before, Indiv may be replaced by any higher type. ‘Thus given a typically ambiguous relation R, such that, if 7 is a type, Rér is a type (Cl or Rl is such a relation), we “see” that, if we can prove $(R‘Indiv), we can also prove @(R‘r), where 7 is any type, and ¢ is composed of typically ambiguous symbols, Similarly if we can prove ¢ (Indiv, RIndiv), we can prove (7, R'r), where 7 is any type. But we cannot in general prove ¢ (Indiv, R‘r) or $(r, RIndiv), and these may be in fact untrue, Eg. we have g 1 Ne (Kl)‘Indiv . oq 1 Ne (KI KR, Thus more generally, when a proposition containing several ambiguities can be proved for the types R‘Indiv, S‘Indiy, ..., but not for lower types, itxii PREFATORY STATEMENT is to be regarded as‘a function of Indiv, and then it becomes true for any type; that is, given : ¢ (R'Indiv, S‘Indiy, ...), we shall also have $ (Rr, Sr, +), where 7 is any type. In this way, all demonstrable propositions are in the first instance about Indiv, and when so expressed remain true if any other type is substituted for Indiv. When a proposition containing typically ambiguous symbols can be proved to be true in the lowest significant type, and we can “see” that symbolically the same proof holds in any other assigried type, we say that the proposition has “permanent truth.” (We may also say, loosely, that it is “true in all types.”) When a proposition containing typically ambiguous symbols can be proved to be false in the lowest significant type, and we can “see” that it is false in any other assigned type, we say that it has “permanent falsehood.” Any other proposition containing typically ambiguous symbols is said to be “fluctuating,” or to have “fluctuating truth-value,” as opposed to “permanent truth-value,” which belongs to propositions that have either permanent truth or permanent falsehood. In what follows, ambiguities concerned with the propositional hierarchy will be ignored, since they never lead to fluctuating propositions. Thus dis- junction and negation and their derivatives will not receive explicit typical determination, but only such typical determination as results from assigning the types of the other typically ambiguous symbols involved. It is convenient to call the symbolic form of a propositional function simply a “symbolic form.” Thus, if a symbolic form contains symbols of ambiguous type it represents different propositional functions according as the types of its ambiguous symbols are differently adjusted, The adjustment is of course always limited by the necessity for the preservation of meaning. It is evident that the ideas of “permanent truth-value” and “fluctuating truth- value” apply in reality to symbolic forms and not to propositions or propo- sitional functions. Ambiguity of type can only exist in the process of determination of meaning. When the meaning has been assigned to a symbolic form and a propositional function thereby obtained, all ambiguity of type has vanished. ‘To “assert a symbolic form” is to assert each of the propositional functions arising for the set of possible typical determinations which are somewhere enumerated. We have in fact enumerated a — limited number of types starting from that of individuals, and we “sce” that this process can be indefinitely continued by analogy. The form is always asserted so far as the enumeration has arrived; and this is sufficient for all purposes, since it is essentially impossible to use a type which has not been arrived at by succes- sive enumeration from the lower types.PREFATORY STATEMENT xiii The only difficulties which arise in Cardinal Arithmetic in connection with the ambiguities of type of the symbols are those which enter through the use of the symbol sm, or of the symbol No, which is am, For it may happen that a class in one type has no class similar to it in some lower type (cf. #1027273), All fallacious reasoning in cardinal or ordinal arithmetic in connection with types, apart from that due to the mere absence of meaning in symbols, is due to this fact—in other words to the fact that in some types a!Ne‘a is true, and in other types q!Ne‘a may not be true. The fallacy consists in neglecting this latter possibility of the failure of q!Ne‘a for a limited number of types, that is, in taking the “fluctuating” form g!Ne‘a as though it possessed a “permanent” truth-value, A fluctuating form however often possesses what is here termed a “stable” truth-value, which is as important as the permanent truth-value of other forms. For example, anticipating our definitions of elementary arithmetic, consider 2+,3=5. There is no abstract logical proof that there are two individuals; so suppose 2 and 3 refer to classes of individuals, but 5 refers to classes of a high enough type, then with these determinations 2+,8=5 cannot be proved. But 2+,3=5 has a stable truth-value, since it can always be proved when all the types are high enough. In this case the fact that our empirical census of individuals (at least of the “relative” individuals of ordinary life) has outrun the capacity of logical proof, makes the fluctuation in the truth-value of the form to be entirely unimportant. In order to make this idea precise, it is necessary to have a convention as to the order in which the types of symbols in a symbolic form are assigned. The rule we adopt is that the types of the real variables are to be first assigned, and then those of the constant symbols. ‘The types of the apparent variables, if any, will then be completely determinate. A symbolic form has a stable truth-value if, after any assignment of types to the real variables, types can be assigned to the constant symbols so that the truth-value of the proposition thus obtained is the same as the truth-value of any proposition obtained by modifying it by the assignment of higher types to some or all of the constant symbols. This truth-value is the stable truth~ value, IL. Formal Numbers, The conventions, which we shall give below as to the assignment of types, practically restrict our interpretation of fuctuating symbolic forms to types in which the forms possess their stable truth-value. The assumption that these truth-values are stable never enters into the reasoning. But we judge a truth-value to be stable when any method of raising the types of the constant symbols by one step leaves it unaltered. In practice the fluctuation of truth-values only enters into our considera- tion through a limited number of symbols called “formal numbers,”xiv PREFATORY STATEMENT Formal numbers may be “constant” or “functional.” A constant formal number is any constant symbol for which there is a constant @ such that, in whatever type the constant symbol is determined, it is, in that type, identical with Ne‘a In other words if « be a constant symbol, then o is # formal number provided that “truth” is the permanent truth-value of o = Ne‘a, for some constant 4. The fusctional formal numbers are defined by enumeration; they are Nefa, Nee, TINete, sm“p, pte, wor MX, BY where in each formal number the symbols a, «, u, » occurring in it are called the arguments of the fanctional form even when they are complex symbols. The argument of Ne‘(a+ 8) is a+ 8, and those of p+,(v +_@) are w and v +93, and those of 1 +,2 are 1 and 2. Thus among the constant formal numbers are 0, 1, 2, vy No, Le 2 2x,Nos 2% The references which support this statement are 1 01-11-21°32 . 4123-36 . #11042. 113-23. «116-23. Among the functional formal numbers are Ne(a+), Bte(vtet), (wter) Xe, (Ut—r)” It will be observed that eg. 1+,2 is both a constant and a functional formal number, so that the two classes are not mutually exclusive. In fact they possess an indefinite number of members in common. All the formal numbers, with the exception of sma and p—,», are members of NC without any hypothesis [cf. *100°41:01°52 . #110°42 . #112101 . ¥113°23 . #1141 .«116°23, note to #119712, and *120°411]. A functional formal number consists of two parts, namely, its argument or arguments, and the constant “form.” An argument of a functional formal number may be a complex symbol, and may be constant or variable. Thus »+,v is an argument of (u+,v) +p, and of (u+,v) x, and of (u+ev¥; also 2+,3is an argument of (2 +, 3) x_1. ‘The constant form is constituted by the other symbols which are constants. Two occurrences of functional formal numbers are only ocvurrences of the same formal number if the arguments and also the constant forms are identical in symbolism. Thus two occurrences of Ne‘a are occurrences of the same formal nutnber, even if they are determined to be in different types; but Ne‘a and No‘ are different formal numbers. Also y and yx, 1 are different formal numbers because their “forms” are different, though the arzuments p and 1 are the same and (in the same type) the entity denoted is the same. Thus the distinction between formal numbers depends on the symbolism and not on the entity denoted, and in considering them it is symbolic analogy and not denotation which is to be taken into account. For example two differentPREPATORY STATEMENT a occurrences of the same formal number will not denote the same entity, if in the two occurrences the ambiguity of type is determined differently. The functional formal numbers are divided into three sets: (i) the primary set consisting of the forms Ne‘a, 2 Ne‘e, I Ne‘s, (ii) the argumental set consisting only of smp, (iii) the arithmetical set consisting of w+, v, B Xe», pY, and p—,v. A functional formal number has at most two arguments, But an argument of a functional formal number may itself be a functional formal number, and will accordingly possess either one or two arguments, which in their tum may be functional formal numbers, and so on, The whole set of arguments and of arguments of arguments, thus obtained, is called the set of components of the original formal number. Thus yz, v,p and +, are components of (4+, ) +5 p; and y, v and sm“ are components of v +,sm‘z; and w, a and Ne“a are com- ponents of 4 +,Ne‘a. The two arguments of (u +.) +,p are uw +_v and p, and those of » +,sm*‘u are v and sm“, and those of y+, Ne‘a are » and Ne‘a. Addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and subtraction will be called the arithmetical operations; and in p+,» “Xo, m”, #—o¥, w and » will each be said to be subjected to these respective operations. The arithmetical components of an arithmetical formal number (i.e. one belonging to the arithmetical set) consist of those of its components which do not appear in the capacity of components of a component which does not belong to the arithmetical set. Thus 4, », p, 4+,» are arithmetical components of (u+,v) +63 and » and sm“ are arithmetical components of vy +,smy, but ~ is not one; and y and Ne‘a are arithmetical components of y+, Ne‘a, but @ is not one} and » and sm‘(v +, p) are arithmetical components of p+,sm(»+,p), but »+,p and v and p are components of sm‘(v +,p) and are therefore not arith- metical components of u +,sm‘(v +,p). Only arithmetical formal numbers possess arithmetical components. A formal number of the arithmetical set having no components which are formal numbers of the argumental set is called a pure arithmetical formal number. For example » +,(” +, p)and y+, Ne‘a are pure, but » +,8m“(v +,p) and y+,smNo‘a are not pure. ‘There are many types involved in the consideration of a formal number. For example, in No‘a there is the type of Ne‘a and of a; in w +ay there is the type of w+», the type of u, and the type of v:; and sv on for more complex formal numbers. The type of a formal number as a whole in any occurrence is called its actual type. ‘This is the type of the entity which it then repre- sents, The other types involved in a formal number in any occurrence are called its subordinate types. The actual types are not indicated in the symbolism for the various formal numbers as stated above. They can be indicated relatively to the type of thexvi PREFATORY STATEMENT variable & by writing Ne (£)'a, smgy, (utev)e, (u Xar)e, (ure, (W —e¥)s, by the notation of #65, Even when the actual type of a complex formal number, such as fe +o(v-+_@), is settled—so for instance that we have {u+,(v +.%)};—the meaning of the symbol is not completely determined, for the type of v+,a remains ambiguous. It follows, however, from #100511 . «110-23 . #113-26 . *119°61-62, that the subordinate types make no difference to the value of a formal number, so long as the components are not null. We can therefore make a formal number definite as soon as its actual type is definite by securing that its components are not null. This is done by the convention ITT (below) combined with the definitions 4110-03-04 . #113-04-05 . #116-03-04. When the subordinate types are adjusted in accordance with these definitions and conventions, they will be said to be normally adjusted. But in order to state this convention IIT we require a definition of what is here called the adequacy of the actual type of a formal number. ‘The general idea of adequacy is simple enough, namely that, given the subordinate types of a, the actual type of o should be high enough to enable us logically to prove q!o when such a proof is possible for types which are not too low. For example, all types except the lowest for which it has meaning are adequate for the constant formal number 2. It is rather difficult however to state the meaning of adequacy with precision in a manner adapted to all formal numbers, Fortunately the definition of the lowest type which corresponds to this general idea of adequacy is not important for our purposes. It will be sufficient to define as adequate some types which certainly do have the property in question. The method of definition which we adopt is to replace the formal number o by another one o’ so related to o that with the same actual type for both we can prove q!o’.>.q!a, whenever a is not equal to A in all types. If o be functional, we need only consider its argument, or its two arguments, and can dismiss from consideration the other components; then we replace these arguments by others so that the o” has the required property. Thus: G) The actual types of Nea, ZNe‘e, IINe‘e, and sm‘y are adequate when we can logically prove GI Netfa, qi TNetie, qi UINet«, and gy lsm“h\p; Gi) The actual types of +9» 1a # Xqv, and p” are adequate when we can logically prove : GIN cp tN, Gi Nett«u—0n tir, IN chy XoNocthty, and qi Nyctt, pret, It will be noticed that aa, fo‘x, and fy are the greatest classes of the same type as a,x, and respectively, and that Nyc‘t‘y and N,c‘t,“v are the greatestPREFATORY STATEMENT xvii cardinal numbers of the same type as p and v respectively. These definitions hold even when any of a, «, 4, » are complex symbols, ‘The remaining formal numbers which are not functional must certainly be constant. The difficulty which arises here is that if « be such a formal number and &, occurs in its symbolism, we have no logical method of deciding as to the truth or falsehood of !X, in any type. But we replace 8, by Ne‘, which is the greatest existent cardinal-of the same type as N, in that occur- rence, Thus: (iii) If ¢ be a formal number which is not functional, an adequate actual type of @ is one for which we can logically prove g!’, where a’ is derived from o by replacing any occurrence of &, in « by N,c‘t,",. Accordingly if &y does not occur in , an adequate type is any actual type for which we can logically prove q!o. In the case of members of the primary and argumental groups we have substituted the V of the appropriate type in the place of each variable, When the actual type is adequate we have (a). INeta, (ce). q!ENo‘e, (x) GTINote, (u).qtemp. In the case of members of the arithmetical group (except in the case of ov), we have substituted for each argument the largest cardinal number which can be obtained in the type of that argument, namely the Ne‘V for the V of the appropriate type. Accordingly we are sure (except in the case of cv) that for all other values of the arguments which are existent cardinal numbers the formal number is not null. It will be noticed that normal adjustment only concerns the subordinate types. For example *110-03 secures that in Ne‘a +, the actual type of Ne‘a is adequate, and *110-23 shows that any adequate actual type of Ne‘a will do. But nothing is said about the actual type of Ne‘a+, 4. We make the following definition: When the subordinate types of a formal number are nornzally adjusted, and the actual type is adéquate, the types of the formal number are said to be arithmetically adjusted. We notice that for the primary set, the arithmetical adjustment of types means the same thing as the adequate adjustment of the actual type. Also if the arguments of a formal number of the arithmetical set are simple symbols, the two ideas come to the same thing. In the case of variable formal numbers of the primary set, it follows from 117-2282 that when their types are arithmetically adjusted they are not equal to A for any values of their variables. Also in the case of those variable formal numbers which are of the pure arithmetical set (excluding jg») it follows from #100°452-42 #119-23.4116:23 that, working from the ultimate components reached by successive analysis upwards, for all values of such ultimate components which are members ews axviii PREFATORY STATEMENT of NC—«‘A they can be reduced to the case of the formal numbers of the primary group; and that therefore they are not equal to A when their types are arithmetically adjusted. For example in +, {¥+e(p +o)}s Hs ¥s Ps o are these ultimate components; Ict them be existent cardinal numbers, Hence when the types are arithmetically adjusted, the actual type of p+ o is adequate and p+, is an existent cardinal; we can therefore substitute Nye‘a for it, By the same reasoning we can substitute N,o‘f for v +, N,o‘a, and again Nyety for w+. Nuc’B ‘A definite standard arithmetical adjustment of types for any formal number can always be found by making every use of sm, whether explicit or concealed jn Ne or in some other symbol, to be homogeneous. Proofs which apply to any arithmetical adjustment of types start by dealing with this standard type, and then by the use of *104'21 . *106-21-211-212-213 the extension is made to the adjacent higher classical and relational types. We then “see” that by the analogy of symbolism this extension can always be formally proved at each stage, so that we are dealing with the stable truth-value. For some constant formal numbers a lower existential type can be found than that indicated by this method. IIL. Classification of Occurrences of Formal Numbers. A symbolic form of any of the kinds [ef. 117-01-04°05-06] b> wy wey Wey is called an arithmetical inequality. These forms only arise when we are comparing cardinal numbers in respect to the relation of being “greater than” or “Jess than.” It might seem natural to include equations among these arithmetical inequalities. Their use however, even as between cardinal numbers, is not so exclusively arithmetical, and it is convenient to consider them separately under another heading during our preliminary investigations. In the arithmetical inequalities as above written, 4 and », or any symbols replacing 4 and », are called the opposed sides of the inequality, and either of por v is called a side of the inequality. Symbolic forms of the kinds o = « and o +x, where either o or « is a formal number, will be called equations and inequations respectively; and ¢ and « are called the opposed sides of the equation or inequation, and either of them is simply a side of the equation or inequation. When we reach the exclusively arithmetical point of view, it will be con- venient to put together equations, inequations and arithmetical inequalities as one sort of symbolic form. Their separation here is for the sake of investi- gations into the exceptions due to the failure of existence theorems in low types. It is unnecessary to consider arithmetical inequalities in this connection.PREFATORY STATEMENT xix ‘The ways in which a symbol o can occur in @ symbolic form are named as follows: The occurrence of « in smo is called an argumental occurrence, The occurrence of ¢ as an argument of an arithmetical formal number (which may be a component of another formal number) or as one side of an arithmetical inequality is called an arithmetical occurrence, The occurrence of o as one side of an equation is called an equational occurrence, The occurrence of ¢ in “Feo” is called an attributive occurrence, Any other occurrence of ¢ is calied a logical occurrence, so also is ¢ = A. It is obvious that a pair of opposed sides of an equation or inequation must be of the same type. Furthermore, if c be a formal number, and *20:18 is applied so as to give bho=e.dsf(c).=-f(e), the equational occurrence of « must be of the same type as its occurrence in f(a), otherwise the inference is fallacious. Accordingly substitution in arithmetical formulae can only be undertaken when the conventions as to the relations of ambiguous types secure this identity. This question is considered later in this prefatory statement, and the result appears in the text as *118-01. At this point some examples will be useful; they will also be referred to subsequently in connection with the conventions limiting ambiguities of type. ¥10035. Fi. q!Ne‘a.v.q!Ne Bid: Ne‘a=Ne'8.=.aeNci8.=.BeNe‘a.=.asmB Here the formal numbers are Ne‘a and Ne‘8, each of which has three occurrences. The first occurrence of Ne‘a is logical, its second is equational, and its third is attributive. 100-42 {in the demonstration). FiyveNC.g!nav.>.(qa,8)-p=Nefa.v=Neg. Nea=NeB Here Ne‘a and Ne‘ are the only formal numbers, and all their occurrences are equational. #100'44 (in the demonstration). bipeNC. qt Ne‘a.aepn.>.(q8).~=Ne'B. No‘a=Ne'B Here Ne‘a and Ne‘ are the only formal numbers; the first occurrence of No‘a is logical, its second is equational; both the occurrences of Ne‘@ are equational. #100511. F: gq! NcB.D.sm“Netg = NetB Here the formal numbers are Ne‘f and sm‘‘Ne‘f. The first occurrence of Ne is logical, the second is argumental, the third is equational; the only oceurrence of sm‘‘Ne‘@ is equational. be=x PREFATORY STATEMENT 100521. FrweNC.g tsmp.>. sms“ y= ye Here sm‘‘y and sm“sm‘y are the only formal numbers; sm“p has two occurrences, the first logical, the second argumental; sm‘‘sm‘y has one occur- rence, which is equational. ¥101-28 (in the demonstration). biyesm1.=.(qa).ael.ysma Here the formal numbers are 1 and sm‘1. ‘The first occurrence of 1 is argumental, the second is attributive; the occurrence of sm*1 is attributive. #10188. big !2.3.sCl"2=0uLu2 Here the formal numbers are 0, 1, and 2, and their occurrences are all logical. #11054. +. (Ne‘a+, Ne‘B) +, No“y =Ne‘(a+B +1) Here the formal numbers are Ne‘a, Ne‘, No‘y, No(a+8+y), Nea+,Ne'B, (Ne‘a+,No‘B) +, No‘y. The occurrence of Ne‘(a +8 +7) and that of (Ne‘a +, Ne‘) +, Ney are both equational, and they must be of the same type since they are opposed sides of the same equation. The occurrences of the other formal numbers are as arithmetical components of a more complex arithmetical formal number and are therefore arithmetical. #11663, bX a (rye ‘The formal numbers are v x, u’, w’%+, and (u’)®, Each formal number occurs once only. The occurrences of » x, and p? are arithmetical, and those of the other two are equational. #117108, + :. Noa > Ne‘@.=:Ne‘a> Ne'g.v.Ne‘a=Net@ The formal numbers are Ne‘a and Ne‘, each with three occurrences, The first two occurrences of each formal number are arithmetical, the last occurrence of each is equational. ¥120°53 (in the demonstration). biRaytd.G!8. Dd. =a xa Here the formal numbers are y +, 9, 0°, a’, a!,a” x,a!, Each formal number has one occurrence. Those of y +,8,a# and a” x,a? are equational, and those of ay and a? are arithmetical. ¥120'53 (in the demonstration). Fiat=ar. Bayt d.q!ae.d.a% ay x,ae Here the formal numbers are a, aY, a, aY x, a, y+,8, The first occurrence of af is equational, its second occurrence is logical; the first two occurrences of a are equational, its third occurrence is arithmetical; the only occurrence of a? is arithmetical; the only occurrences of a x, a° and of y +,8 are equational.PREFATORY STATEMENT xxi IV. The Conventions IT and IT. Two occurrences of a formal number with the same actual type are said to be bound to each other. The choice of types for formal numbers, when they are not made definite in terms of variables by the notation of *63, is limited by the following con- ventions, which enable us to dispense largely with the elaboration produced by the definition of types. IT. AU logical occurrences of the same formal number are in the same type; argumental occurrences are bound to logical and attributive occurrences ; and, of there are no urgumental occurrences, equational occurrences are bound to logical occurrences. This rule only applies, so far as meaning permits, to those types which remain ambiguous after the assignment of types to the real variables. It will be noticed that if there are no argumental or logical occurrences of a formal number, IT does not in any way apply to the assignment of types to the occurrences in the form of that formal number. The identification of types in argumental and attributive occurrences by I'T is rendered necessary to secure the use of the equivalence «(Ga@).aec.ysma, where ¢ is a formal number. Without the convention, this application of #37°1 would be fallacious. The only one of our examples to which this part of the convention applies is #101-28 (demonstration), where it secures that the two oceurrences of 1 are in the same type. It is relevant however to the symbolism in the demonstration of *100°521. It will be found in practice that this convention relates the types of occurrences in the same way as would naturally be done by anyone who was not thinking of the convention at all, To see how the convention works, we will run through the examples which have already been given above. yesmo In *100°35, IT directs the logical and equational occurrences of Ne‘a to be in the same type, and similarly for Ne‘g. Also “meaning” secures that the equational types of Ne‘a and Ne‘ are the same. Thus these four occurrences are all in one type, which has no necessary relation to the types of the attri- butive occurrences of Ne‘a and Ne‘8. Thus, using the notation of *65:04 to secure typical definiteness, #10035 is to mean big Ne (Ea.v.gq!Ne (£812: Ne (£)'a=Ne(£)'(8.=.aeNe(a)(8.=.8¢Ne(A)'a.=.asmB. The types of these attributive occurrences are settled by the necessity of “meaning.” In *100'42 (demonstration), since all the occurrences of formal numbers are equational, IT produces no limitation of types.xxii PREFATORY STATEMENT In 100-44 (demonstration), I'T secures that the two occurrences of Nefa are in the same type. Also we notice that the first occurrence of No‘ is really (cf. #6504) Ne (a)‘, since “ae” occurs, and thus “meaning” requires this relation of types, and the second occurrence of Ne‘g is in the type of the occurrences of No‘a. In *100511, IT directs that the logical and argumental occurrences are to have the same type. In *100°521, IT directs that the two occurrences of sm“p are to have the same type. In #101°28 both occurrences of 1 are to be in the same type. In *101°38, IT directs that all the occurrences of 2 are to have the same type. The convention IT in no way limits the types in *110°54, nor in «11663, nor in #117°108, In the first example from #120'58 (in the demonstration) convention IT has no application, In the second example from #120'58 (in the demonstration) convention IT directs that the two occurrences of a? shall be in the same type; and the necessity of “meaning” secures that the first occurrence of a” shall also be in this type. ‘The same necessity secures that y +, 5 shalll be in the same type as B; and it also secures that in “aY =a x,a°” the first occurrence of a? and that of a? xqa° shall have a common type, which is otherwise unfettered ; also nothing has been decided as to the types of a¥ and a? in a’ x, a°, We now come to conventions embodying the outcome of arithmetical ideas, The term “arithmetical” is here used to denote investigations in which the interest lies in the comparison of formal numbers in respect to equality or inequality, excluding the exceptional cases—whenever the cases are exceptional—due to the failure of existence in low types. The thorough- going arithmetical point of view, which we adopt later in the investigation on Ratio and Quantity and also in this volume in #117 and #126 and some earlier propositions, would sweep aside as uninteresting all investigation of the exact ways in which the failure of existence theorems is relevant to the truth of propositions, thus concentrating attention exclusively on stable truth- values. But the logical investigation has its own intrinsic interest among the principles of the subject. It is obvious however that it should be restrained to a consideration of the theorems of purely logical interest. In Practice this extrusion of uninteresting cases of the failure of arithmetical theorems, even amid the logical investigations of the first part of this volume, is effected by securing that all arithmetical occurrences of formal numbers have their actual types adequate. As far as formal numbers of the primary group, ie. Ne‘a, ENe‘«, IINe‘«, are concerned, the arithmetical adjustment of types is secured formally in the symbolism by the definitions *110-03-04 for addition, and *113:04-05 forPREFATORY STATRMENT xxiii multiplication, and #11608:04 for exponentiation, and *117-02-03 for arith- metical inequalities, and #119-02-03 for subtraction. We save the symbolic elaboration which would arise from the extension of similar definitions to other formal numbers by the following convention: TIT. Whenever a formal number o occurs, so that, if it were replaced by Ne‘a, the actual type of Ne“a would by definition have to be adequate, then the actual type of is also to be adequate. For example in #+,(v +, 2), if v+,@ were replaced by Ne“a, then by #110°04 the actual type of Ne‘a is adequate. Hence by IIT the actual type of v+,@ is to be adequate: accordingly so long as » and @ are simple variables and members of NC —¢‘A, we can always assume @ !(v +, @) for the type of the occurrence of y+, @ in w+,.(v +, 0). It is essential to notice that so long as the argument of an argumental formal number, or the arguments of an arithmetical formal number, are adjusted arithmetically, the exact types chosen make no difference. This follows for argumental formal numbers from #*102°862'87'88, for addition from *110'25, for multiplication from #113-26, for exponentiation from #11626, for subtraction from #119°61°62. Thus (remembering also #100°511) in any definite type a formal number has one definite meaning provided that any subordinate formal number which occurs in its symbolism is determined existentially. The convention IIT directs us always to take this definite meaning for any pure arithmetical formal number. The convention does not determine completely the meaning of an arith- metical formal number which is not pure. For example, p+,(v+ep) is a pure arithmetical formal number when y, », p are determined in type; and convention IIT direets that the type of (v-+,) is to be adequate. But p+_sm(v+,p) is an arithmetical formal number which is not pure, and convention IIT directs that the type of the domain of sm is to be adequate, but does not affect the type of v+,p. Thus it is easy to see that IIT secures the adequacy of the actual types of all arithmetical components of any arithmetical formal numbers which occur, but does not affect the actual type of a formal number which occurs as the argument of an argumental formal number. But in this case convention IT will bind the actual type of this occurrence of the argument to any logical or attributive occurrence of the saine formal number. For example, if q!v+_p and wy +,sm(v +, p) occur in the same form, then these two occurrences of » +,p must have the same actual type. In practice argumental formal numbers are useful as com- ponents of arithmetical formal numbers for the very purpose of avoiding the automatic adjustment of types directed by IIT. The meaning of ITT is best explained by examples, Among our previous examples we need only consider those in which arithmetical formal numbers occur.xxiv PREFATORY STATEMENT In ¥110°54 the convention or definitions direct us to determine the types of Ne‘a and Ne‘ adequately when forming Ne‘a +, Ne‘, also to determine Ne‘a+,Ne‘B and Ne‘y adequately when forming (Ne‘a +, Ne‘) +, Ne‘y. The convention does not apply to the types of (Ne‘a +, Ne‘8) +, Ne‘y and Ne‘(a+8+y). These types must be identical in order to secure meaning. In #11663 the convention directs us to adjust the types of v x,@ and pY adequately; it does not affect the types of 2”*** and (u")®, which must be identical to secure meaning, If we replace , », @ by formal numbers, by 2, No, and 1 for example, we get “fF . 28%«!=(2*).” The convention now directs that 1 is to be determined adequately. It so happens that any type is adequate for it, since q@!1 can be proved in any type. Then adequate types for Ny x, 1 and 2% are types for which we can prove 1 (Nyet‘Ny) Xe 1 and y!2Ne'%, ‘Thus if 7 is the type of &, in both cases, an adequate type for & x, 1 is 7, and for 2% is Cl‘r, In *117°108 we find arithmetical occurrences in arithmetical inequalities. Thus IIT directs us to take the first two occurrences of Ne‘a and the first two of No‘ with adequate actual types. The type of No‘a and Ne‘@ in Ne‘a=Ne‘f is not affected by it. It is evident that the conventions IT, IIT are not sufficient to secure the truth of this proposition as thus symbolized. It is essential that in the equation the type be adjusted adequately for both formal numbers. In fact the general arithmetical convention, that types of equational as well as of arithmetical occurrences are adjusted arithmetically, is here used. V. Some Important Principles. Principle of Arithmetical Substitution. In #120°53, the application of IIT needs a consideration of the whole question of arithmetical substitution. Consider the first of the two examples, We have FrB=y4,d.q18.d.a =a xear, It is obvious that unless we can pass with practical immediateness from “Bay t.d.a =08” to “at = ars” by #2018, arithmetic is made practically impossible by the theory of types, But a difficulty arises from the application of IIT. Suppose we assign the types of our real variables first. Then the types of a, 8, 7, 8 can be arbitrarily assigned, and there is no necessary connection between them which arises from the preservation of meaning. Thus 8 may be in a type which is not an adequate type for y+,5. Assume that this is the case, But the equational use of y+, 8 is in the same type as 8, and by IIT the arithmetical use of y+,8 in a+ is in an adequate type. Thus, on the face of it, the reasoning, appealing to «20°18, by which the substitution was justified, is fallacious; for the two occurrences of yt.8 in fact mean different things. Tn order to generalize our solution of this difficulty it is convenient to define the term “arithmetical equation.” An arithmetical equation is anPREFATORY STATEMENT XxV equation between purely arithmetical formal numbers whose actual types are both determined adequately. Then it is evident that from “o=7.f(r),” where o and 7 are formal numbers and 7 occurs arithmetically in f(r), we cannot infer f(¢) unless the equation o = is arithmetical. For otherwise the r in the equation cannot be identified with the 7 in f(r). When we have “@=7./(r),” where 7 is a formal number and @ is a number in a definite type, and wish to pass to “f(8),” or “B=. f(@)” and wish to pass to “f(r),” the occurrence of 7 in f(r) being arithmetical, the type of 8 may not be an adequate type for r. Accordingly the rin “@=7” cannot be identified with the + in f(r). The type of the 7 in the equation ought to be freed from dependence on that of 8. Accordingly the transition is only legitimate when we can write instead “B+ 0=7.f(t)” or “B+.0=7-f(8),” where in both cases the equation is arithmetical. For now all the symbols are subject to the same rules, If this modification can be made without altering the truth-value of the asserted propositions, the substitution is legitimate, otherwise it is not, It is obvious that in the above our immediate passage is to or from f(B+,0). But it is easy to see that, the occurrence of 8+,0 being arith- metical, we always have FB). = -F(B +00). In order to prove this, we have only to prove a+e(8 +.0)=ate8, aX_(B +,0)= 4x8, (a+, 0% =a, tO maf, and a>B+.0.5-.a>8.=.44+,0>8. The demonstration of the first of these propositions runs as follows: f.41104. Dh: @~ eNC.v.8=A:).B8+,0=A.at+B=A- [110-4] D.at,(B+,0)=A=a+-8 (1) F.aI104. Dba eNO.via=ArD.a+¢(8+50)=A=a+e8 (2) 41106. DF: 4, BeNC—UA.D.0+46(8 4.0) =a +-sm"B =a4+.8 (3) F.C). (2)-@)- DF tate(B +00) at 8 In the above demonstration the step to (8) is legitimate since by the hypothesis @ is a determination of sm‘g in an adequate type. Similar proofs hold for the other propositions, using #118'204 and #116204 and #11712 and *103:13. We must also consider the circumstances under which we can pass from “B=” to“B-+,0=7,” where the latter equation is arithmetical. In otherxvi PREFATORY STATEMENT words, using *65°01 we require the hypothesis necessary for Git, B=y.2-B+.0=%. We have f.#2018. Dh:B=%.3. 84.077 +.0 (1) b. #11085. Db rg tree! ty: Dee +e0= Ty +00 (2) b.(1).(2)- Dba gt rp ity Dt Bare D-B+.0=7, +50 (8) F. (3). DAGIP.min-ItB=7-D-B4,0=7, +0 (4) Now in (4) the occurrences of 6 +,0 and 7,+.0, which are in the same type, may be chosen to be in any type we like. Hence we deduce F.(4) #1106. DF: GIB. g!r,.D18=77.3.(B 4,0) =smeT, « [100511] 2-(B+.0)= 79 Hence q! is the requisite condition, Now since £ can be in any type, we can also choose it in any existential type for 7. Thus with IIT applying to the arithmetical occurrence of + in f(r), we have, where 7 is a formal number and f is a number in a definite type, (7) +2 F(8), -F(B)-2-F(7), bigto.c=r.f(r).2.f(o). In the last proposition by IT the equation o =7 is arithmetical These equations are summed up in *118:01. These three fundamental theorems embody the principle of arithmetical substitution, The hypothesis q!( is really less than is assumed in ordinary life, the usual tacit assumption being @e NC-t‘A. In fact unless Be NC, B= is necessarily false. Principle of Identification of Types. Suppose we have proved “br Hp.>.go” and “Fi g(o).>.p,” where o is a formal number whose occurrence in “F: Hp.D.do” is in an entirely ambiguous type, and o; is the same formal number o with its type related to that of & by *65-01. Then since the type of the ¢ in“: Hp.>.¢e” is ambiguous, we can write “bs Hp.>.@(o,),” and thence infer “Fp.” The principle is: An entirely undetermined type in an asserted symbolic form can be identified with any type ambiguous or otherwise in any other asserted symbolic form or in the same symbolic form. For example in 100-42 (demonstration) considered above, since ! pa» occurs, the first occurrences of Ne‘a and Ne‘ are of the same type, and so are their second occurrences in No‘a=No‘8. But the two types are not deter- mined by our conventions to have any necessary connection, In fact the type in Ne‘a = No'B is entirely arbitrary. Accordingly it can be identified with the other type, and thus the inference to the next line, viz. to “F: Hp..p=y,” is justified,PREFATORY STATEMENT xxvii In the case of arithmetical equations, it is important to notice that we have fF. #100°321'33. DF s.q 1 Ne (£)'a. D: Ne(£)‘a=Ne(£)'B.D. Nefa =Ne‘g. Hence if o and 7 are formal numbers, Figlop. Diqgen.D.cat Thus if we have “t:Hp.q!o.2.o=7” and “hi Hp'.o,=7,.D.p,” we can infer from the former proposition “Ft: Hp.q!o.3.o,=7,,” and from this and the latter proposition, we infer “F: Hp’. Hp.q!o-D.p,” s0 the general principle of identification can be employed when the $(c) in the frat proposition is an arithmetical equation. For example, in an example given above, #10044 (demonstration), viz. biweNC.m!Nea.aeu.>.(qA).p=Ne'B, Nefa=NekB, the equation Ne‘a= No‘ is arithmetical. Accordingly we are justified in asserting the propositional function FiweNC.m!Ne‘a.aep.>.(q8)- w= Neo(ay'A. No(a)‘a=Ne(a)‘g, where Ne(a)‘@ in “z= Ne (a)‘Q” has all along been presupposed by the neces- sity of meaning. Thus the inference follows, biweNC. qt Ne‘a.aew.>-Ne(aa=p. D.Nea=p. This proof loses its point when pis looked on as a variable with necessarily the same type throughout. For then the proposition collapses into Fi. eNC.D:aep.=.Ne(aya=p. But if 1 be a formal number necessarily a member of NC, the proposition is really big! Nea. D:aey.=.Nea=p With this presupposition we should have in the first line of the demon- stration “big! Nofa.Ne‘a=p.D.aep,” though with “p” a single variable, the line is formally correct as it stands in the text. Recognition of Particular Cases. It is important to notice the conditions under which do can be recognized as a particular case of g&, where € is a real variable and o is a formal number, In the first place obviously we must substitute o a 4€ for a, wherever it occurs in go, and thus obtain $ (an tf). Then we may find that by the application of our conventions, we can replace this by ¢o. For example we have 10042, FiwveNC.qlpav.d. wavxxviii PREFATORY, STATEMENT Now put Ne‘an ip for w, we obtain Fi Netant{y,veNC. gt (Nefan i{u)av.d.Nefan tia qd) +, (1). #10041, DtrveNC.qiNeantunv.d.Neantiu=v (2) Now by I'T, even when »v is a formal number, the identity of types of the two occurrences of Ne‘a is equally secured in kiveNC.qtNeanv.>.Ne‘a=v. Thus this is a particular case of #10042. Such deductions can be made in general without any explicit formal statement. Ambiguity of NC. It follows (cf. #10002 and *103‘02) from the typical ambiguity of Ne that NC is also typically ambiguous, Hence “weNC.ve NC” according to our methods of interpretation would not necessitate that « and » should be of the same type. We shall always interpret “y,ve NC” as standing for ““eNC.veNC” and therefore as not necessarily identifying the types of wand v. Similarly for N.C, NC induct, and NC ind. For example #110402, bs y,veN,C. Dd. gM (u ter) 0 t4(u Fv) Here the m and v need not be of the same type. Again WAL041. bipveNC.tpaty.d.q'uterv)aty Here the identification of the types of » and v requires the hypothesis “t= ty.” VL. Conventions AT and Infin T. General Arithmetical Convention. Conventions IT and IIT are always applied, but the following convention is not used at first. This convention limits the remaining ambiguity of type by sweeping away the exceptional cases in low types, due to the failure of existence theorems. The convention will be cited as AT. AT. All equations involving pure arithmetical formal numbers are to be arithmetical, We have seen that from an arithmetical equation the analogous equation in any other type can be deduced. Thus with AT all equations between formal numbers are so determined in type that their truth in “any type” is deducible. Thus in the few early propositions where AT is introduced, the fact is noted by stating that the equations hold “in any type.” These propositions are ¥103'16, #1107172. ‘The effect of applying ATT to other propositions in *100 is to render some of the hypotheses (usually logical forms affirming existence) unnecessary, but also materially to limit the scope of the propositions, Take for example #10085, big! Ne‘a.vigqtNe eid: Nofa= Ne‘®.=.aeNe‘8.=. Be Nea If we apply AT to this, wo can write tiNea=Ne(@.=.aeNe'B.=.8eNoa.=.asmp. asm pPREFATORY STATEMENT xxix For the equational occurrences of Ne‘a and Ne‘ are by AT and IIT to be with adequate actual types. But if a is a small class in a high type, an adequate actual type for Ne‘a will be a high type, whereas q1Ne‘a may hold in a low type. Thus with AT, for the sake of simplicity we abandon the statement of the minimum of hypothesis necessary for our propositions. The enunciation of no other proposition in #100 is affected, The enunciation of no proposition in: *101 is affected by AT, though it would unduly limit the scope of *101'34. In *110, AT would unduly limit the scope of such propositions as 110-22'23'24'25-251-252'3'31 32°33 1°34°35°35 1445154 and of many others, without altering their enunciations. There is no proposition in #110 whose enunciation it would alter. AT is already applied to *110‘71-72; if AT is removed from these propositions, then q!Ne‘a must be added as an hypothesis to both of them. The effect of AT on #113 and #116 is entirely analogous to that on ¥110; in neither of these two numbers is there any proposition to which AT is applied in the text. As regards #117, A'T is applied throughout, so that the propositions are all in the form suitable for subsequent investigations in which the interest is purely arithmetical. It is important however to analyse the effect of AT on the enunciations for the sake of logical investigations, especially in connection with #120. First, AT can only affect propositions in which equations or inequations occur, and among such propositions it does not affect the enuncia- tions of those in which both sides of the equations are not formal numbers, so that the equations are not arithmetical after the application of AT. These propositions are #*117-104'1424241-243'31'551. These propositions, which are characterized by the presence of a single letter on one side of any equation involved, can be recognized at a glance. The propositions involving arithmetical equations whose enunciations are unaltered by the removal of AT are *117-2154'592. Propositions involving inequations whose enuncia- tions are unaltered by the removal of AT are #1172627, Finally the only propositions of *117 whose enunciations are altered by the removal of AT are #117°108:211-23-25'3. In *118 and *119 AT is not used. In #120, which is devoted to those properties of inductive cardinals which are of logical interest, A'T is never used. None of the propositions #117'108-211-23'25'3 are cited in it, except #117-25 in the demonstration of #120°435 for a use where AT is not relevant. The application of AT to *120 would simplify the hypotheses of #120'31-41-451-53'55, and limit the scopes of the propositions. One other convention, which we will call “Infin T,” is required in certain propositions where the hypothesis implies that there are types in which everyXXX PREFATORY STATEMENT inductive cardinal exists, i.e. in which V is not an inductive class. Among such hypotheses are Infin ax, y! Prog, q@!N. (or typically definite forms of these hypotheses), or Re Prog or ae&. When such hypotheses occur, we shall assume that NC induct is, whenever significance permits, to be deter- mined in a type in which every inductive cardinal exists, ie. in which the axiom of infinity holds (cf. *120-03-04). The statement of this convention is as follows: Infin T. When the hypothesis of a proposition implies that there is a type in which every inductive cardinal exists, every occurrence of “NC induct” in this proposition is to be taken (if conditions of significance permit) in a sufficiently high type to insure the existence of every inductive cardinal. It is to be observed that this convention would be unnecessary if we confined ourselves to one extensional hierarchy, for in any one such hierarchy all types are inductive or all are non-inductive, so that if every inductive cardinal exists in one type in the hierarchy, the same holds for any other type in the hierarchy. But when we no longer confine ourselves to one extensional hierarchy, this result may not follow. For example, it may be the case that the number of individuals is inductive, but the number of predicative functions of individuals is not inductive; at any rate, no logical reason can be given against this possibility, which can only be rejected on empirical grounds, if at all. The way in which this convention is used may be illustrated by the demonstration of #122'33. In the second line of this demonstration, we show that the hypothesis implies Elyp.D.El(v to 1)p qa) where by *121-04 ve=R,.BR Df, and by *121-02 R,=89 {Ne‘R@Hy)=v4e_1} De It will be seen that these definitions do not suffice to determine the type of ». Hence in (1), the v on the left may not be of the same type as the v-+tel on the right. Now the use of *120-473, which occurs in the next line of the demonstration of #122°33, requires that the v on the left and the v+,1 on the right should be of the same type. This requires that the v should not be taken in a type in which we have q!v.vt+.1=A. Hence in order to apply ¥120-473, we must choose a type in which all inductive cardinals exist. Since “Re Prog” occurs in the hypothesis, we know that all inductive cardinals exist in the type of C'R. But it is unnecessary to restrict ourselves to the type of O'R, since any other type in which all inductive cardinals exist will equally secure the validity of the demonstration. Thus the convention Infin T secures the restriction required, and no more. The convention InfinT is often relevant when “Infinax” without any typical determination oceurs in the hypothesis. Whenever this is the case,PREFATORY STATEMENT xxxi if “NC induct” occurs in the proposition in a way which leaves its type undetermined so far as conditions of significance are concerned, it is to be taken in a type in which all its members exist. VIL Final Working Rule in Arithmetic, It is now (whenever AT is used, together with InfinT when necessary) possible finally to sweep aside all consideration of types in connection with inductive numbers. For by combining ¥126121-122 and 120-4232-4622, we see that it is always possible to take the type high enough so that no definitely determined inductive number shall be null (A), and that all the inductive reasoning can take place within this type. Furthermore we have already seen that the arithmetical operations are independent of the types of the components, so long as they are existential. Thus, as far as the ordinary arithmetic of finite numbers is concerned, all the conventions (including AT), and the necessity for hypotheses as to the existence of inductive numbers, are finally superseded by the following single rule: RuLe or Inperinire Numpers. The type assigned to any symbol which represents an inductive number is such that the symbol is not equal to A. We make the definition 4126-01. Ne ind =Ne induct—tf'A Df Wherever this symbol “Ne ind” for the class of “indefinite inductive cardinal numbers” is used, the above rule is adhered to. In other words, “peNCind” can always be replaced by “y= Ne‘a.ae Clsinduct,” where Nea is a homogeneous or ascending cardinal, and a is the appropriate constant, or is a variable, as the case may be. In the latter case, a symbolic form such as (#) -f(weNC ind, w) can be replaced by (4, 2). f (w= Nea. we Cls induct, 2). Furthermore by #1204622 it follows that with this rule the result of proceeding by induction in one type and then transforming to another type is the same as that of proceeding by induction in the latter type. Thus for example there is no advantage to be gained by discriminating between 2% and 2; for sm,2,=2,, smg2,=2p, pte 2p Ute Qa Xe MAM Xe My weap, 2h = 24, and p> %.=, wD 2,, and so on, Hence all discrimination of the types of indefinite inductive numbers may be dropped; and the types are entirely indefinite and irrelevant.PART IIT CARDINAL ARITHMETIC RawSUMMARY OF PART III In this Part, we shall be concerned, first, with the definition and general logical properties of cardinal numbers (Section A); then with the operations of addition, multiplication and exponentiation, of which the definitions and formal laws do not require any restriction to finite numbers (Section B); then with the theory of finite and infinite, which is rendered somewhat complicated by the fact that there are two different senses of “finite,” which cannot (so far as is known) be identified without assuming the multiplicative axiom. The theory of finite and infinite will be resumed, in connection with series, in Part V, Section E. It is in this Part that the theory of types first becomes practically relevant. It will be found that contradictions concerning the maximum cardinal are solved by this theory. We have therefore devoted our first section in this Part (with the exception of two numbers giving the most elementary properties of cardinals in general, and of 0 and 1 and 2, respectively) to the application of types to cardinals. Every cardinal is typically ambiguous, and we confer typical definiteness by the notations of #63, #64, and #65. It is especially where existence-theorems are concemed that the theory of types is essential. The chief importance of the propositions of the present part lies, not only, as throughout the book, in the hypotheses necessary to secure the conclusions, but also in the typical ambiguity which can be allowed to the symbols con- sistently with the truth of the propositions in all the cases thereby included,SECTION A DEFINITION AND LOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS Summary of Section A. ‘The Cardinal Number of a class a, which we will denote by “Nota,” is defined as the class of all classes similar to a, ie. as A(@sma). This definition is due to Frege, and was first published in his Grundlagen der Arithmetik*; its symbolic expression and use are to be found in his Grundgesetze der Arithmetikt. The chief merits of this definition are (1) that the formal properties which we expect cardinal numbers to have result from it; (2) that unless we adopt this definition or some more complicated and practically equivalent definition, it is necessary to regard the cardinal number of a class as an indefinable. Hence the above definition avoids a useless indefinable with its attendant primitive propositions. It will be observed that, if « is any object, 1 is not the cardinal number of , but that of ua, This obviates a confusion which otherwise is liable to arise in dealing with classes. Suppose we have a class a consisting of many terms; we say, nevertheless, that it is one class. Thus it seems to be at once one and many. But in fact it is @ that is many, and ua that is one. In regard to zero, the analogous point is still clearer. Suppose we say “there are no Kings of France.” This is equivalent to “the class of Kings of France has no members,” or, in our language, “the class of Kings of France is a member of the class 0.” It is obvious that we cannot say “the King of France is a member of the class 0,” because there is no King of France. Thus in the case of 0 and 1, as more evidently in all other cases, a cardinal number appertains to a class, not to the members of the class, For the purposes of formal definition, we subject the formula Nefa= (8 sma) to some simplification. It will be seen that, according to this formula, “Ne” is a relation, namely the relation of a cardinal number to any class of which it is the number. Thus for example 1 has to ¢‘x the relation Nc; so has 2 to i culty, provided «+y. The relation Ne is, in fact, the relation sm; for Se za‘a= (8 sm a). Hence for formal purposes of definition we put Ne=sm Df * Breslau, 1884. Cf. especially pp. 79, 80. + Jena, Vol. 1. 1893, Vol. 11. 1908. Cf. Vol. 1, §§ 40—42, pp. 57,58. The grounds in favour of this definition will be found at length in Principles of Mathematics, Part II,SECTION A] LOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS 5 The class of cardinal numbers is the class of objects which are the cardinal numbers of something or other, ze. of objects which, for some a, are equal to Ne‘a. We call the class of cardinal numbers NC; thus we have NC= {(qa). w= Ne‘a}. For purposes of formal definition, we replace this by the simpler formula NC=D‘Ne Df. In the present section, we shall be concerned with what we may call the purely logical properties of cardinal numbers, namely those which do not depend upon the arithmetical operations of addition, multiplication and exponentiation, nor upon the distinction of finite and infinite", The chief point to be dealt with, as regards both importance and difficulty, is the relation of a cardinal number in one type to the same or an associated cardinal number in another type. When a symbol is ambiguous as to type, we will call it typically ambiguous; when, either always or in a given context, it is un- ambiguous as to type, we will call it typically definite. Now the symbol “sm” is typically ambiguous; the only limitation on its type is that its domain and converse domain must both consist of classes. When we have asm, a and B need not be of the same type, in fact, in any type of classes, there are classes similar to some of the classes of any other type of classes. For example, we have tf«sm uy, whatever types # and y may belong to. This ambiguity of “sm” is derived from that of 1—>1, which in turn is derived from that of 1. We denote (cf. #65°01) by “1,” all the unit classes which are of the same type as a. Then (according to the definition *70‘01) 1.—> 1, will be the class of those one-one relations whose domain is of the same type as a and whose con- verse domain is of the same type as 8. Thus “1,->1,” is typically definite as soon as a and @ are given. Suppose now, instead of having merely ysm 8 we have (GR). Rel. 1p.D‘R=y.UR=8; then we know not only that sm 8, but also that y belongs to the same type as a, and 8 belongs to the same type as 8. When the ambiguous symbol “sm” is rendered typically definite by having its domain defined as being of the same type as a, and its converse domain defined as being of the same type as 8, we write it “sme,” because generally, in accordance with *65'1, if R is a typically ambiguous relation, we write Rj») for the typically definite relation that results when the domain of R is to consist of terms of the same type as @, and the converse domain is to consist of terms of the same type as B. Thus we have ysmas 8.=. (GR). Rel, lg.y=D'R.8=AR. Here everything is typically definite if a and 6 (or their types) are given. * Tho definitions of the arithmetical operations, and of finite and infinite, are really just as purely logical as what precedes them; but if we are to draw a line between logic and arithmetic somewhere, the arithmetical operations seem the natural point at which to place the beginning of arithmetic.6 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part nr Passing now to the relation “Ne,” it will be seen that it shares the typical ambiguity of “sm.” In order to render it typically definite, we must derive it from a typically definite “sm.” So long as nothing is added to give typical definiteness,“Ne‘y” will mean all the classes belonging to some one (unspecified) type and similar to y. Ifa is a member of the type to which these classes are to belong, then Ne'y is contained in the type of a. For this case, it is convenient to introduce the following two notations, already defined in *65. When a typically ambiguous relation R is to be rendered typically definite as to its domain only, by deciding that every member of the domain is to be contained in the type of a, we write “R(a)” in place of R. When we farther wish to determine R as having members of the converse domain contained in the type of 8, we write “R(a, 8)” in place of R; and when we wish members of the converse domain to be members of the type of 8, we write “(as)” in place of R, Thus sg‘{B,w} = {aR} (ae) (ef, x65), and in particular, since Ne = am, Ne (ag) = sg‘8t0 a, Thus “Ne(as)‘y” is only significant when ¥ is of the same type as 8, and then it means “classes of the same type as a and similar to ry (which is of the same type as 8).” “Ne(a)‘y” will mean “classes of the same type as a and similar to 9.” As soon as the types of a and y are known, this is a typically definite symbol, being in fact equal to Ne(a,)"y. Hence so long as we only wish to consider “Noy,” typical definiteness is secured by writing “Ne(a)” in place of “No” When we come to the consideration of NC, “Ne(a)” is no longer a sufficient determination, although it suffices to determine the type. Suppose we put NC#(a)=D‘Ne (ag) Df; we have also, in virtue of the definitions in #65, NC (a) = NCat%a=D'Ne (a). Thus NC (a) is definite as to type, but is the domain of a relation whose converse domain is ambiguous as to type; and it will appear that there are some propositions about NC(a) whose truth or falsehood depends upon the determination chosen for the converse domain of Ne(a). Hence if we wish to have a symbol which is completely definite, we must write “NC#(a).” This point is important in connection with the contradictions as to the maximum cardinal. The following remarks will illustrate it further. Cantor has shown that, if @ is any class, no class contained in @ is similar to CIB. Hence in particular if @ is a type, no class contained in @ is similarSECTION A] LOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS 7 to Cl‘8, which is the next type above 8. Consequently, if @=au —a, where ais any class, we have ~(ay) -y Cau —a.ysm Cl(au a), Now (cf. #63) we put ta=av—a Df, and we have a= Cl(au—a), Thus we find ~ (dy) Gta. ysin Ha, Hence Ne(ay.)'ta= A. That is to say, no class of the same type as a has as many members as t“a has. Hence also AeNOM (a), But Cla. d.yeNe(a)'y «a! Ne (aa)*y, and “Ne (a4)'y” is only significant when y Chfa; hence weNC(@). veg ty and Awe NO*(a), Now the notation “NC (a)” will apply with equal justice to NC*(a) or to NO" (a); but we have just seen that in the first case we shall have Ar~eNC (a), and in the second we shall have AeNC(a). Consequently “NC (a)” has not sufficient definiteness to prevent practically important differences between the various determinations of which it is capable. A converse procedure to the above yields similar results. Let a be a class of classes; then s‘a is of lower type than a. Let us consider NC**(a), In accordance with #63, we write ta for the type containing s‘a, ie. for sfau—s'a. Then the greatest number in the class NC** (a) will be Ne (a)‘t,‘a; but neither this nor any lesser member of the class will be equal to Ne (a)‘t,“a, because, as before, (ay) 7 Chfa ey sm toa. Hence Ne (a)‘t,‘a, which is a member of NC* (a), is not a member of NC**(a); but NC=(a) and NO**(a) have an equal right to be called NC(a). Hence again “NC (@)” is a symbol not sufficiently definite for many of our purposes. The solution of the paradox concerning the maximum cardinal is evident in view of what has been said. This paradox is as follows: It results from a theorem of Cantor’s that there is no maximum cardinal, since, for all values of a, No‘Clfa > Ne‘a. But at first sight it would scem that the class which contains everything must be the greatest possible class, and must therefore contain the greatest possible number of terms. We bave seen, however, that a class a must always be contained within some one type; hence all that is proved is that there are greater classes in the next type, which is that of Cl‘. Since there is always a next higher type, we thus have a maximum cardinal in each type, without8 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PaRT UT having any absolutely maximum cardinal. The maximum cardinal in the type of « is Ne(a)(av—a). But if we take the corresponding cardinal in the next type, i.e. Ne (Clfa)"(a va), this is not as great as Ne (Clfa)‘Cl'(a v — a), and is therefore not the maximum cardinal of its type. This gives the complete solution of the paradox. For most purposes, what we wish to know in order to have a sufficient amount of typical definiteness is not the absolute types of a and 8, as above, but mezely what we may call their relative types. ‘Thus, for example, a and B may be of the same type; in that case, Ne (ag) and NC* (a) are respectively equal to Ne(a.) and NC*(a). We will call cardinals which, for some a, are members of the class NC* (a), homogeneous catdinals, because the “sm” from which they are derived is a homogeneous relation, We shall denote the homogeneous cardinal of a by “Nye‘a,” and we shall denote the class of homogeneous cardinals (in an unspecified type) by “NC”; thus we put Nyfa=Nefanta Df, NC=DNe De Almost all the properties of N.C are the same in different types. When further typical definiteness is required, it can be secured by writing Nye (a), NoC (a) in place of Nyc, N.C. For although Ne(a) and NC (a) were not wholly definite, Nyc (a) and N,C (a) are wholly definite. Apart from the fact of being of different types, the only property in which N,C (a) and N,C(8) differ when a and @ are of different types is in regard to the magnitude of the cardinals belonging to them, ‘Thus suppose the whole universe consisted (as monists aver) of a single individual, Let us call the type of this individual “Indiv.” Then N,C (Indiv) will consist of 0 and 1, ie. N,C (Indiv) = 110 ve‘, But in the next higher type, there will be two members, namely A and Indiv. Thus NC (t'Indiv) = 060 ve‘l ve. Similarly NC (Indiv) = 00 v1 uw 0'2 wi'3 wd, the members of #¢‘Indiv being A né‘Indiv, «A, “Indiv, «(A y eIndiv; and so on. (The greatest, cardinal in any except the lowest type is always a power of 2.) The maximum of N,C(a) is N,e‘h‘a; but apart from this difference of maximum and its consequences, N,C(a) and N,C() do not differ in any important properties. Hence for most purposes N.C and Nye have as much typical definiteness as is necessary. Among cardinals which are not homogeneous we shall consider three kinds. The first of these we shall call ascending cardinals. A cardinal NC* (a) isSECTION A] LOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS 9 called an ascending cardinal if the type of @ is ta or ta or t*t*ta or ete, We write ta for t't‘a, t%a for t¢tfa, and so on. We put Niefa=Ne‘anitia Df Nefa=Nefantt*a Df Niefa =Ne‘an ta Df and so on, and NiG=DN'e Df NC = D‘Nee Df N'C=D‘N'e Df and so on. We then have obviously NIC (ta) CNC (ta). We also have (by what was said earlier) ' Nocttfave NIC (a). Hence INC (ta) — NIC (ta). The members of N,C(t‘a)—N'C(¢‘a) will be all cardinals which exceed Ne‘ty‘a but do not exceed Ne‘t‘a. Let us recur in illustration to our previous hypothesis of the universe consisting of a single individual. Then N'c‘Indiv will consist of those classes which are similar to “Indiv” but of the next higher type. These are tA and Indiv. In our case we had N,c‘Indiv=1. This leads to Nie‘Indiv = 1. N%e‘Indiv = 1 ete. or, introducing typical definiteness, N'e‘Indiv = 1 (Indiv) . N*c'‘Indiv = 1 (¢*Indiv) ete. We have then 1 (¢‘Indiv) e N'C (¢t‘Indiv). Also 1 (¢*Indiv) eN,C (t¢Indiv). And in the case supposed, 1 ({Indiv) is the maximum of N*C (¢*t‘Indiv), but 2(tIndiv) eN,C(tt‘Indiv), Hence N.C (t‘t‘Indiv) — N'C (¢*¢'Indiv) = «£2. Generalizing, we see that N'C(¢“a) consists of the same numbers as N,C (a) each raised one degree in type. Similar propositions hold of N*C (¢%a), NC ta) ete. It is often useful to have a notation for what we may call “the same cardinal in another type.” Suppose p is a typically definite cardinal; then we will denote by 4 the same cardinal in the next type, te. sm“pn tu. Note that, if » is a cardinal, sm“an p=; and whether p is a typically definite cardinal or not, sin’pa ta is a cardinal in a definite type. If m is typically definite, then smép 0 ta is wholly definite; if u is typically ambiguous, sm‘y n t‘a bas the same kind of10 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part UT indefiniteness as belongs to NC (a). The most important case is when # is typically definite and a has an assigned relation of type to «. We then put, as observed above, p=sm“untn Dé po asm“patp Df ete. If pw is an N.C, w® is an N'C and w® is an N*C and so on. N°C(¢‘a) will consist of all numbers which are of the form gz" for some » which is a member of N.C (a); te. NC (ta) = 8 {(qu)-weNC@).v =p}. The second kind of non-homogeneous cardinals to be considered is called the class of “descending cardinals.” These are such as go into a lower type; ie. Ne (a) is a descending cardinal if a is of a lower type than 8. We put Nycfa=Ne‘an t‘t,a Df Nicfa= Nefan t'tefa Df ete. N,C=DNc Df N,C=DN,c Df ete. py =sm“potiy Dé ww =sm“paty Df ete. We have obviously Nocfa = Nyotet“a. Hence N.C (a) CNC (a). Also yeNotS.>.Nio'S =Neoty, whence gEN cS. Node N.C, whence N,C-VA CNC. Since also Awe N,C (a), we find N,C=N,C-«'A, this proposition not requiring any further typical definiteness, since it holds however such definiteness may be introduced, remembering that such definite- ness is necessarily so introduced as to secure significance. Further, in virtue of the fact that no class contained in ta is similar to ta, we have AeN,O(a). Consequently N,C=N.C uta. We can prove in just the same way N,C=N,C uu‘a. Henee NC=N.C, and this result can obviously be extended to all descending cardinals. The third kind of non-homogeneous cardinals to be considered may be called “relational cardinals.” They are those applicable to classes of relations having a given relation of type toa given class. Consider for example Ne‘ea‘«. (We shall take this as the definition of the product of the numbers of theSECTION A] LOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS ll members of x.) Suppose now that « consists of a single term: we want to be able to say Noteate = Nor. We have in this case, if «=t'a, ea'c= | ala, and we know that | a“asma. But if we put simply Net | a= Ne‘a, our proposition, though not mistaken, requires care in interpretation. Just as we put Uae Nic‘a, so we want a notation giving typical definiteness to the proposition | a‘aeNo‘a, ‘This is provided as follows. Using the notation of #64, put Nucfa=Nefantit,“a Df Nycfa = Nefan t'ta Df ete. NaC = D'Nuc De NC = D‘Nitc Df etc. Ho) =Sin*'w 9 to‘ Dé etc. Then we have, for example, Latac ia, ie, Lat aettia, Hence | a“ae N,'c‘a, where N,'cfa = Ne‘an ttf. Similarly ceta.d. | aaeNacia. Thus the above definitions give us what is required. In order to complete our notation for types, we should need to be able to express the type of the domain or converse domain of R, or of any relation whose domain and converse domain have respectively given relations of type to the domain and converse domain of K. Thus we might put ds R=4°D‘R Df bfR=t{0‘R Df (“b” appears here as “d” written backwards) dof R = (aR Fb“) De =tR aR = 49d, Rf b,'R) Df and so on. This notation would enable us to deal with descending relational cardinals. But it is not required in the present work, and is therefore not introduced among the numbered propositions. When a typically ambiguous symbol, such as “sm” or “No,” occurs more than once in a given context, it must not be assumed, unless required by the conditions of significance, that it is to receive the same typical determination in each case. Thus e.g. we shall write “asm@..8 sma,” although, if # and B are of different types, the two symbols “sm” must receive different typical determinations.12 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC {PART OT Formulae which are typically ambiguous, or only partially definite as to type, must not be admitted unless every significant interpretation is true. Thus for example we may admit “beaeNefa” because here “Ne” must mean “Ne (a,),” so that the only ambiguity remaining is as to the type of a, and the formula holds whatever type a may belong to, provided “Ne‘a” is significant, ie. provided a is a class. But we must not, from “ae Ne‘a,” allow ourselves to infer “gq tNofa.” For here the conditions of significance no longer demand that “Nc” should mean “Ne(a)”: it might just as well mean “Ne(Q,).” And as we saw, if B is a lower type than 4, and a is sufficiently large of its type, we may have Ne(B.)‘a= A, so that “q!Ne‘a” is not admissible without qualification, Nevertheless, as we shall see in #100, there are a certain number of propositions to be made about a wholly ambiguous Ne or NC.*100. DEFINITION AND ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS Summary of *100. In this number we shall be concerned only with such immediate conse- quences of the definition of cardinal numbers as do not require typical definite- ness, beyond what the inherent conditions of significance may bestow. We introduce here the fundamental definitions: Df D‘Ne Df The definition “Ne” is required chiefly for the sake of the descriptive function Nc‘e. We have : *1001. .Ne‘a=A(8sma)=A (asm 8) This may be stated in various equivalent forms, which are given at the beginning of this number (#100-1—16), After a few propositions on Ne as a relation, we proceed to the elementary properties of Ne‘a. We have #1003. F.aeNe‘a #10031, F:aeNc'8.=.8eNea.=.asmB #100321. | :asm 8.3. Ne‘a=Ne‘B #10033. Fig! Ne‘an Nef8.3.asm8 We proceed next to the elementary properties of NC. We have #1004. FrweNC.=.(qa).~=Nea #10042, Fip,veNC.qipav.d.pav #10045. biweNC.aeu.>.New=p #10051. F:iueNC.aen.>.sm“u=Ne‘a Observe that when we have such a hypothesis as “eNO,” the y, though it may be of any type, must be of some type; hence the » cannot have the typical ambiguity which belongs to Ne‘. If we put 4 =Noa, this will hold only in the type of y; but “sm” is a typically ambiguous symbol, which will represent in any type the “same” number as yu. Thus “sm“p=No‘a” is an equation which is applicable to all possible typical determinations of “sm” and “Ne,” #10052, FipeNC. qty. >.sm“peNC The hypothesis q!, is unnecessary, but we cannot prove this till later (#102). We end the number with some propositions (*100-6—64) stating that various classes (such as ta), which have already been proved to be similar toa, have Ne‘a members.14 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (paRT U1 #10001, Ne=sm Df *10002. NC=D‘Ne Df #1001. F.Ne‘a=8(8sma)=A(asmB) [*3213.#73'31. (#10001)} *10011. +.Noa=A (qk). Rel —>1.D‘R=a.0‘R=8} (#1001. 4731] 10012, +. Nea=A (qh). Rel +1-aCD‘R. B= Reta} [*1001 .#73:11] < - #10013, +. Ne‘a=C“(1—1 a Dia) =D“(1 > 19 Ta) Dem. Fe #10011 #336. Dh. Neta= A {(GR).Rel 9 1.Re Dia. R= 8} [#22°38.437-6] = 01+ 10 D‘a) (ly F. #1001. #731. 43361. 1. Nota=f (qh). Rel +1. Rea. YR= 8} [#2238437 -6] =D“(1> 19 Ua) (2) F.(1).@). D4. Prop #10014. +. Ne‘a=8((qh).aCQ‘R. RPacl al. B= Ra} [#73°15 , #1001] #10015. .Nea@=A (qk): EM Ra: a,yea. Ra= Ry .Dzy.c=yi B= Ra} Dem. b.#74111.> FEW Rara,yea.Rw= Ry. rny.o~y:B=R are: Rfael Cls.aC O'R. Rf acl+1.g=Ra (1) b. (1) .471. #10014. 3. Prop #10016. F.Nefa=B (GR), yea-Dnyt Dem. Fe #7159. bita,yea.Dzyt Rom Ry .s.02y F.(1).#10014.3+. Prop #1002, FL EINefa [#3212.(#10001)] #10021. +.d‘Ne=Cls Dem. +. #37°76 . (#10001). 3. U‘NeC Cls qd) Fb. #33431. #1002. Dt. ClsC ‘Ne (2) b.(1).(2). 3. Prop ¥10022, F.Neel—+Cls [#72-12. (#10001) #1003. F.aeNo‘a [#733 . #1001] Note that it is fallacious to infer q!Nc‘a, for reasons explained in the introduction to the present section. Rfaclol.aCaR (ql)SECTION A] ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS 15 #10031, F:aeNeiB.=.GeNefa.z.asm@ [#3218. #7331. (#10001)] #10032, F:aeNe'8.@eNety.d.aeNe‘y [#10031 . #7332] #100321. t:asm8.>.Ne‘a=Ne‘8 Dem. + .¥73'37. +: Hp.D:ysma.=,.ysm At [#1001] 2: Nefa=Ne‘B:. DF. Prop Note that Ne‘a=Ne‘8.>.asm@ is not always true. We might be tempted to prove it as follows: + .¥1001.3F:.Nea=Ne@.s:ysma.=y.ysmp: [¥101] asma asm 8: [4733] Drasme But the use of #10+1 here is only legitimate when the “sm” concerned is a homogeneous relation. If Ne‘a, No‘@ are descending cardinals, we may have Ne‘a= A= Nef@ without having asm 2. #10033. Fig! Nofan Neg. d.asm@ Dem. F.*1001. 3h: Hp. >. (ay). ysma.ysm @. [x73°31] >. (qy).asmy.ysm B- [#7832] D-asm@:F. Prop Note that we do not always have asin B.>.q!Ne‘an Ne‘p. For if the Ne concerned is a descending Ne, and a and 8 are sufficiently great, No‘a and Ne‘@ may both be A. For example, we have Cl(au - a) sm Cla u —a). But Ne(a)'Cl(au —a) =A, so that wa te (a)Clf(au — a) 0 No(a)‘Cl(av—a). Thus “asm @..q ! Nea Ne‘Q” is not always true when itis significant. #10034. big! Nefan Ne‘@.>.Nea=Ne‘@ [#10033321] #10035, Fig !Nofa.v.gqtNotSid: Nefa=Ne'@.=.aeNe‘B.=.fe Ne.=.asmB Dem. Fb. 4225. Dh. Hp. 2: Nofa= Ne‘. >. q!Nefan Ne‘s. [¥100'33] D.asmé qa F.(1).#100921.9F:. Hp.3:Nefa=Ne'p F.(2). #10031. D+. Prop Thus the only case in which the implications in *100°321'33'34 cannot be turned into equivalences is the case in which Ne‘a and Ne‘ are both A. #10036. Fs. BeNe‘a.Iiqla.s.q!8 [410031 . #7336] #1004. F:weNC.=.(qa).p=Ne‘a [4387-78-79 (*100-02-01)] asm 8 Q)16 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr 1 #10041. +.Ne‘aeNC [#100'4°2 . *14°204] #10042, FipveNC.giuav.d-w=y Dem. Fb. #1004. 3+: Hp..(qa,8)-#= Nefa.v=Ne‘B.q! Nefan Note. [#100°34] >. (qa, 8). w=Ne‘a.v=Ne(@.Nefa=Ne'p. [#1415] D.pavrdt.Prop 10043, + .NCeClstexel [100-42 #8411] #10044, Fi.weNC.gq!Nefa.diaep.=.Nea=p Dem. +. #1003.3+:Nea=p.D.aep qQ) F. #1024. Db: peNC. gt Nee.aew.d+ weNC.qtw.giNea.aepe [#1004] 9. (q8)-w=NeB.g! NeiB.qtNea.aeNotp. [10085] >. (q@)-p=Ne‘B.Ne‘a=Netg. [41415] 9. Nea=p Q) F.(1).(2). F. Prop #10045. FiweNC.aep.2.Ne‘a=p [#100-4'31°321] #1005. tiweNC.aBen.>.asme Dem. +. #1004. D+: Hp. d. (yy) p=Nety.a,BeNety. [#10031] 2. (ay) .asmy. Asm. [#73°31°32] D.asm@: Db. Prop #10051. FrweNC.aew.>.smMp=Ne‘a Dem. +. #1005. Fact. +: Hp.3:Rep.ysm8.>-asmB.ysmA. [¥78°31°32] Dasmy. [410031] D.yeNea a) F (1) .#10'11-21-28 487-1. : Hp. D. amy C Nea (2) +. #10031. DtiHp.diyeNee.d.ysma.aey. [#37-1] Deyesm“z (3) F.(2).(8). 3+. Prop #100511. F:q!Nc“B. >. smNe“@ = Nee Here the last “Ne‘g” may be of a different type from the others: the proposition holds however its type is determined, Dem. F.#100°51-41. DF sae NoMB. D.smNe“B =Nefa (#100'31°321] =Netp a) F. (1). #101123. F. PropSECTION A] ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF CARDINAL NUMBERS ly *10052. FiweNC.qty.d.sm“peNC [*10051-4] This proposition still holds when p= A, but the proof is more difficult, since it depends upon the proof that every null-class of classes is an NC, which in turn depends upon the proof that Clfa is not similar to @ or to any class contained in a. #100521, tiweNC.g!sm%p.>.sm‘sm“p =p Dem. + .#3729. Transp. Dt: Hp.diq!ps [¥100°52] Dism“peNC [#100°51.Hp] Diyesm'p.d.sm“sm“p = Novy a) b.a871.Fact. Ib: Hp.yesm“p.D.(qa)-aen.peNC.ysma. [#100-45:321] D. (qa). Nefa=p.Nety=Neta. [41317) D.Nety =p (2) F.(1).(2). Dh Hp. yesm“p.D.smsm“p=p 3) +. (8). #10°11-23'35 . DF. Prop 410083, Fi qipegiv.DIipeNC.v=sm“p Dem. + .#10052. Di. Hp.dtweNC.v=smu.d.veNC a) F.#100521.h:.Hp.d:veNC.y=sm%p..¢=sm (2) F.().(2). Dk Hp.DipeNC.v=sm%p.2.veNC.p=sm (8) veNC.p=smy ve +68) @) 28.3. Prop #1006. F.i“aeNefa [x73-41 .*10031] #10061. 1.8 [(qy) yea. Baw Uy} eNeota [#73-27 454-21 #10031] #10062, Fix] “aeNe'a [¥73-61 . #10031] #100621. +. | rae Ne‘a [#73°611 . #10031] #10063. + .ex4t'ae Nota [¥83-41 . #10031] 100631. +. Diea‘t'ae Nota [¥88°7 . 100°6] #10064. F: we Clstexcl. >. D'ea‘e C Ne‘x Dem. }.#843.#8014. 2: Hp. Reese. >. Relot.c=OR, [«73-2.410081] >.D'Re Nee: D+. Prop R&W 2#101, ON 0 AND 1 AND 2 Summary of #101. In the present number, we have to show that 0 and 1 and 2 as previously defined are cardinal numbers in the sense defined in #100, and to add a few elementary propositions to those already given concerning them. We prove (#101-12-241) that 0 and 1 are not null, which cannot be proved, with our axioms, for any other cardinal, except (in the case of finite cardinals) when the type is specified as a sufficiently high one. Thus we prove (#101'42-43) that Qo, and 2ne exist; this follows from A+V and A+V. We prove (*101-22'34) that 0 and 1 and 2 are all different from each other. We prove (#101°15-28) that sm0=0 and sm“1=1, but we cannot prove sm“2=2 unless we assume the existence of at least two individuals, or define the first 2 in “sm“2=2” as a 2 of some type other than 2naiy, where “Indiv” stands for the type of individuals. It should be observed that, since 0 and 1 and 2 are typically ambiguous, their properties are analogous to those of “Ne‘a” rather than to those of , where weNC. For example, we have #100511, big! Ne‘@.2.sm“Ne'B=Ne'B but we shall not have weNC sg !u. 2-sin“u = unless the “st” concerned is homogeneous, since in other cases the symbols do not express a significant proposition. But in #100°511 we may substitute 0 or 1 or 2, and the proposition remains significant and true. In fact we have (101-1231) b.O=NcfA.1= Netw. 2 = Ne(etfe vu tfA), where 0 and 1 and 2 have an ambiguity corresponding to that of “Ne.” #1011, +.0=NefA [#73-48 . 1001] #10111, +.0eNC [4101-1 . #100-4] #10112, FE. gto [451-161 . (#5401)] #10113. Fg 10m Cla. Ac0n Cla [451-16 . #603] #10114. Fi Nefy=0 Dem. Fe #101112. 3+: Nety=0.5.Nety=NefA.g!NetA. [¥13°194] =.Nofy=NefA. gq! NetA og! Nefy. [#10035] yeNefA. qt NefA.qt Nety. [#101 -1.#54'102] yaA.gINeA.gtNety. [#101-1-12.413-194] =A:DF. Prop syekSECTION A #10115. Dem. #10116. Dem. #10117. Dem. #1012. #10121. #10122. Dem. #10123. Dem. ¥101-24. Dem. ON 0 AND 1 AND 2 19 F.sm“0=0 b.aB71. DE ryesm“0.=.(Ga)-ae0.ysma, #54102] =.ysmA. 73°48] =.ye0:Dt. Prop kieweNC—U0.Diaeus Da Gla F.*10045. DhrpeNC.Acw.2.p=NefA 101-1] =0 qd) F.(1). Transp. DF: eNC—U0. 3: Anep: #24°63] Diaepw.D..qla: It. Prop Fi AeNo.=.Nefa=0.=.Nefa=NefA a=A F.#100°81921.9b: Ae Ne‘a.>.Nea= Ne‘A. #1011) >. Nefa=0 (1) F.1O113. DF: Nefa=0.>.A0eNe‘a (2) F.(1).(2). Di AeNe‘a.=.Neta=0. (3) #1011) Nea=Ne‘A. (4) #101:14] =.a=A (5) fF. (8). (4) .(8)« DF. Prop hel= Ne‘ [#7345 .#1001] HeleNC — [w101-2. 4100-4] b.1+0 b. #5221. #10118. +. Avel.AeO. [¥1314] Dr.140 F.1ln0=A b.m5221. Dhrael.D.atA. [#54'102] D.avred @ F. (1) 242489... Prop bigla.D.q!la Cle F 45222, 4606. Db i vea. Duel n Cla @ F. (1) .#10°11-28. >. Prop20 101-241, #10125. Dem. #10126. Dem. #10127. Dem. #10128. Dem. #10129. Dem. CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part ut beg !] [45223] Frael.BCa.Bta.>.he0 + #5264. #22621. b1ae1.8Ca.d.Belv0 Q) Fa #5246. Dhia,Bel.BCa.d.B=ar [Transp] Dhiael.ACa.B+a.d.Brvel (2) F.(1).(2). D4. Prop F.sCl*1=0u1 F. *60°371 . 40°43. D+. sO“ COV1 qd) +. #60334. Dh. A eClula. we Cl ula. [#52:22.440°4] Dr. Nes Cl1. owe s'Cl1. [#51-2.452'1] DF.OCSCIA LC eC (2) F.(1). (2). DF. Prop b.1=8{(qa).cea.a—uwe0} F.#54102.> bi(qe).cea.a—Uee0.=.(qa).weaca—ve=h. [243] (q2).cea.aCue. [x51-2] (qa) .a= ie. [452-1] =.ael:>h. Prop Fesm1l=1 b.a871. Db yesm“1.=.(ga).ael.ysma. [#52'1]) «(qz).y sme. [#7345] =.yel:D+. Prop Prue Nefa.=.Ne@=l.=.Nea=Neie.=.ael F.*10031-321. DhreweNefa.d.Nefa=Newn. [101-2] D.Nefa=1 () F.452-92, Der Nefa=1..1we Nota (2) F.(2).(2). DerweNea.=.Ne‘a= (3) [#1012] =.Nea= (4) F. #1012. %591.3+rael.3.Nea=1 (5) +. #1003. Dr:Nea=1.d.ae1 (6) F .(3). (4). (5). (6). DF. PropSECTION A] ON 0 AND 1 AND 2 21 #1013. brody. d.2=NoM(uleur'y) Dem. F.#73°71'43 451-231. bs. Hp. ds 2$w.D. (2 u ew)sm (ie vty): [54101] D:Be2.d.Bsm(ue ity): [%10071] DIC Ne(ia vty) qa) f.45832. #71163. Db: Rel—+l.ayeMR.D. Rea uty) =UR GURY (2) +.¥7156. Transp. DH:Hp. Rel—vl.ayeMR.d.RetRy (3) F.(2).(3) #5426. bi. Hp.3:Rel—>l.xyeGR. B= Rou vty). d.Bedt [x10°11-21-28.451234]D : (qR). Rell. ceui'y COR. B=R“(uavrty). D.Be®: [#73'12.#100°1] DiNet(uu vty) C2 (4) F.(1). (4). F. Prop 101301. +. 2=8{(q2).wea.a—vwel} [4543] In comparing ¥101°31 with *101‘1-2°8, it should be observed that ee and A are both classes, whereas in #101'1-2°3 there was no typical limitation beyond what was imposed by the conditions of significance. 10131. b.2= NeM(uule vitA) Dem, F.xSL161. Dh.vetA () f.(1).¥101'3. 9. Prop #10132, £.2eNC [#10131 . #100°4) #10183, F:a,eleanB=A.d.auBe2 [5443] #10134, F.240.241 Dem. F.w10113. Dr. AcO q) +. *101°301. Dtrae2.D.qlar [424-63] Dh Ave? (2) F. (1). (2) #1314, Dh.240 (3) b 59-22, 45426 2256. DE. uyel.uyred. [418-14] Dh.1+2 4 F.(8).(4). DF. Prop #10135. F.2n0=A.2n1=A_ [¥100-42. Transp . *101°11:213234] #10136. Fiae2.@Ca.Bta.3.8e0ul Dem. b.x5442. Dhrac®.PCa.q!B-B+a-d.gel qd) F. #54102. DbrwvgqiB.d.Be0 (2) F.(1).(2). 34. Prop22 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part oT #10137. b.sCl“2CQuULU2 [454411] #10138, Fig 12.3. 9Cl2=0Ul U2 Dem, F.¥603. Dh: Hp.d.(gqa).ae2AeCla. [«40°4] D.AesCl"2. [¥51-2] 3.0CsCl2 Q) F604. DE. 2 stOle2 (2) 454101. Db: Hp.3s. (qa,y).edy [¥13°171.Transp] Ds. (qa, y)t (2)tekavectysn [#5426] Di (qa,y)n(e)reviwedviteullye®s [411-26.422°58) D:.(2) 5 (Ga, B)rae2.UzeCla.v. Be®uzeClBe [40-4] D(z). UzesCl"2:. [4521] Dn 1 CeCle2 (3) F. (1). (2). (8). #10137. DF. Prop 014 Fi: (qa,y). ody. Seg 2 Dem, Fb. 45426. Dhraky.D.ql2: [#111135] DH: (qa,y).oty.d.q!2 Q) b. #54101. Db ra62.3.(qa,y) ety [*1011-23] DE: 12.D.(qa,y).ady (2) .(1).@). 3+. Prop When we are considering the lowest type occurring in a context, our premisses do not suffice to prove (qa,y).a+y. For every other type, this can be proved. Thus A+V and A+V give the required result for classes and relations respectively. #10141, br (qa).vetV e.g 12 Dem. F. 42414. Transp. > bs (qa). uetV [#51715] [101-4] #10142, F124, 0A UV e Qony Dem, #2041 04241. 5b. A,VeCls.AtV qa) 1 .(1).#5426. Dh.cAvUVe? uA UUV CCl. [*63°371105] Dh. AU eV Qn tCls. [(#65-01)) DUA ULV e2q4. Db. Prop #10143, Fe! 2nq [Proof as in #10142]102. ON CARDINAL NUMBERS OF ASSIGNED TYPES Summary of #102. In this number, we shall consider a typically definite relation “Ne,” ie. we shall consider the relation, to a class 8 which is given as of the same type as B, of the class z of those classes y which are similar to 8 and of the same type asa. We shall then put B= Neo (ag), ye No(ag)‘8, 810, p) 8, and the class of all such numbers as for a given a and 8 we shall call NC? (a), so that NO (a) = D‘Ne (a). The notations here introduced for giving typical definiteness to “sm” and “No” are those defined in *65 for any typically ambiguous relation. By %63:01-02 we have, if a is a typically ambiguous symbol, bia, an te, F.a(e) = ante. Thus k.a(2)= ave. If we apply the definitions to 1, “1,” is meaningless unless 2 is a class; we therefore write a Greek letter in place of 2, and we have bilp=latB=la(upu—up). If we 8, we shall have uw=8.v.ua+ 8. Hence FiweB.d.twels. Similarly braneB.D. Uwe ly. Thus Fiwet(@.D.Uwelg. The converse implication also holds, so that Fiwet(A.=.twels. Thus 1, consists of all unit classes whose sole members « either are or are not members of , i.e. for which “ae 8” is significant. In “x et 8.2. tel,” the hypothesis renders explicit the condition of significance; thus “t‘ae 1,” is always true when significant, and always signi- ficant when «¢t,{8. On the interpretation of negative statements concerning types, see the note at the end of this number. It should be noted that all the constant relations introduced in this work are typically ambiguous. Consider eg. A, sg, D, s, &, Z, & ¢, Cl, Rl. These all have more or less typical ambiguity, though all of them have what we will call relative typical definiteness, i.e. when the type of the relatum is given, that of the referent is given also. (In regard to D, it is not true that, conversely24 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART TIT when the type of the referent is given, that of the relatum is also given.) But «sm” and “Ne” have not even relative definiteness. When the type of the relatum is given, that of the referent becomes no more definite than before; the only restrictions are that the relatum for “sm” or “Nc” must be a class, that the referent for “sm” must be a class, and that the referent for “Ne” must be a class of classes. When a relation R has relative definiteness, it is enough to fix the type of the relatum; and if further Re1— Cls, so that B leads to a descriptive function, “Ry” has complete typical definiteness as soon as the type of y is given. Now the constant relations hitherto introduced, with the exception of “sm” and “V,” have all been one-many relations, and have been used almost exclusively in the form of descriptive functions. Hence no special notation has been required to give typical definiteness, since “Ry,” in these circumstances, has typical definiteness as soon as y is assigned. But with the consideration of “sm” and “Ne,” which do not have even relative definiteness, an explicit means of giving typical definiteness becomes necessary. It should be observed, however, that “Ne‘5” has typical definiteness, when 5 1s known, as soon as the domain of “Ne” has typical definiteness, since § must belong to the converse domain. It is for the sake of this and similar cases that we introduced the two definitions in *65, which only give typical definiteness to the domain. In virtue of the definitions in *65, if R is a typically ambiguous relation, and x is a referent, R becomes R,} if, further, y is a relatum, R becomes > > > Ruy. If @ is a referent for R, we have (qy).ve R'y, and R'yeD‘R. Thus ae D‘& has a member of the type next above that of «, ie. of the type of ua. Thus Fe sgi(R.) = BB) and Fo 88°(Ragu] = CB) (ay) as was proved in *65. Hence in particular F. 9g{smye,p} =Ne (as). It is chiefly for this reason that it is worth while to introduce the defini- tion of R (ay). We have, in virtue of the above, as will be proved in *102°46, Fryeta.det(B.ysm5.=.ye Ne(ag)'S. With regard to “Ne(a),” which is to be interpreted by #65°04, some caution is necessary. This will mean some one of those typically different relations called “Ne” which have their domains composed of terms of the same type as a. But it will not mean the logical sum of all such relations, because these relations are of different types according as their converse domains differ in type, and therefore their logical sum is meaningless. Thus for example if the type of @ is lower than or equal to that of a, we shall have bgt Ne (a),SECTION A] ON CARDINAL NUMBERS OF ASSIGNED TYPES 25 whence, if “Nc(a)” has its converse domain composed of terms of the same type as 8, Fe Awe D‘Ne (a). But if A is of higher type than a, we shall find F. Ae DNe(a). Thus “Ne (a)” is indeterminate in a way that makes a practical difference. Exactly similar remarks apply to NC (a). We have F.NC(@)=D‘Ne (a); thus “NC(a)” shares the ambiguity of “Ne(a).” The question whether Ae NC (a) depends upon the decision of this ambiguity. The difficulty is that “NC (a)” stands for the domain of any one determination of “Nc” which has its domain composed of objects of the type of ta; but it is the domain of only one such determination of “Ne,” because different determinations are of dif- ferent types,and therefore cannot be taken together, even when their domains are all of the same type. In consequence of this ambiguity, “NC (a)” isa symbol which is as a rule better avoided, and “Ne(a)” is not often useful except as a descriptive function, in which case the relatum supplies the requisite typical definiteness, The peculiarity of “NC(a)” is that it is typically definite, and yet is capable of different meanings: it is not wholly definite, being defined as the domain of a relation whose converse domain is typically ambiguous. It results that we cannot profitably make “NC” half-definite, as “NC (a)” does, but must make it completely definite, as we do by taking D‘Ne (ag). For this we adopt the notation NC#(a). We cannot adopt the notation NC (ag), because that would conflict with *65°11, nor NC(a)g, because that would conflict with 65-01, nor NC, (a), for the same reason. But NC*(a) has no previously defined meaning. We may if we like regard “NC?” as D‘(Ne[ tg). Then the required meaning of “NC*(a)” would result from *65:04. But as “NO*” so defined is not required, it is simpler to regard “NC#(a)” as a single symbol. We there- fore put #10201. NC*(a)=D‘Ne (a) Df The present number begins with various propositions (#102'°2—27) on a typically definite relation of similarity, ie. sm¢,q. We then have a set of propositions (#102°3—46) on “Ne (ag)‘6.” ‘This is only significant if 8 and 8 are of the same type; it then denotes the class of those classes which are similar to § and of the same type asa. We then have a set of propositions (*102'5—64) on NC#(a), tie, on cardinals consisting of classes of the same type as a which are similar to classes of the same type as &. We next prove (*102'71—75) that no sub-class of a is similar to Cl‘a, and therefore (substituting ta for a) no class of the same type as a is similar to ¢a, and therefore #10274, F. Ae NC“*(a)26 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC {parr 01 This proves that A is a cardinal, which is a proposition constantly required. The remaining propositions of *102 are concerned with sm‘‘p where p is a typically definite cardinal. The most useful propositions in this number (apart from *102°74) are #1028. Fr ysmay 5.=.yeNe(ap)'3 #10246, Frye No(ap)'8.2.8eNe(Ba)'y. =. ysmd.yeta. dete #1025. bi we NO* (a). . (8). = Ne(ap)S #1026. F. No(a)(B=Ne (ag)'8=4 (ysmB wy eta) =NeB nt'a #10272. b:@Ca.2.~(6 sm Cla) This is used in proving »eNC.>.2#> y, which is the proposition from which Cantor deduced that there is no greatest cardinal. (If ~=Ne‘a, = Ne‘Clfa, and thus there is a rise of type.) 10284. 1: (qy).ysma.yeta.dsmy.5.3sma #10285, fF. sm“unt'B=smp%p ¥10201. NC#(a)=D‘Ne(as) Df M0211. b: Rel31.9- Rey el (@) 1 (y) Here, if R is a real variable, the conditions of significance require R = Ry,y. But if RB is a typically ambiguous constant, such as J or A or sg, Riy is a typically definite constant. It is chiefly for such cases that propositions such as the above are useful. Dem. F .#37-402.. (#651). Db. D' Ru, y Cte. [33-15] Dh. {sg Rye Cte. [#635] DE. {sg Re, w}'z€ tt (1) F.(1)#71102. Dkr Hp.zeC' Rey .D- (sg Ru,y}eel atta. [(65-02)] D+ {sg Ray}zel(m) (2) Similarly brHp.weD‘Ryy+>-{gs'Rey}wel(y) (3) F.(2).(8)-#70°1. DF. Prop #10213, bi Rel1.3.Ree1(2)>1 [Proof as in #10211] #1022. biysmag 5.=.ysmS.yeta.det@ — [*35'102. (*65'1)] #10221, brysmeg 8.=.(qR).Relo1.DRetia. GURet@.D'Ray.GR=5 — [#102-2.*73-1] #10222, Frysm(o,y)8.=.ysmS.y Cte. SCty [x63 . (*65+12)] #10223, Frysm(w,y)5.=.(qR).Rel+1.D‘RCta. GRCty.DR=y.GR=5 [#102-22. #751]SECTION A] ON CARDINAL NUMBERS OF ASSIGNED TYPES Q7 #10224. Frysm(o,y)5.2.(qR).Rel(2)>1(y).DR=y.GR=5 Dem. F-10228 . #4055249 487-25. > an beeysm(a,y)5+=2(qR):RelaliweC'R. Dy. Rw Cer < reDR.D,. Re Cty: DR=y.CRas: ey [03°5] =1(qR): Rell. RURC ttc. RVR Cty, DR=y.0R=8: [a71-102.(46502)] = 1(qR).R“C'RC1(a).RD'RC1 (y).D' Ray. R=8: [701] (aR). Rel (a) 91). R= 7. 'R=8:. 9+. Prop #10225. bry sty. -=.(qR)- Rela lp. DR=y-CR=8 [Proof as in #10224] #10226. Fr ysmas) d.4/ sings 5-D.78Mia,0 7 Dem. F. #1022. D+: Hp.d.ysmd.9/smS.yy eta. [#78'32] D.ysmy’ yy eta. [#1022] D.ysm oe yt Db. Prop #10227, bry sme 5-9’smee5-D-78meey7’ [Proof as in #10226] #1023, Fry sm ag 5. =. Ne (ap)'S Dem. b. «3218.5 Fey fa,p) 56 = ory € {889M jo, ]43 + [65:2] ‘y¢ {(sg‘sm) (ap)}*S « [(*100-01)] ye No(ag)'3: DF. Prop #10231. +. Ne(a)'8-= Df a1 a R(DR eta. RB ett8. OR =8)} Dem. f. #102321. FsyeNe(ag)‘8 [#33°123.437-1] (qR).Rel1.D' Reta. Ret'B.DR=y.0R=8. yeD“(Loln RD Reta. CRet(B.R=d)}: DF. Prop #10232, F. No (ap)‘3=D* (1a 1p) 03} Dem. F .#102'3-25 . > bryeNe(a)8.5.(GR)- Rela ls-D'R=7.CR=3. [#3361] GR). Rel. lp ReTS.DR=y. [439-123.437-1] = «ye D'*{(1, > 1p) 9 O'S}: DF. Prop #10234, F. Ne (a, B)'S=D"{l ain R(D‘Reta. CRC. COR=S)} [Proof as in #10231]28 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr IT yas 10235. +. Ne(a,8)'S=D"{{1,>1(8)} n U8] [Proof as in #102'32] 910236. FE! Ne(ag)3 [#10281 . #1421] This proposition is trae whenever it is significant, and is significant when- ever 5¢¢8, When 6 belongs to some other type, the above proposition is not significant. #102361. + E!Ne(a,@)8 [¥102'34. #1421] #10237. +.0‘Ne(as)= 8 Dem. } 437-402 . (W651). DE. ONe (ag) CB (1) f .#102°36 . #3343. Dt. (8). Se U*Ne(as). [63:14] DF. tU‘Ne (as) = ONe (as) @) F. (1). #63°21. Dh. tCNe (as) =t68 (3) b.(2).(8). DF. Prop #1024 bye Ne(ag)‘5.y’e No(ap)'S.D.yeNe (aa)'y [*102'326] #10241, bye Ne (ag)'B «ye No(a’g)'B.D.yeNe(au)‘y’ [¥1023-27] #10242, FeaeNe(a.)‘a [¥1023-2. #733. *63°103] 10243, F.g!Ne(a.)fa [6102-42] This inference is legitimate because, when a is given, “Ne (a,)'a” is typically definite. The inference from “ae Ne‘a” (which is true) to “q !Ne‘a” is not valid, because “gy ! Ne‘a” may hold only for some of the possible determinations of the ambiguity of “No.” #10244. Frasmf.=.ae Ne (ag); Dem. «Be Ne(B.)'a F, «63-102. Fr asm B.aeta.Pet(B qa) BF. "3.4. Prop #10245. tye Ne (ap). 3. ye Neo (a)'y Dem. b.#10232.3b:Hp.d.yetta qd) F.x733. 0 Dh.ysmy (2) k + (1). (2). 1023-2. D+. Prop ¥10246, Fs ye Ne (ap)'3.=.8eNe(B,)fy. =-ysm 8. eta. det [#10223 . #7331] 1025. Fs we NC*(a). =. (8). w= Ne (ap)'S [#100-22.471-41 .(4102-01)] In using propositions, such as those of #100, in which we have a typically ambiguous “Ne” or “NC,” any significant typical definiteness may be added, since, when a typically ambiguous proposition is asserted, that includes the assertion of every possible proposition resulting from determining the ambiguity.SECTION A] ON CARDINAL NUMBERS OF ASSIGNED TYPES 29 4102-501. +. Ne(ap)'SeNCA (a) [*102'5°36] 0251. bry eNe(ag)'B.D «Ne (as)'3 = Ne(a)%y« Ne (ap)‘5 « NC# (a). Ne (aa)‘y e NC* (a) Dem. + .#1023:2.D Fi Hp. Diysm8.yetta.detB: [«78°37.4473] D:£smd.=.Esmyifsms.=.£sms. dete: &smy Esmy.yetfar [422] DrEsm dh. Seth Esmy.yetta: [Fact] Dikoms. feta.de'B.=.Esmy. Feta.vetas [102-23] D:Ne(ag)‘S = Ne (aa)*y (1) k. (1).#102°501. 3. Prop 610252, Figg! Ne(ap)'3.D.No(ap)SeNC#(a) [102-51] #10253, . NO#(a)— ofA CNC*(a) Dem. F #10252. Dts w= Ne(ap\'S. qt wed. weNCr(a) ( F.(1).#1025. 2+. Prop #10254, 8 eNo(A,)y.D.Ne(ag)8=Ne(aa)sy [¥10251-46] 102541. Fr Ne (Ba)y.D« Ne (aa)‘y e NC (a) — 0A. Dem. f .#102'54°501 . DF: Be Ne(B,)'y. D « Ne (ata)*y € NC* (a) (1) b.10246°45. Dh: Se Ne(A.y. Ds yeNe(aa)*y [w10-24] Dem ENe (a.)éy (2) F.(1).(2).9 br 8eNe(A,)fy. >. Ne (aa)*y eNC# (a) ~ eA: DE. Prop #10255, Fi Awe NO*(@).. NC# (a) — A = NC* (a) Dem. + #1025. Fi Hp. Dip=Ne(By-Dny Eee [102541] Davy Ne (ata)*y e NCP (a) — eA [41023] Ds (qu). w= Ne (Ba)*y.D,-Ne (aa)*y eNC# (a) UA [102-36] D : (ry). Ne (aa)y e NC? (a) — 0A: [#13191] D:v=Ne(a)'y.D,,,.¥ @NC#(a)—UAt [1025] D:veNC*(a).3,.veNC#(a)—eA a b. (1). *102'53 . +. Prop The above proposition shows that, if every class of the same type as @ is similar to some class of the same type as a, then, given a class y of the same type as a, there is a class 8, of the same type as 8, such that the classes similar to & and of the same type as a are the same as the classes similar to y and of30 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [par LIT the same type as a; and conversely, given any class 8, of the same type as 8, and similar to some class of the same type as a, then there is a class yy, of the same type as a, such that the classes similar to y and of the same type as a are the same as the classes similar to 5 and of the same type as a, We may express this by saying that, if the cardinals which go from the type of a to the type of A are never null, then those that go from the type of to the type of a, with the exception of A (if A is one of them), are the same as those that begin and end within the type of a. ‘The latter are what we call “homogeneous” cardinals. Thus our proposition is a step towards reducing the general study of cardinals to that of homogeneous cardinals, #1026. F. No(a)(8 = Ne(as)‘8=4(ysm B. yet'a)=NeBnita Dem. F.#B5'1. (#6504). > biw=Ne(ayB.=.n=NeB. pet a. [63:5] -woNeB.pCta. [x65°13] -paNetBatia. Q) [#100-1] (ysmB wyet a). Q) [463-103] (ysm B.yetfa. Bet). [#102-46] =. p=No(ap8 (3) F (1). (2). (8). #202. #1001. F. Prop #10261, 1: Set@.3.Ne(a)'S= Ne (ap)‘8 Dem. e473. 2b: Hp.d.4(ysmd.yetia)=9 (ysmd.yetta. det) [#102°46] = Ne (ag)‘8 (1) F.(1).#102°6. DF. Prop 10262, F.NC#(a)=Ne (a)t'e Dem. + 37-7 . (#10001). b.Ne(ayt8 = 2 {(q18). det8. w= Ne(a)'3} [¥102:61] jf {(8). 8et'B. w= Ne (ap)'3} [#102'37] D‘Ne (ap) [(#102-01)] =NC#(a). D+. Prop #10263. bip=Nefy.aen.d.p=Ne(a)'y Dem. F635. Db: Hp.d.p=Nety.pCtia. [x65-13] D.waNety ata. [102-6] D.p=Ne(a)y: Dt. Prop #10264. FrpeNC.q!y.>. (qa, 7). m=Ne(ayy [102-63 .*100-4] The following propositions are part of Cantor's proof that there is no greatest cardinal. They are inserted here in order to enable us to prove thatSECTION A} ON CARDINAL NUMBERS OF ASSIGNED TYPES 31 A is a cardinal, namely what we call a “descending” cardinal, ie. one whose corresponding “sm” goos from a higher to a lower type. #10271, bs ReCls1.D'RCa. MRC Ola. . qt Cla-aR Dem. b . 20°33 4°73. 3 tiHp.o=8(eeD‘R. ave Re). D2. zeD'R.Dg:eea.=.0ne Re: [45-18] Dinfecs.s. ce Ra}: [#20-43.Transp.#71164] 9,204 Ries. [#71-411. Transp] Ds ove CR @ F.420°83.. 43-26. : Hp(1)..c CDR. [Hp] D.oCa (2) F.(1).(2)-#18°191. > tr Hp.>.2(ceD‘R. ove Ra) eCla—~C‘R: +. Prop 10272, F:8Ca.D. (8 sm Clfa) Dem. F. #10271. F:.Hp.d: Rell. DR=6.0‘RCCla + Dae q!Cla—-G‘R: [4245542241]: Rel 1. D‘R=8.3_.0R4Cla: [#10°51] D:<(qR).Rel+1.D‘R=8.0'R= Cla: [x73-1] > :0(8 sm Clfa) st. Prop #10273, +. Ne(a)‘tfa=A Dem. F. #1026. DF. No (a)‘t'a= 9 (ysm ta. y eta) [¥63-65] = (sm Clif ry Cf) [#10272] =A.2b. Prop This proposition proves that no class of the same type as @ is similar to ta. Now ta is the greatest class of its type; thus there are classes of the type next above that of a which are too great to be similar to any class of the type of a. Thus (as will be explicitly proved later) the maximum cardinal in one type is less than that in the next higher type. Cantor's proposition that there is no maximum cardinal only holds when we are allowed to rise to con- tinually higher types: in each type, there is a maximum for that type, namely the number of members of the type. #10274. F. Ae NOM (a) Dem. #1026501. DE. Ne(a)‘tfae NC**(a) Q) F,(1).#10273. DF. Prop34 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr oT t Note on negative statements concerning types. Statements such as “eve ty’ or “eve ty'a” are always false when they are significant. Hence when an object belongs to one type, there is no significant way of expressing what we mean when we say that it does not belong to some other type. The reason is that, when, for example, t“a and ta are said to be different, the statement is only significant if interpreted as applying to the symbols, i.e. as meaning to deny that the two symbols denote the same class. We cannot assert that they denote diferent classes, since “t*a+t,‘a” is not significant, but we can deny that they denote the same class. Owing to this peculiarity, propositions dealing with types acquire their importance largely from the fact that they can be interpreted as dealing with the symbols rather than directly with the objects denoted by the symbols. Another reason for the importance of typically definite propositions is that, when they are implications of which the hypothesis can be asserted, they can be used for inference, i.e. for the assertion of the conclusion. Where typically ambiguous symbols occur in implications, on the contrary, the conditions of significance may be different for the hypothesis and the conclusion, so that fallacies may arise from the use of such implications ininference. Eg. itis fallacy to infer “F . oq! Ne‘a” from the (true) propositions “braeNc'a.d.q!Ne‘a” and “t.aeNe‘a.” (The truth of the first of these two requires that “Ne‘a” should receive the same typical determination in both its occurrences.) For these two reasons hypotheticals concerning types are often useful, in spite of the fact that their hypotheses are always true when they are significant.*103. HOMOGENEOUS CARDINALS Summary of #108. In this number, we shall consider cardinals generated by a homogeneous relation of similarity. A “homogeneous” cardinal is to mean all the classes similiar to some class a and of the same type as a. The “homogeneous cardinal of a” will be defined as No‘an t‘a; we shall denote it by “Nea.” Then the class of homogeneous cardinals is the class of all such cardinals as “Nyc'a,” ie. it is DN,e; this we shall denote by “N,C.” ‘The symbol “Neca” is typically definite as soon as a is assigned; “N.C,” on the contrary, is typically ambiguous: it must be a Cls', but otherwise its type may vary in- definitely. Homogeneous cardinals have, however, many properties which do not require that the ambiguity of “NC” should be determined, and few which do require this. They are important also as being the simplest kind of cardinals, and as being a kind to which other kinds can usually be reduced. The chief advantage of homogeneous cardinals is that they are never null (#103'13°22), This enables us to avoid by their means the explicit exclusion of exceptional cases; thus throughout Section B we shall use homogeneous cardinals in defining the arithmetical operations: the arithmetical sum of Ne‘a and Ne‘, for example, will be defined by means of N,e‘a and Nic‘, in order to exclude such a determination of the typical ambiguity of Ne‘a and Ne‘ as would make either of them null. It is true that not only homogeneous cardinals, but also ascending cardinals (cf. #104), are never null. But homo- geneous cardinals are much the simplest kind of cardinals that are never null, and are therefore the most convenient. The fact that no homogeneous cardinal is null is derived from #10812. Few Noota Other important propositions in this number are the following: #1082, biweN.C.=.(qa)-p=Ne‘wntla.s.(qa).w=Neta #10326. Fi.weNC.Diaep.2.Nea=p The above proposition is used constantly. #10327, biw=Niea.s.peNC.acu Thus to say that w is the homogeneous cardinal of a is equivalent to saying that x is a cardinal of which a is a member. 103-301. | . NO (2) =N,C (a) #10384. b.NO-VvACNC #1034. sm Nyefa = Ne‘a 103-41. b sm“ Nie‘an {8 = No(8)a36 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART 111 : #10301. Niefa=Ne‘anta Df *10302, N.C=D‘Nic DE #1031. . Nycfa=(Ne‘a), = Ne(a)fa=Ne(a,)fa [¥102°6 . (#108'01)] #10311. br BeNla.=.@sma.feta.=.PeNeta. Betta [103-1 . #102°6] #10312, F.aeNycfa [108-11 . #733. #63103] #10313. beg Nycfa [108-12 . #1024] This is a legitimate inference from #10312 because, when ais given, Nyc‘a is typically definite. #10314. +: Nefa= Nie§ saeNcB.=.BeN cca =.asmB.act'B b.¥103-11.3 be. Nca=Nic'B.=tysma.yela.sy.ysmB-vyetB: (1) [*10-1] Drasma.aeta.=.asmA.aclp: [a73'3.463'103] Drasm@.aetB (2) F #7332. #6317 Frasm@.aetB.ysma.yeta.d.ysmB.yelB (3) F.(3) BS ¥13-31 - #63°16.. > FrasmB.aetB.ysn8.yetB.d.ysma.ye tia (4) F.(8)-(4) (1). FrasmB.aet'B.>.Nea=NeB (5) b. (2). (5). #103°11 . #73°31 . #6316, +. Prop #10815, big! Nictan Nyoi@. 5. Neota=NeB Dem. #10813. Fs Nefa= Nog. d. qt Nctan Nocia qa b.#10B14. Dkr ye Necta.yeNetB. Dd. Nycta= Nooty NecsB = Necty. [¥14131-144] Dd. Noefa=NiclA: [x10-11-23] Dh sg! Nyefan Nicf@.d.Nocfa= Nec’ @) F.(1).(2). DF. Prop #10816. F:Nyoa=Ne'@.=.Nea=NeB In this proposition, the equation “Ne‘a= Ne‘Q” must be supposed to hold in any type for which it is significant. Otherwise, we might find a type for which Nefa =A =No‘g, without having Nye‘a= Ne‘. Dem. b. #10812. 9b: Nycfa=NeB.d.aeNeB. [«10031-321] >. Nefa=Netg a b .#22481.3h: Noa=Ne'B. 2.Ne‘anta=NeBntta. [65°18.(4103-01)] D.Necta= Ne (2) F. (1). (2). . PropSECTION A] HOMOGENEOUS CARDINALS 37 #1032. bipeN,C.=.(qa).p=Ne‘anta.=. (qa). w=Nyo [#TL-A1 . #10022 . (#108-01-02)] «103-21. +. Nicfae N.C. NyefaeNC [x103-2. #10024, #1428. x65°13] In adducing a proposition, such as #100°2, which is concerned with an “Ne” entirely undetermined in type, any degree of typical determination may be added to our “Ne,” since an asserted proposition containing an ambiguous “Ne” is only legitimate if it is true for every possible determination of the ambiguity. #10822, FrweNO.D.q tu [#103-13°2] #10323. f. Awe NC [#10322] #103:24. +. N,CeCls ex? excl [*100:48 . #103-23 . #8413] #10825. biwveNC.digtuav.s-p=v — [¥108-24. 484185] 10326. Fi. weNC.Diaen.s.Nea=p Dem. F. #10045. DbHp.I:aep.d.Nea=p q@ ba 63-22, Dhiwew. DI pCta (2) b. (1). (2). 422621. 0b. Hp. Diaew.d.Noanta=p. [(«108:01)] D.Nicta=p (3) +. «10312. DEIN ea=p.d.acp (4) F.(3).(4). DF. Prop 10327, tip=Ne‘a.s.peNC.aep Dem. +. *103-:26.Dh: weNC.p=Nicca « (1) .#108°21. +. Prop 103-28. + :(qa).ysma.p=Neta.s.qip.m=Ne'y Dem, b. «108-27. > F:(qa).ysna.p=Neela.=.(qa).ysma.peNC.aep. -weNC.aep ay as [#100°31] -peNC. gt paNe'y. [%100°42-41] =.peNC.q tpn Nety.p=Nety. [#100-41] =.qla.g=Noty: D+. Prop #1033, bs Beta. d.Nyc‘@=Ne (a)(B=Ne (a) =Ne'Bntia Dem, F.x6B16. 3: Hp. >. uate. [#22°481.(4108-01)] 3. Nie(B= Nei atta qd) [*102°6] = Ne(a)‘8 (2) [*10261] =Ne(m)‘B (3) fF .(1).(2). (3). DF. Prop38 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part it 103301. F. NO*(a) = N,C (a) Note that although “NC(a)” is not definite, “N,C(a)” is absolutely definite as soon as a is assigned. Dem. +. #1083. 3+: Beta.p=NeB.=.Betfa-p=Ne(a)2- [«102:37] =.p=Ne(aay'2 a b .x68°5 . (#108-01). > =NyelB.D:Reta.s.pet a 2 F F.C). (2). Db peta. p=Ne'B.=.p=Ne(a)B @) F (8) .#1011-281-35.. > bs pet a: (8). n= Nec + (G8). w= Ne(aa)'B- [x102°5] «we NC*(a) @) F. (4). #108°2. Db: pet an NC. =.peNC#(a) 6) F (5). (65°02). DF. Prop #10831, big! Ne (ap)... Ne (ap) e N,C (a) Dem. +. ¥10252. Dh: Hp. >. Ne (ag)Be NC*(a) . [¥103'301} D.Ne(ap)'8 e NC (a): DF. Prop #10332, +. NC#(a)— A CNC (a) Dem. F. #10831. Db w= Ne (a)8.q te. D. we NC (a) a) b. (1). #1025. D+. Prop In the above proposition, the “8” may be omitted, and we may write (cf. *103'33, below) F.NC (a) - A CN,C(a). For the @ is wholly arbitrary, so that any possible determination of NC (a) makes the above proposition true. We may proceed a step further, and write (#108'34, below) F.NC-VACNC But although we also have N,C C NC 1A, provided the “NO” on the right is suitably determined, we do not have this always. For example, if “NC” is determined as NC* (#a), and “N,C” as N,C (a), then Nye‘tae NyC— NO. 10833, F. NC(@) A CNC (a) Dem. es (*65°02).> Fi weNC(ay-iA. tmeNC. pet a.gqip: [#100-4.%63:5] G8). m=NeBipCta.gqhy: [¥65-18) Bn ttargips {#102'6] +(q8) «uw =Ne (as). qt [#103:31) Dt peN,C(@) st. PropSECTION A] HOMOGENEOUS CARDINALS 39 #10334, +.NC-VvACNC Dem. +. *100°31'321 . *63°5 . > bip=Nefa. Pep. dw=NeBatB [(103-01)] =Nee. [#103:2] D.weNC @ F. (1). *100°4, #11°11'35°54, D+. Prop ‘Thus every cardinal except A is a homogeneous cardinal in the appropriate type. Note that although of course every homogeneous cardinal is a cardinal, yet “N,C C NC” must not be asserted, because it is possible to determine the ambiguity of “NC” in such a way as to make this false. Hence we do not get NC-vA=NC. #10335. b:A~eNC*(8). >. NC# (a) — uA =N,C (a) [4102'55 . *103°301] The hypothesis of this proposition is satisfied, as will appear later, if the type of 8 is in what we may call the direct ascent from that of a, ie. if it can be reached from @ by a finite number of steps each of which takes us from a type to either Clr or R77). Thus in such a case the cardinals (other than A) which go from ¢*@ to ta are the same as those which begin and end within “a, Ié will also appear that in such a case A always is a member of NC# (a). If two cardinals which are not equal must always be one greater and the other less, then A ¢ NC® (a) is the condition for N,c‘t‘8 > Ne(8)ta. In that case, we shall have AeNC*(a).3.A~eNC#(8). But there is no known proof that of two different cardinals one must be the greater, except by assuming the multiplicative axiom and proving thence (by Zermelo’s theorem) that every class can be well-ordered (cf. #258). #1034. b. sm‘Nyofa= Nea Dem. F.«871.5 FrSesm“N,c'a.=.(qy)-ysma.yeta.dsmy. [#10284] 8sma:>t. Prop #10341. fF. sm“Nofan t(8 =Ne(8)a Dem. F. #1034. >+.sm“NieflantB=Nefant'e (102°6] =Ne(@)'a.3+. Prop #10342, t:@sma.=.Ne(8)a=Ne'8 Dem. +. #100321.3+:@sma.>.Ne‘a=Ne‘g. [422'481] >. NetaniipaNeBntB. [*102°6.(*103-01)] D.Ne(B)a=Ne'h da) #10312. +: Ne(@)'a=Nie'B.d. Be Ne(Ay'a- [*100°31] >.Bsma Q) F.().(2). 34. Prop40 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART IIT + #10843, FrpeNC.>.sm“patéu=y Dem. +. 48729. Dkiw=A.d.sm“pntiw=A qa) #10827. Db: peNC.dep.d.p=Nola.tipata. [*103-41] Damp a hip= Ne (aya [¥108:3:27] a (2) F.(1).(2).F. Prop #10844, binyveNC.Iip=sm“y.= Dem. +.#10053. Dh gipeg!y.pveNC.d:p=smy.=.y—smip (1) b. #108272. bi Hp.>.qly.gqty.p,veNO (2) F.(1).(2). Db. Prop ¥1085. F.0eN,C Dem. F.HOLI112.3+.0eNC.q!0. [¥103°34] Dr.0eN,C.I+. Prop #10351. F.1eN,C Dem. + .#101-21-241.3b.1leNC.qll. [#10334] Db.LeN,C.3+. Prop 0 and 1 are the only cardinals of which the above property can be proved universally with our assumptions. If (as is possible so far as our assumptions go) the lowest type is a unit class, we shall have in that type (though in no other) 2= A, so that in that type 2~eN,C. v=amp#104. ASCENDING CARDINALS Summary of «104. In this number we have to consider cardinals derived from a relation of similarity which goes from the type of @ to that of ta, or to that of a, The propositions to be proved can be extended, bya mere repetition of the proofs, to ta, ta, etc. This extension must, however, be made afresh in each instance; we cannot prove that it can be made generally, because mathematical indue- tion cannot be applied to the series tifa, ta, ta, Oa, .... Ascending cardinals, though less important than homogeneous cardinals, yet have considerable importance in arithmetic, because Ne‘a x Ne‘@ and (Ne‘a)No* are defined as the cardinals of classes of higher types than those of a and 8, and the same applies to the product of the cardinals of members of a class of classes. In these cases, however, we also need cardinals of relational types, which will be dealt with in *106. We have to deal, in this number, with three different sets of notions, namely 10401. Nieta=Netant‘t'a Dé #10402, NIC=D‘Ne De #10408. p=om“pntty Df with similar definitions of N’e‘a, ete. Thus N'e‘« consists of all classes similar to abut of the next higher type, te, itis the cardinal number ofa in the type next above that of Nyc‘a; NC is the class of all such cardinals as Nic‘, and is a typically ambiguous symbol, though N'c‘a is typically definite when a is given; # (if wis a cardinal which is not null) is the “same” cardinal in the next higher type, so that, eg., if w is 1 determined as consisting of unit classes of individuals, 4°) will be 1 determined as consisting of unit classes of classes of individuals. (When uv is not an existent cardinal, . is unimportant.) The following are the most useful propositions in the present number: #10412. Be Nicta.yeNiB.D.yeNea 1042, bia Nioke #10421, beg t Nica #10424, rp = Nila. dD. p=Neta= Neh {(qy)-yea. B= uau ty} #10425, +. NCCN,C #10426, bip=Nota.d. pm =Neia= Neca 104-265. be p® omy42, CARDINA] ARITHMETIC [part mr #10427. Fi.peNC.dip=Nicia.=- hu = Niele #10435, +. NCCN'C. NC CNC #10443, br tfa=t'B.D.(qy,8).yeN'e'a. SeNeB.ynd=h #10401, Nicca=Ne‘antitfa Df This defines the cardinal number of « in the next type above that of N,c‘a; thus N%ofa consists of all classes similar to a and of the next type above that of a. #104011, Neca = Nefantta Df Similar definitions are to be assumed for N*c‘a, etc. #10402, NIC=DNic Df NIG, like N,C, is typically ambiguous; but N°C(q) is typically definite. #104021, N*C = D‘N’e Df Similar definitions are to be assumed for N®C, ete. #10408. uM =sm“pa tty DE Here, if 4 is a cardinal, »” is the same cardinal in the next higher type. For example, if w is couples of individuals, wis couples of classes of individuals, #104081. uw =sm“pne, Df Similar definitions are to be assumed for 2%, ete. 1041, Fr BeNio‘a.=.BeNow. Betit'a.=.BeNela. BC ta [63-5 . (#104-01)] #104101, t: Be No'a.=.Bsma.BCtia [#100°31 . x1041] #104102, +. Ni‘a= Ne(t'a)‘a= Ne {(ta).Ja [#1026 . (#10401)] wl0411, 1: BeNe'a.s.BeNo'a. Set"a.=.BeNe'a. BCH a [x6355 . (#104-:011)] #104111. 1: BeNita.s.Bsma.BCia — [¥100°31. «10411] #104112. +. Nica = Ne(ia)a=No {(ta)a}‘a [#102°6. (#104-011)] ¥10412, F: BeNicla.yeNic'g.d.ye Nea Dem. .4104¢1.3+:Hp.d.BeNeta.Betta.yeNeB.vett'B. [#100'32] D.veNeta. Betta. yetth. [63:16] Dye Noa. HB =tta.yettB. [a13-12] D.veNeta. yettta. [10411] D.yeNtefa: Dt. PropSECTION A] ASOENDING CARDINALS 43 #104121. Fs Be Nica. yeNiofa.d.yeNeB Dem. b.¥104102112. Db: Hp.d. Be Ne {(t'a)a}‘a.ye Ne {(t*a)a}‘a. [102-41] DiyeNe {(t*a)ua}“B @M F.#1041. Dr: Hp.d. Betta. [*63°16] 2. Bata. [(#65-11)] D. Ne {(t"a)yre} = Ne {(#8)5} 2) F .(1) (2). #104102... Prop #104122. F: Be N'c'a.D. Nie§@ = Ne‘a [#104°12'121] #104123, F Nyc(B=Niefa.d.Nic(G=Nie‘a [#104122 . #103-26] #10413, Five NC. 5. (qa). p=Niee [#10022 . #71-41 . (#104°02)] #10414 F2den%. =. (gy). yew dsmy.Setu. =. (ay) yews dsmy.8 Cty [87-1 . *63-22 . (#104-08)] wl04141. FiweNC.gqty.2.u%eNC [¥10052] When the hypothesis “q! 2” is omitted, this proposition is still true, but with a difference. #.g. let us put p= Ne (a)‘tea. Then p=A.p” =A. Thus p” +Ne(t‘a)‘t'a. But we still have py) = Ne (ta) ‘ta, Thus pe NC, but 4" is not the same cardinal as in a higher type, ie. there are classes whose cardinal in one type is wz, but whose cardinal in the next higher type is not p", 104142, Fr peNC.gty.d-p%eNC [10052] #10415. b:weN*C.=.(qa).p=Neova [410022 . #7141 . (x104021)] #1042. Fu ae Nica Dem. + #68621. Db: rea. DeeUeeta: [48761] Dh ea Cea Q@ F.(1). «1006 . #1041. >. Prop #104201. F: Be N,cfa.D.uBe Nie‘a. Niefa= Nie‘ Dem, F. #100°31:321.3+:Hp.>.Ne‘a=Ne‘p qd) b.#l0311. Dk:Hp.d.Peta. [63:16] D.ta=tB. [«80°37] D.tta=tp (2) 4 (1)- (2). (10401). DF. Nie‘a = NeefB (3) +. (8).#1042. >. Prop42 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part ur 10427, FreweNC.d:p=Nycla #10435. F.NCOCNIC.N*CCN,C #10443, Frtfa=tB.>.(qy,d).ve Nika. SeNo(B.yndah Bo = Nita #10401. Niefa=Neantta Df This defines the cardinal number of a in the next type above that of N,c‘a; thus N'c‘a consists of all classes similar to a and of the next type above that of a #104011. Neefa=Ne‘antta Df Similar definitions are to be assumed for N*c‘a, etc. #10402. N1C=D‘Nre De NC, like N,C, is typically ambiguous; but N'C (a) is typically definite. #104021, N°C = D‘N*c DE Similar definitions are to be assumed for N*C, etc. #10408, w=sm“paty Df Here, if is a cardinal, 0! is the same cardinal in the next higher type. For example, if » is couples of individuals, ~” is couples of classes of individuals. #104081, p =sm“pnt ym Df Similar definitions are to be assumed for 4, ete. #1041, +: BeNic‘a.=, eNom. Betitia.=.BeNea.BCta [63° . (#10401)] #104101, F: Be Nicka.=. Bema. BC tia [¥100°81 . #1041] #104102. F. Nic‘a=Ne(H'a)‘a=Ne {(t'a).}a [#1026 . (#10401)] MOLL. b:BeNio'a.=.BeNota. Betta.=.BeNoa.BCHa [x63°5 . (#104-011)] #04111. F:BeNefa.s.@sma.BCe%a — [¥10031. #10411] #104112. F . Niefa= Ne (e¥a)fa=No{(ea)a}‘a (#1026. (x104011)] ¥10412, +: Be Nota. yeN'e'g.d.ye Nia Dem. b.#1041.3+:Hp.d.BeNefa. Betta.yeNeB.vettB. [#10032] D.yeNeta.Petta.yett'B. [63:16] D.veNoka.tB=tta.yettB. [*13-12] D.yeNota.yettt'a. [10411] D.yeNtea: DF. PropSECTION A] ASCENDING CARDINALS 43 #104121. : Be Nema. ye Nea. D.ye Neh Dem. F.#104°102112. 3: Hp. >. Be Ne {(t4a)a}a.ye Ne {(t*a)a}‘a [102-42] D.yeNe {(ta)ea}(8 @M F.#LO41. Dri Hp.d. fetta. [+6316] D.Batita. [((65°11)] D. Ne {(#a)y,} = Ne {@B)s} (2) F.(1). (2). #104102. 34. Prop 4104122. F: Be Ncfa.D. Nie’ =Nre‘a [#10412-121] 9104123, F Nyc(B= Niefa.D.Nic(B= Nio‘a 104-122. #10326] #10413. Five NC (qa). p=Nefa [*100°22 . #7141 .(104:02)] ¥10414. 1: Sey. =. (gy). yeu. Samy det{n. =. (ay). yeu. Ssmy.dCty [437-1 . 463-22 . (4104°03)] 04141. FiweNC.gq!y.2.u%eNC [¥10052] When the hypothesis “q ! 2” is omitted, this proposition is still trae, but with a difference. E.g. let us put w= Ne (a)‘t*a, Then p= A.y =A. Thus wu +Ne(ta)‘t'a, But we still have lt = Ne (ta) ‘ta, Thus p eNC, but 4“ is not the same cardinal as in a higher type, ie. there are classes whose cardinal in one type is 4, but whose cardinal in the next higher type is not x. #104142, Fi peNC.g!a.D-u%eNC [¥10052] M0415, Fi weN?C.=.(qa).~=Neofa [¥100-22. #7141. (#104021)] #1042, Fb .tae Neca Dem. F.#68621. 2b :vem.Detwetiat [48761] DF. tata Q) F (1) «#1006. #1041. +. Prop #104201. Fs BeNscla.d.1(Be Neola. Neaa Nes Dem. +. #100°31'321.3+:Hp.>.Ne‘a= Nee qa) F. «103-11. Dr:Hp.>. feta. [68-16] D. tant. [30°37] D.ttaxttB (2) F. (1). (2). (#10401). F. Nefa= Note (3) b. (8). #1042. D+. Prop44 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART I #10421. F.qtNicta [#1042] It follows from this proposition that ascending cardinals are never null. The proof has to be made separately for each kind of ascending cardinal, ie, NIC, N°C, ete. #104211. b. gt Nica Cll [#1042 . #523) #10423, F.AY(qy).yea.Bauau ity} e Nita Dem. b.45116. Dhiyea. D.yean(Uwevity). [x63'16] Ditie vityetfa Q) F.C). #101123. 94. Al(qy).yea.Bautwury} Cia (2) F. (2). #10061. #1041. 3+. Prop #104281, F : Neofa=Nie‘B. D. Noca=NoB Dem. F. #1042. D+: Hp.d.uBeNicta. [#104101] D.tGsma.u“BCta. [473410632164] 2.Bsma.tB=ta. [#10811.%6316] >. feNicfa. [#103-14] D.Nyeta= Nye(@: Dt. Prop 104-282, t: Nota= Nietg.=. Nyoka= Nog .=. Be Neeka [#104-231-201 . #103-14] #10424. Frp=Mela.d. p= Nota= Ne ((qy).y ea. B= Ue vy} [¥104-9-23 . #103'26] #10425, F.NICCNC [61042413] This proposition holds for each possible determination of the typical ambiguities, ie, for every a we have NC (ta) C N.C (#'a). We do not have N°C (a) = N.C (tfa), because Nye‘t'ae N.C (t/a) — N'C (t*a). #104251. F. Awe NC [#10425 . *103-23] 4104252. F. N'CeClsex*exel [4104/25 . #108°24 . #84'26] #10426. w= Neola. d. ll = Noetta= Ne'a Dem. b. #10414, #10341. bie Hp. 3: Seu”. =. (gy). ysma-vyeta.dsmy.dCty. (1) [478'32.46316] >.5sma.8Ctfa. [104-101] D.5eNieta @)SECTION A] ASCENDING CARDINALS 45 F. #104101. brBeNicfa, D.8sma.dCtfa. [¥73'3.463.103] Dasma. aetia-dsma.dCra, [10-24] D. (qq) vema.yeta.dsmy.5Cthy (3) +.(8).(). Dt: Hp. d:8eNie%a.2.deu" (4) + .(2).(4)-#10424. 9F. Prop #104261. Fi =Niea.d.~CN cw Dem. F .#10414101 «> Hp. D:(qy)eveu.dsmy.8C thy Ssma.5Cia: [1023] Di yew. Ssmy.8Cty.Dy,5.8sma.3Cita. [4-7] D,a-dsma.dsmy.8Cta.5 Cty. [W73-32.463+13] D,eeyema.vetfa. [¥103-11] D,ayeNeta Q) Fo (1). #10-23°35 . #104:101.> biHp. Diyew. qi Niety.d,-yeNoetat [¥10421] Ds yew. >,-yeNy‘as. IF. Prop #104262. b: we NC. pl =Nefa. Dd. p= Nea Dem. t.¥10421.2h:Hp.d.qtyl. [437-29.Transp] D.gqtn Q F. 4108-26. : Hp. yew. De p= Neoty (2) b. (1). (2). 2b: Hp. >. (ay). w=Noety. [¥10426.Hp] >. (ay). w= Nety. Niefa= Nioty. [*104281) >. (ay) - w= Necty Nota Neety« [¥13-172] D.w=Nocfa: Db. Prop #104263, Fiaep.D.taen™ Dem. b.a78-41 4871.9: Hp. d.uaesm .taet'p 2) F.(1)- (2). (#10408). 9 F. Prop #104264. Frgty.s.q tye Dem. F.#104:268. Dhigip-deqly” ay F.37-29. Transp . (#10408). DF: gq 1° .Degty 2) F.(1). (2). F. Prop 104265, Fey = smyfp [102-85 . (¥104-03)] 10427, FipeNO.d:p=Noofa.=-u=Nicfa [10426262] 10428. F:weNO-vfA.>. pe NIC [410426 . #108'34]46 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PaRT 101 410429. FiveNC.2. (gp). peNCev=p” Dem. be610426. Dhiw=Nefa.vapl.d.v= Mela: [#101128] Dh: (qa). poNefa.v=n.>.(qa).v=Niea: [¥108-2.410413]3 bt peN,C.v=p%.2.veNC qa) +. #10426. #103°2.> tive Nieto. p=Nea.d.v=pu.peNC 2) (2) 1011-28-35 . > =Nrefa: (qu). w= Nicfa:D.(qu).weNC.v=p" (3) (3) #100°2 #14204. rv=Niefa.d. (qu) weNC.v= po (4) = (4) «1011-23 . #10413. > rveNC.D. (qu). weN,C.v=p (5) -(1). (5). D4. Prop #1043, but ae Neko Dem. rrr F. #1042. 9b. uae Nota. uae Nichia. [¥10412] Dh. ueae Noa #10431, beg 1 Nea [#1043] #104311. F. Neofa=Nyettua=Nee'ta [1049-2 . ¥108-26] 410482. Frp=Noofa.d. ui = NycteHufas Nokia = Neca = {yl} © Dem. b. 410426. DF: Hp. D. {u}o = yoke (1) [104311] =Nee‘a (2) F . w108-11 . (#104081). > bi Hp.2:5en%.=.(qy)-ysma.yetta. Samy. dettty. [¥102°84.46316] =. Sema. deta. [¥10411} =.deNreca (3) F. (1). (2). (8)- #10424. DF. Prop #10483, bipeNO.d:y=Noota-= Dem. b.#10427.9h:. Hp. di y=Nieta p= Weta po = Niefa. [#10424] BY =Neta. [#10427°141.4103-13] {ut} = Nietia, [104-3224] pe? = Nea: DF. Prop #10434, FiaeN*C. 5. (sq). ve NC. = 0". =. (Gu). weN,C.o=p" Dem. b.#10432.3 From Nefau= Noa. d.c=n. peNC a)SECTION A] ASCENDING CARDINALS AT F. (1). #1002. #10°11-28-35 ..> F:(qa).o=Ni%la.d.(qu).peN,C.o=p® (2) b.10432. 0 Dhtp=Noefa.o=p".d.7=Neoa, [x10415.4103-2] DF i weN,C.e=n.2. aN (3) F.(2).(8). DkrweN*C.=.(qu).weNC.w=p", (4) [10432] -(qe)-peNC.o={u9}”, [¥13-195] «(Gu v) weNC.v= usa pe, [10429] = <(qv).veN'C.a=v" (6) #.(4).(5). 0. Prop #10436. 1. N*CCNIC.N'CCN,C [x104311-13:15) #10436. bi yeN*efa.ye Nicf@.d. Re Niefa. Nefa=Nets8 Dem. Fb. #104111. F:Hp.d.yeNeta. vette. yeNeoiB. ye tts [¥100-34.46816] >. Neta= NetB ta [x68°35-15] D>. Nefa= Nets. a= [(¥104:01.4103-01)] >. N'efa=Nie’B (Ql) F (1). #10812. 9+. Prop #10437. i Necfa= NickB Dem. Nefa=Nicf8 b.10421.F: Nefa= Nes .d. qi Nefan NickB. [#10436] 2. Nefa=Nie'B q@ F.(1). #104123. F. Prop The following propositions are concerned with the proof that, given any two cardinals « and », of the same type, we can find two mutually exclusive classes one of which has » terms while the other has v terms. The proof requires that we should raise the types of both » and v one degree above that in.which they were originally given, ie. that we should turn w and » into 4 and v®), Thus, for example, suppose the total number of individuals in the universe were finite (a supposition which is consistent with our primi- tive propositions), and suppose were this number, Then unless v=0, a class of y individuals will be an existent sub-class of the only class which consists of 4, individuals, and therefore we shall have wep. Bev.Dap-Glang. But if we consider classes of 2 classes and v classes, we shall always be able to find a y and a 8 such that yen Ser .yad=A. The existence of such a y and & is important in connection with the arithmetical operations, and is therefore proved here.48 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr m *1044. bieweaoty.odz.y tet (w).ws80(a=vwulu):d. aaa) v ysee Nea n C2 Dem. +, «10061. Dh: Hp. >. af(a— ea) sm (a — ea) @ b 878-48. DhiHp.d.eyézem ee (2) F. 451-282. Transp. +: Hp. >. evey.ée (3) b .451-282. DbrHp.vea(a—Ua).D.cey (4) F.(8).(4). De: Hp.dykervew(a—ia). [51-211] Di at(a— in) avyée= A (6) F.451-21-211 Dhu (awe) nad (6) F.(1) (2) +(5) + (6)« #7371. #51221. D br Hp.D.a(a—va) ve'ytesma (7) b . #63-101-16 . #51-232-16. F:Hp. d.tw=ty.veayeyz.y Zea "(a— tx) Vly ic. [x68°53-2] D. ta = tla. ty = t6fa,(a— Ua) v yt} . Pa = Oy [L317] D. thar tof{ert(a~ efx) vty se}. [88105] D.a.(a— eke) vty te Ctl (8) b.a5426. DF: Hp.d. a(a—ule) very de C2 (9) F(T) «(8) (9). #104101. F. Prop w10441, Fs. fa=tB:(qe,y,2).ceaaty.cbz.y+z1d. (ay 8).yeNic'a. SeNB.ynd=A Dem. Fe #10442. ¥52°3.D br Hp. Hp#1044.3.(qz,y,2).a(a—a) uv v'yce Niokan Cl. UBeNefBaCl1. [413-22] D.(G0,y. 2,9, 8) y= ae(a— Ue) ULLY de. S=UB. yeNefan C2. 5eNe6Bn Cll. [#1155] D. (7.8) «ye Niefan C2. Se Niel n Cl @ F.(1). #10135. DF. Prop This proposition proves the desired conclusions provided q!a, and ta consists of at least three terms. The following propositions deal with the cases in which this hypothesis is not verified. #104411. brta=t'B.ae0.y=A..d=U'B.D.yeNefa.deNB.yndaA Dem. + #7347. Db:Hp.>.ysma q) #2248 . (65-01). DhiHp. dy Cea 2) b.(1)-(2)-#104101. DkiHp.d.yeNeta (3) f .(8). #1042. 424°23. DF. Prop #104412. Fs ta=t'B.a=Ua.y=lA,. b=U"B.>. yeNrela.deNeB.ynd=A Dem, F.#7343. Dt: Hp.>d.ysma qd) +. #6361103. 3+:Hp.D.aet*a (2)SECTION A] ASCENDING CARDINALS 49 F. #2243. (#6501). Dh:Hp. fey. 2p FCia. [x63°5] Defer a. [(2).«6313] De-Getfa (3) F.(1) (8). #104101. 3b: Hp. D.ye Nica (4) F. 101-23. DR:Hp.deynbaA (5) +. (4). (5). #1042. D4. Prop #104413, bi ta=tB.asceury.cty. y= UA vue uly). 8=U"B.D, yeNeta.deNeBiyad=A Dem. F.#54-26. DrrHp.d.vauutyer. Q [#10135] D.Adeulty. [454'26] DiAviU@urty)e?. [1013] DitA viM(Ula vityeNeM(ule vty) (2) F.#5L16. DtiHp.d.aey. [#63'5] Diy Cea (3) F.(2)-(8).#1041, Dh: Hp. dD. ye Nicka @) be x52213 Dh AvetB (5) be (1) 4523. a5425 DEP Hp. dD. eovuryre iB (8) F. (5). (6). DbiHp.d.yndaA (7) f(A) (7). #1042. F. Prop #10442, br tla=t'B.ae0V1v2.>.(qy7,8).yeWeta. deNiehB.ynd= A [#104-411°412-413 . ¥52°1 . #54101] 10443, brtfa= B.D. (qy,8).yeNicta. deNeiB.ynd=A Dem. b45456.3 FiHp.ave0vlu2.3.(qa,y2).ay.zeaaty.afe.ytes [#10441] D. (ay, 8)-yeNoa.SeNietB.ynd=A (1) F.(1) «#10442. F. Prop The above proposition gives the desired result. The following propositions re-state this result in other forms. #10444. bi pve NO. tut. >. (gy d)-yem-deveyndad [¥10413-43] #10445, Fi pv eNO tat. >. (7.8) -yen” Sev yn d=A [#104-20-44) #10446, Fi uveNO-UA ty atv. >. (ay d)+yeu Sev .ynd=A [#104-28-44] R&W It 4#105. DESCENDING CARDINALS Summary of #105. In this number, we consider cardinals generated by a relation of similarity which goes from a higher to a lower type, ie. given any class of classes x, we consider Ne‘« in the type of members of « (which we shall call N,e‘«) or in some lower type. Thus eg. we shall have Kala. D.ae Nickk, where *Nye‘x” means “classes similar to « but of the next lower type.” Similarly Kaa. Dae Nytr, and so on, We shall have generally BeNefa.=aeNeB, BeNe'a.zaeNx'p, and so on. The chief difference between ascending and descending cardinals is that A is one of the latter, but not one of the former. Otherwise the propositions of the present number are mostly analogous to corresponding propositions of *104, On the analogy of the definitions in ¥104, we put N,C=DNc Df, Boy =smpn tn Dé with similar definitions for N,C and pw. No proposition of the present number is ever referred to in the sequel, and the reader who is not interested in the subject may therefore omit it without detriment to what follows. The principal propositions proved are the following: #10525. +.N.C=N,C-1'A #105251. .N,C=N,C—1tA *105-26. +. Nictfa=A Thus N,C or N,C, in any given type, only differs from N,C in that type by the addition of A. #1053. bi w=Nycfa. Dd. pm =Nyeta 105322. Fi. qq 1 Nycfa. Ds Nicka= NickB. =. Necka=Ncke #10534 FieweNC.q! ug Dt uy =Nicka.=.p=Ncla #10535. bi.meNC.veN,C.d:p=0%.5 #10538. Fe {un} = pie Ma =vSECTION A] DESCENDING CARDINALS 51 #10501. Nicfa=Ne‘anttfa Df We might write Nefa=Neantéa Df, which would be equivalent to the above. But we choose the above form for the sake of uniformity. If s is any suffix, we put, provided t,{a has been de fined Nefa=Ne‘antt,a Df, and if ¢ is any index for which fa has been defined, we put Nicla=Ne‘an tia Df. Thus for the sake of uniformity it is better, in the above definition #10501 to write “t*t,‘a” rather than “t,‘a.” *106-011, N,cfa=Ne‘an ta Df #10502. N,C=D‘N,c Df #105021, N.C =D‘Nic DE #10503, wy =sm“un tip Df #105081. py =sm“pnifu Df #1051. F.Nicfa=Nefanifa [%63°383.(*10501)} #105101. F. Nicfa=Nefant ‘a [#63-41 . (#105-011)) #10511. +: Be Nyc‘a.=.BeNe‘a-Bet“a.=.fsma.Beta.=.Bsma.8 Cha [4105-1 . #100°31 . *63°51] *105°111. F: Be Nycia.=.8eNe‘a. Bet {a.=.8sma.Bet‘a.=.8sma.8 Cha [#105°101 . *100°31 . #63°52] #10512. 1: BeNycia BeNe‘a.aCte.=.Asma.aCtp.=.qeNep [¥105-11 . 63°51. #1041] #105121. +: Be Nika BeNefa.aCB.=.Asma.aCiB.=.aeN'R [4105-111 . 63°52. *104°11] #10513, +. Nyofa=No(t,‘a)a=Ne {(f‘a)e}fa [#102°6 . (#105°01)] #105181. +. Nyo'a= Ne (t)'a)‘a = Ne {(fa)a}‘a_ [#102°6 . (#105°011)] #LOB14. Fraet (8.2. Nyetf =Ne(a)'B=Ne(ap)‘8 Dem. +, #63-22.3+:Hp.>.ta=4°8- (105-1) D.NefB=Ne‘Bntfa qa) F. (1). #1026. D+. Prop #05141. trae t(@.2.Nici8=Ne(a)B=Ne(a)8 [Proof as in #10514] #105142. bs BC ta. D. NyofB=Ne(aXB=Ne(ap)'8 [*105-14. *63°51] #105148. F: 8CH%a.D. NickB =Ne(a)B=Ne(ap)8 [¥105-141 . #63°52] #10515. (qa). w= Nyota [100-22 . 471-41 . (4105'02)] #105151. (qa). w=Nicla +252 #10516. #1056161. CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART TIT F Sep += (Gy) yew damy.detip. (Gy) yeu. dsmy de tify. (Hy) oy ewe Ssmy oy CHS [BTL . x63'51 54] (Gy) «yep. Ssmy Seti. +(dy)-yew-dsmy. det fy. =. (Gy) eye pe Ssmy ey CHB [487-1 4635255] F:Seny = In what follows, propositions concerning N,c or N,C have proofs exactly analogous to those of the corresponding propositions concerning N,c or N,C. #1052, F.Nicfa= Nica Dem. b. #10512 .*1042. Db. ae N,oita. [*108-26} Dh. Nota = Nyetua 105-201. +. Nila = Nyot“eta #10521. +.N,CCN,C [#105:215) wLOB211. +. N,COCN.C 10522. brye NioS.D.NyoS=Necty [¥10326] #105221, bye Nyo'S..NyoS= Nye“y #10523, Fig INicS.D.NeSeNC [105-22] #105281, tq 1Ne‘3.D. Nyce NC #10524. +. N,O-vA CNC [¥105-23] #105241, +. N,C-A CNC ¥10525. +. N,C=N,C~0'A [¥105:21-24 . 4103-23] 105-261. F.N,C=N,C—0A #105252. Dem. *105°26, Dem. 105261. #10527. #105271. *105'28. ¥105-281. #10529. b.NyotB = NuotB F.x1l05111.DbraeN ct 2 sasmeB.aet ep. [m7 3°41.463°64'54] sasmB.aehia. [x105°11] =.aeN,c'8: D4. Prop b.Neta=A F. #105142. 3b. Nycttfa = Ne (a)‘t'a a) F. (1). #10273... Prop FL Nyc8eta = A. [#105:26-252] F.AeN,C [¥105-26] F.AeNC F.NC=NC uta [#105-25-27] F.NC=N,C=N,C vcr F -NCCN,C.NCCN,C [#105:281 . 103-34]SECTION A] DESCENDING CARDINALS 53 #1058. bip=Nyea.d.uq=Niota Dem. F, #1084. (410503). Dbiw=Nefa.D.my=Nefantiy (1) F. #10312. Dkip=Nea.d.aep. [¥63'105] Diaeh{pe [*63°54] D-ffaste (2) F.(1).(2). DerpHNeia.. uy =Nean tia. [105-1] D+ wa) = Niefaz Db. Prop #105301. Fra = Noa. d. wy =Nicfa f #10531. FiweNC.>. pm eC [#105315 . #1032] HOBS1L. F:peNC. «pe e N.C #105312. bi ye Nila. D.aeNievy. Nicty=Nycfa [4105-12 . 4103-26] f b b F #105318. bs yeNiela.D.ae Neo%y. Ney = Nee‘a ¥1O5814. bs Nita =Nyoty.D. Nocfa = Nity [#105:312 . #103'12] #105315. bs Niofa=Nyoty. D. Nycfa= Niowy #105316. Fig tNicfa. Niclas NiciB.D. Nicla= Nie'B Dem. F.#105812. Dr yeNyofa. Nefa=NyeiB.d. Niety= Nicola. Niefy = Noi. [#13171] D.Nota=Nete (1) f.(1).#1011-2333..3 +. Prop #105317, bi qt Nika. Nica=NyciB. 2. Neta=Nyc'B #10532. §: Nicfa=NiciB.d.Nicla= NickB Dem, + .¥103°41.+: Hp. >. No (t,4a)‘a= Ne(t,‘a)'8 @ #10314. 3F:Hp.>.Betia. [63:16:36] D.ta=t'8 (2) F. (1). (2).Dh: Hp. >. Ne (h‘a)fa=Ne (4{8)'8 + [#10513] D.Nycfa= Nyof8 sD +. Prop #105321. bs Nycfa=N 8.3. Nea=NickB #105322. Fr. qQ tNyefa. D: Nicla=Nyc'B .=.Neca=NiciB [410531632] #105398. bi gt Nila. Ds Nicta= Nos. =.Nea= Nets #105324. Fig t yw. D-qte [*37-29. (W105-03)] #105°325. bg! yo.2-qte54 105'326. Dem. 4105327. #10533. Dem. #105'331, #10534, 4105°341. #105'342, Dem. #105343. #105'344, Dem. #105°345. #105°35. Dem. CARDINAL, ARITHMETIC [paRT nr FrweNO. py =Neoty.d.p= Nery F. #10826. DbrHp-aew.d.p=Neota- qa [#105°3] D+ Wy = Nica. (Hp} D.Nica=Ncfy- [4105°314] D.Neota= Nicky. (a) Dd. p=Nety (2) b.(2)- 1011-23-35. Dt: Hp. gq! e.2-n=Nie'y (3) F. (3). #105324. «10313. 3. Prop FtpeNC. pe =Nooty. 3. p= Neety brpeNC.g! ay +H =Nieta.d.p=Nefa f. #10326. Db tye pa) «py = Nya. d.Nyoka= Neo'y. [#105314] >. Nea=Nety (1) fF. (1). #105'326 . > bryepa «wy =Nicla.weNC.d.p=Nela (2) b.(2).#10°11-23'35 . DF. Prop FrpeNC.g! py my = Niele. d.p=Nea be weNC.g! joo)-D2 mq =Niela.s.u=Ncla [#105333] b F tpeNC. gq!) Dime =Nea.s.p=Nema -weNC.>. py eNC 10834. Db: Hp.gqty.d.peNC. [#10531] Ds py NC a b. #105324. 3b: Hp.wgip. dwg! au. [*105-27] D+ Hae NC @) F.(1).(2). DF. Prop FrweNO.>. py eNC brmaNety. Dd. pay =Nooty be 10424. 5b: Hp. d.poNyctty. [¥105'3) D.pway =Nyeklry. [¥105:2] Dy) = Neely: DE. Prop br w=Niety. Dd. py =Necty FpeNC.veNC.:y=09.s.pqev + . #105326 . #104-26 . > brweNC.vaNyoty- py =v. D. m= Nicty. v= Nicty. [#13172] Depa aM + 104-26. Fact. bipeNC.v=Noty. pov .d.p=Nety.v=Ney-SECTION A] DESCENDING CARDINALS BB #105351. #105352. #105°353, #105354, #105°355. 105-356. ¥105°357. #10536. Dem. *105'361. Dem. #105362. #10537, #105371. Dem. [#105344] Ds oy = Necly v= Nyoty. [#13172] D+ Bo = (2) F.(1).(2).Db ss weNC.v=Nely-2:#=v9.5. yen (3) F. (8). 41082. >. Prop nweNC.veNC.d:p=79. Sep =v ne mveNC.gty.dip=v =. pu =v [#10535 . #103'34] b bE bem veNC.q iv. Diya v!. =. jy =v brveNC. qty. >. {v} y =o [*105'352] biveNO.gtv.d. {0%} @ =» brmeNC.g! my > {uu} =~ [#105'352] FrpeNC. qt py. {ual =e bi BeNcla.yeNciB.d.ye Neva F.«10511.3+:Hp.>.8sma.Betia.ysmB.yet'Bs [#78°32.%63-38] D.ysma.yetfa. [¥#105°111] D-veNea: D+. Prop b1BeNcla.yeNofa.d.yeNeB b.410511111.3+:Hp.>.fSsma. Beta. ysma.vet a. [#73°31°32] D.ysmB.Betia.ye tia q) b.n6S54. = Dh Betfa.Dd.h'B=ta (2) F.(1).(2). Dkr Hp.d.ysmB.yetif. [#105-11] D.yeNio(B: D+. Prop br BeNcla.d.NiciB=Niova [¥105:36-361] bi NiciB=Nicfa.d.Nic'B=Nee‘a [4105362 . #10912] brat ie Dat ew F. #63°381 . (#6305) .> brysma.aep.yet{u.d.ysma.aepty=hipe [#73-41.463°64] Di eltysm a. we je belly = tip» [63°57] D.thysma.acp. tity = hip. [+63:103] D.elysm ane pe yeh we [105-16] Die yepw [#1024] D.qlew @ £.(1).«1011-23.> b:(qa).ysma.aepeyetstu. dq! pu @) b.(2). #105161. Db rye mm -D- TlH a @) b.(8).#10°1123. DF. Prop56 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part or #105372. Ft yy) =A.D. py =A [¥105°371. Transp] #10538. +. (uu }u =o Dem. £.#105°16. Db: ye {uw }m «= +(GS)+ Bena «yam Bu yetsB« [#105:16] =.(qa,f)-aep-8sma.Betia,ysmP.yet{8. (1) [473'32.46338] >. (qa).aep.ysma.yetfa (2) F a73-41 . 463°6453:57 . > biaepeysma.yetia. dae pe iy sm ay sm My. ye tiety iy ehfa. (@)] Deve (orton @) (2). (8). DE tye {uu fa = + (Ga) aew.ysma.yet fa. [105-161] =e Hq i Db. Prop #1054. Frye Nycfa. eye Nyofa Dem. f.wlO5+111. «73°41 . #6364. Db: Hp. D.eysma. yet a.yetiity. [¥63°41'38316'55] Doty sma. tifa =t6uly. [463°34] Do Utysma. tty e tifa. [w10511] D.ufyeNicfa: DF. Prop w10541. Fig i Neta.d.qtNieta [4105-4] #10542, Fi Nio@=A.>d.Noa=A [#10541] 10543. Fs jay = Nica. D- wp = Neola Dem. b. 10511. DtrHp.Bepg-d.BeNclanhia. [¥68°54.4100°31'321] D.NeoP=NeMa.hiB=t'a. [#1051101] D.NiciB= Neck q) F. #1053 .¥108-26.b: Hp. Be my 2. Nic'B= (wal [4105-38] =e (2) F.(1).(2). Debt Hp. g! pq + D+ my =Niova (3) 10587242. Dh: Hp. py A.D. pw =A. Nea=A (4) +. (3). (4). Prop #10544. +. Nit a=A Dem. + .#10526. Db. Nitta=A. [4105-42] Dh. Nyct'ta= A.D. Prop#106. CARDINALS OF RELATIONAL TYPES Summary of *106. In this number we have to consider the cardinals whose members are classes of relations which have a given relation of type to some given class. For example, we have | easma, and | 2a has a given relation of type to when @ is given. Thus we want a notation for Nefanté | oa and all the associated ideas. In this number, we shall deal only with relations in which the referent and relatum have a relation, as to type, which can be expressed by the notations of *63, ie. roughly speaking, when, for suitable values of a, m, m, our relations are contained in Ema t ta or tia T tna or Ua T tne OF tm’ Pa. ‘Thus if t,,“a has been defined, we shall put Nucla=Neanttfa Df NwC=DN,,c DE, Eu, =smE ntt,,t— Dé, with analogous definitions for t#’‘a, ¢#‘a and #t,fa. Much the most important case is that of to‘a. For this case we have #1061. +: BeNacta BeNe‘a.Bettnia.=.8sma, Pett (that ta). =.Bsma.BCt(ata) Thus N,,c‘a will be the number of a class of relations whose fields are of the same type as a, provided this class of relations is similar toa. Hg. the number of terms such as x | x, where zea, will be Nucta. We have #10621. bg INucia. Nuciae N.C #106:22. frre Nefa Cnv“rAeNocka #10623. +:BeNiefa.d.N%ca=Nyc8 #10632, br tfa=t'8. >. (Hy 8) ye Nucta-SeNacBiynd=A #106-441-411. bs p= Nola. dD. pio = Nogeta « 2 = NUefa. pay =Nueta #10658. +. No(a)'tafa =A whence it follows that 106-54. . Nic*top'are NC58 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART DIT The propositions of this number, except #106-21, are never referred to again (except in #154'25-251-262, which are themselves never used again), but they have a somewhat greater importance than the propositions of *105, owing to the fact that the arithmetical operations are defined by means of classes of relations, i.e. the sum of two cardinals (for instance) is defined as the cardinal number of a certain class of relations (cf. *110), #10601. Nycta=Ne‘ant'ty'a Df #106011. Neca=Ne‘antta Df 4106-012. Nucla=Ne‘an tifa Df ete. #10602, Nica=Ne‘ant'h"a Dfete. #106021, "Nioa=Ne‘antta Df ete. #10603. N,C=DNuc Df ete. 410604. yy =sm“pat tet Df 106-041. pu! =sm“pntOtsy Df etc. W061. br BeNucla.s.BeNota. fetta. Bama. Bett\(ifa fT tifa). Bema. BCi(ata) [#100-1 . (4106-01 . #64°01). #6411] #106101. Fi BeNucla.=.BeNola. Betta. Bsma. Bett(taf tia). =.@sma.PCt(tat fa) Similar propositions hold for any other double index mn for which ¢™™a has been defined. #0611. b: Be Nuacka BeNea.Bettyfa. Asma. Bett (taf ta). Asma. BCt(t fat ha) Similar propositions hold for any other double suffix mn for which tmn‘a has been defined. #10612, 1: BeNijo'a.=.BeNota.Betthia. Boma. Bett (tla tf). =. Bsma.BCt (état ta) BeNefa.Bettfa. Asma. Bett(tat ta). Bema. BCt (ta f ta) Similar propositions hold for any other index and suffix for which t,"“a or "tafa has been defined, #106138. bi peNyC.=.(qa).p=Necta (10022. #7141] Similar propositions hold for N"C*a ete. #106121. Fs BeINietaSECTION A] CARDINALS OF RELATIONAL TYPES 59 10614. F: Be pu. (qa) cep. Asma. Bett(hn thy), (Ga) acm. sma. Bettye. (qa).aew.8sma.8Ct(ata) [64-33-11] 106141. Bey). =. (qa).aeu. Asma. Petty t hy). -(Ga).aen. Rema. Betta. (qa). ae. Bsma.BCt(at ta) Similar propositions hold for Yo, 4, pn ete. #1062, Fiwetfa.d. J otacNcla. | ofaeNet | oa Dem. £.455°15.36:Relaota.d.DRCa.UR=Ua: [#63105] Dri. wetfa.d:Rel ca. Ig. DRCha.TRCia. moi [435-83] Dp Rta tifa. [*64-16-13] Da. Ret(ata): [422-1] Ds Laac Hata) qa) F.(1). #73611 . #1061. #10312. 3+. Prop #106201. +: Beta. Dd. | BaeNicma 106-202. F: Beta.d.| BMaeNota 106-203. F. | aac Nica [¥106-201] #106204. +. | (uMa)ae Neca [*106-202} #10621. bt Nucta. Nyctae NC [106-2 . #63-18] #UOBLIL. F. Awe NyC. NaC CNC. NyCeCls ex excl [#10621 . #10324] #106212. b. Awe NC. NIC CN,C.NjCeClsextexcl [%106-208] #106-213. b. Awe NYC. NGC CN,C.N,'Ce Cls ex*excl [#106204] #10622. Fire Nie. =.Cav'reNefa Dem. b.a7S-4. Db:Asma.=.Cav“Asma qd) F.x6416. Db ACH(Efa Pia). =: Red. Ip RG haf tar [35°84] edd RE Hat fa: [37-63] eCav"r, 3s. SC ta f afat [*64:16] Cav"rc t(ta tha) (2) F (1). (2). #10612.+. Prop The proof requires, in addition to #10619, its analogue for ‘N,e‘a. Such analogues will be assumed as required. 106-221. bre NJofa. =. Cnvr e*Niofa #106:222. |. A~we!N,C.'N,CCN,C.°N,CeClsexexcl [#1062222]60 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part tT #106223. t. Awe®N,C.*N,C CN,C.2N,C € Cls ex? exel Other propositions of the same kind as the above may be proved by observing that, if m and n are indices for which ¢™a and ta have been defined, we have Cia. BeNmcla. dD. | Bi eNela, of which the proof is direct and simple. Hence, since we always have gq! Nvcfa, we also always have qi Nea, whence NO CN,C.N™C e Cls ex*exel. We have in like manner ai Nymcfa. gq 1™N,cfa. But we do not always have GINancta. or qi N,cfa or qi™N, cha. #106-23. +: BeNica.d.Nica=N,c8 Dem. Fb. 6433 104-1. 463'5.Db: Hp. d. a= to8 F.(1).(#106:01-011) . #100321. DF. Prop #106231. t: BeN,cfa.. Nucta=Nyci8 [Proof as in ¥106-23] ¥106-24. :Nefa=Nct8.d.N%ca=Nyck8 [#10623] #106241, b: Nifa=Nyc'B. 3. Nucla=NacB The analogues of the above propositions for other indices or suffixes are similarly proved. #10625, +. Nc‘a=Nyctta [4106-23 . #1042] #106251. F. Nucla = Nica #10631. b:a,yeha.tia=hiB.cky.>. LoaeNycta.}yBeNucB. Laan la“Bod [m106-2 . 455-233] #106311. Fs. wetfa.tfa=thBia=A.v.f=Ar>d. J aMaeNgota. | oBe Nw!» | oan laBar [#1062 . 455:232 . Transp] #106312. b:tfa=ive.a=B=Ue.d. D u(t T UaeN cian tA t taeNgc'Bt(t fT laar(A Tue)=A lem. b.W7343. Db. (Uw Pur) om fe (A Poe) sm ve. [¥1312] Db: Hp. dia fete)sma.(Afe)smB (1) b.x6416. Db: Hp. Dice f ume tata. AP Uae tyia (2) B. (1). (2). #1061 451-161 . #24°54 . 455-202. DF. PropSECTION A] CARDINALS OF RELATIONAL TYPES 61 #10632. brhfa=tB.>.(qy,d).yeNacta.8eNucBuyndaA Dem. .#10631.3+:.Hp:(qa,y).a,yeta.oty:>. (a7.8) ye Nocta.BeNycB.ynd=A (1) bikS24. Dhin(Ga,y).a,yetfacey.I.tfacluia. [#63°18] D.ffael (2) F (2). #6038 . #63105 45246. DE rw (Ga.y).myetla.cty.qla.qiA.d. a=P=tia.tiael. [#106-312] D(a 8) ye Nyce. deNuctBoynd=A (3) . #106311 .463:18 > be. Hpin(q ta. gt §):>. (ay 8) -yeNyca-SeNuB.yad=A (4) F.(1).(8).(4). DF. Prop #1064, br y= Neca. D. poo = Notte Dem. F. #10614. 3h:: Hp. ds Be poe [643] (ay)-1e Nota. B amy. Betty : (ay) ve Necta. Bomy: Betta [#102'84] Bama. Bet taat [«106-1] = Be Neat: DF. Prop #106401. Fs = Nila. D. pig = NM cla Dem. F.410424.4106-4. Db: Hp. D. poy = Neola (106-25) = Nea: DF. Prop #106402. Fi =Noofaeqtw.>+ pu = Nuc’ Dem. +. #106231 . DrHp.Bep.d.Nyca=Noe's [#106-4.%*103-26] = Haw a) F. (1) .#1011-23-35. Db: Hp. gt wed. way =Nucla: DF. Prop #10641. Fi p=Nicfa. dD. pl = NXla Dem. 63°54 . (#106-041). #10327. > birHp.d:. Bem. =:(qy). yeNea.AsmytBett™hiat [#102'84.#64°32] Asma. Betta: [(*106-011)] BeN*cfar: D+. Prop #106411. bs p= Nica. >. nn =Nucta [Proof as in *106-41] #10648. br y,veN.C.ty=ty. >. (ay, 8)-7€ Mon SEV -y~adHA Dem. +. 4103-2. 5+:Hp.>.(qa,8)-4=Nefa.v=NeB. {*106-4] Ds (qa, B) + Boo = Noe! « Pa = NaetB + [¥106'32] D(a, 8) «17 € Men SEY —) yA 8=At Db. Prop #10644. bipjveNC.tu=tv.2.(qy,d)yem-dev.ynd=A [#10632]62 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [Part TIT ‘The following propositions are analogous to *102°71 ff,, and similar remarks apply to them. #1065. +: ReCls31.D‘RCa. A‘ RCRM(ata). Wa 29 {a,yea.ve (Ray) .d. WreGR. WEata Dem. ley z beahT3. Dba Hp. diayea. InyroWy cal (Re) yt [¥5-18] Dnyt~(eWy.=.2(Rix)y} s [*10-1] Dewees Der (eWe. 2. a(x) a}. [421-43. Transp] >, -W+ Re: [Hp] D:.weD'R.2,.W4 Ries. [471-411.Transp] 32.W~eQ'R a F. 42183. (435-04). 2+: Hp.d.W Gata Q) F.(1).(2). +. Prop #10651. £:8Ca.d.~[8sm Ri(a fT a)} Dem. b.el065. Db: Hp.Rel1.D'R=8.0RCRMata).>. (qW).WeRiM(ata). WredR. [#19-14] >.GR+ RMafa) @ £.(1).#22-41. bi. Hp.d:Rel—+1.D'R=8.3_.CRERMata): [#10°51.473-1) Din{8sm Bah a)} DF. Prop #10652, bi BCtfa.d.BreNetyfa Dem. b.#106°51.3b: Hp. >.~{8sm Bitlet fa} « [#6454] D.~{8 sm tala} « [*100-1] D. Bre Ne“ty'a: Db. Prop 410653. F.Ne(a)%tfa= A [¥106-52. ¥102°6 . ¥63°371] #10654. +. Nyc'tofare NaC Dem. +. #10033 . #10315. 3 bi NuctB=Necfefa. D. 8 sin byt ay £. #10312 . (#106:01).> Fr NyefB = Neetts(at « D « tye tty’ B « [#63-16.(x6401)] —-D. Ht(éakaf fla) =tE(R TB) « [#63391] D.t(tofa T tof) = E(t F 468)» [*64'3.(*64-01)] D.ta=t68. [*63-105] 2. BC tifa (2) £.).@). Db: NucB=Nic'tafa.D-BeNetaa.BChia (8) fF. (8). Transp . #10652. D+ .(8). Nucl@ + Nocitea!a « (106-13. Transp] DEN etufaveN,C. Dt. Prop #10655. F.gINC-N,C [#10654]SECTION B ADDITION, MULTIPLICATION AND EXPONENTIATION Summary of Section B. In the present section, we have to consider the arithmetical operations as applied to cardinals, as well as the relation of greater and less between cardinals. Thus the topics to be dealt with in this section are the first that can properly be said to belong to Arithmetic. The treatment of addition, multiplication and exponentiation to be given in what follows is guided by the desire to secure the greatest possible generality. In the first place, everything to be said generally about the arithmetical operations must apply equally to finite and infinite classes or cardinals. In the second place, we desire such definitions as shall allow the number of summands in a sum or of factors in a product to be infinite, In the third place, we wish to be able to add or multiply two numbers which are not necessarily of the same type. In the fourth place, we wish our definitions to be such that the sum of the cardinal numbers of two or more classes shall depend only upon the cardinal numbers of those classes, and shall be the same when the classes overlap as when they are mutually exclusive; with similar conditions for the product. The desire to obtain definitions fulfilling all these conditions leads to somewhat more complicated definitions than would other- wise be required; but in the outcome, the result is simpler than if we started with simpler definitions, since we avoid vexatious exceptions. The above observations will become clearer through their applications. Let us begin with the case of arithmetical addition of two classes. If a and @ are mutually exclusive classes, the sum of their cardinal numbers will be the cardinal number of av. But in order that a and 8 may be mutually exclusive, they must have no common members, and this is only significant when they are of the same type. Hence, given two perfectly general classes a and 8, we require to find two classes which are mutually exclusive and are respectively similar to a and 8; if these two classes are called a’ and A’, then Ne“(a’ v #’) will be the sum of the cardinal numbers of aand 8. We note that Aaaand An indicate respectively the A’s of the same types as @ and 8, and accordingly we take as a and @’ the two classes 4 (Aa B)feKa and (Ana) | eB; these two classes are always of the same type, always mutually exclusive, and always similar to a and @ respectively. Hence we define at B=L(An Byiav(Ana |g Dt64 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [Part IIT The som of the cardinal numbers of a and Q will then be the cardinal number of a+; hence we may call a+8 the arithmetical class-sum of two classes, in contradistinction to au @, which is the logical sum. It will be noted that a+, unlike au 8, does not require that a and 8 should be of the same type. Also a+a is not identical with a, but when a= A, a+ais also A, though in a different type. Thus the law of tautology does not hold of the arithmetical class-sum of two classes. If wand » are two cardinals of assigned types, we denote their arithmetical sum by +a. (As many kinds of arithmetical addition occur in our work, and as it is essential to our purpose to distinguish them, we effect the dis- tinction by suffixes to the sign of addition. It is, of course, only in dealing with principles that these different symbols are needed: we do not wish to suggest that they should be adopted in ordinary mathematics.) Now if y+.» is to have the properties which we commonly associate with the sum of two cardinals, it must be typically ambiguous, and must be the cardinal number of any class which can be divided into two mutually exclusive parts having terms and » terms respectively. Hence we are led to the following definition : pov =F {(qa,8).w=Neta.v=NeoB.£sm(a+8)} De In this definition, various points should be noted. In the first place, it doos not require that p and v should be of the same type; w+. is significant whenever yz and » are classes of classes. ‘Thus it is not necessary for signifi- cance that and v should be cardinals, though if they are not both cardinals, p+ v=A. If they are both cardinals, we find ptov=F (qa 8). cep. Bev. £sm(atA)}. Thus in this case ae. Bev. d.at+feptor Hence if neithe: nor » is null, and if @ has u terms and 8 has » terms, a+ isa member of p+,v. It easily follows that bip=Neta.v=Nyc8.d.ptov=Ne(a+ A). Hence when wand pare homogeneous cardinals (i.e. when they are cardinals other than A), their sum is the number of the arithmetical class-sum of any two classes having y terms and py terms respectively. A few words are necessary to explain why, in the definition, we put w=Nyca.v=Nic'@ rather than p=Ne‘a.»=NeB. The reason is this. Suppose either w or v, say w, is A. Then, by #102°73, « =Ne(£)‘t*s, if ¢ is of the appropriate type. Hence if we had put we +ov= 2 (qa, 8).p=Nefa.v=Netg.fsm(a+Q)} Dé where the ambiguities of type involved in Ne‘a and Ne‘ may be determined as we please, we should have v=NcB.d.tS+Bepter, te. v=Netg.d.th+ BeAtov.SECTION B] ADDITION, MULTIPLICATION AND EXPONENTIATION 65 We should also have t¢f4+@eA-+,v and so on. Thus A+,» would not have a definite value, ie, it would not merely have typical ambiguity, which it ought to have, but it would not have a definite value even when its type was assigned. Thus such a definition would be unsuitable. For the above reasons, we put p= Nycfa.y=N,e'f in the definition, and obtain the typical ambiguity which we desire by means of the typical ambiguity of the “sm” in “Esm(a+@).” It is always essential to right symbolism that the values of typically ambiguous symbols should be unique as soon as their type is assigned. The scope of these definitions and of the corresponding definitions for multiplication and exponentiation (#113:04'05 . *116-03°04) is extended by convention II T of the prefatory statement. The above definition of y+,v is designed for the case in which » and v are typically definite. But we must be able to speak of “ Ne“y +, Ne,” and this must be a definite cardinal, namely Ney +8). If we simply write Ne‘y, Ne‘ in place of yz, v in the definition of p+, », we find Nety +, No‘ = ((qa, 8). Ne‘y = Nyc‘a. NoS = Nye‘B . Esm (a+ f)}. But this will not always have a definite value when the type of Ne‘y +, NeS is assigned. To take a simple case, write ¢*{ for y and ty for &. Then Nott +, Note'y =F {(qqa, 8) Nett =Nyota. Ne‘t'y =Nyo'B. Esm (at B)I, whence we easily obtain Net*E-+, Netty =F \(qa). Nett =Nyo'a. Esm(a+U'y)}. If we determine the ambiguity of No‘t‘t to be N,o‘t*¢, we find No‘t'€+,Nety=A in all types; but if we determine the ambiguity to be Nyc't't, we have Net'E +, Ne‘u'y =Ne“(t'E-+e'y), and this exists in the type of t+ ty, if not in lower types. Hence the value of Net*£-+, Ne‘e‘y depends upon the determination of the ambiguity of Ne*t. It is obvious that we want our definition to yield Ne‘y +,Ne‘d=Ne“(y +8) in all types; but in order to insure that this shall hold even when, for some values of ¢, No(f)‘y=.A, we must introduce two new definitions, namely Ne‘a+,u¢=N,cfa+.u Df, pt Nea=p+,Neca Df, whence br Ne‘a+,Ne‘B = Nota +, No = Nea +8). This definition is to be applied when “Ney” and “No‘8” occur without any determination of type. On the other hand, if we have Ne ({)fy and Ne(n)‘8, we apply the definition of 4+,. We shall find that whenever Ne(£)‘y and Ne (n)‘8 both exist, Ne (f)¢y +4 No(n)'B = Noo'y +. Nee’S. Thus the above definition is only required in order to exclude values of £ or 7 for which either Ne (f)'y or Ne (n)*8 is A. R&W IL 566 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [paRT I The commutative and associative laws of arithmetical addition are easily deduced from the definition of a+ 8. We shall have + .a+ @=Cav“(8 +a), whence +. Ne‘a+, Ne‘6 = Ne +, Ne‘a, because each = Ne(a+). A similar though slightly longer proof shows that F.@@+A)+ysma+(8+y), whence fF. (Ne‘a-ty Ne‘) +5 Ne‘y = Ne“a +, (Ne‘B +, Ne‘y). The above definition of a+ enables us to proceed to the sum of any finite number of classes, and allows any one class to recur in the summation. But it does not enable us to define the sum of an infinite number of classes. For this we need a new definition. Since an infinite number of classes cannot be given by enumeration, but only by intension, we shall have to take a class of classes «, and define the arithmetical sum of the members of «. Thus now the classes which are the summands must all be of the same type (since they are all nembers of «), and no one class can occur more than once, since each member of « only counts once. (In order to deal with repetition, we must advance to multiplication, which will be explained shortly.) Thus in removing the limitation to a finite number of summands, we introduce certain other limitations. This is the reason which makes it worth while to introduce the above definition of a+ in addition to the definition now to be given. If e is a class of classes, the sum of the cardinal numbers of the members of « will evidently be obtained by constructing a class of mutually exclusive classes whose members have a one-one relation to the members of corresponding members of x. Suppose a, are two different members of «, and suppose « is a member both of a and of 8. Then we wish to count « twice over, once as a member of «and once as a member of 8. The simplest way to do this is to form the ordinal couples # | a and «| 8, which are not identical except when and f are identical. Thus if we take all such ordinal couples, i. if we take the class : Riqz).cea.R=0 fal, for every a which is a member of «, we get a class of mutually exclusive classes, namely the classes of the form | a‘‘a, where ae, and each of these is similar to the corresponding member of «. Hence the logical sum of this class of classes, i.¢, Ri(qa,2).aex.vea.R=e ha}, has the required number of terms. Now, by *85°601, fata=e Jia, Hence the class whose logical sum we are taking is e]‘«. Hence we put Lease] De Se may be called the arithmetical sum of «, in contradistinetion to s‘«, which is the logical sum. Thus =*« bears to s‘« a relation analogous to that which a+ f bears to av B.SECTION B] ADDITION, MULTIPLICATION AND EXPONENTIATION 67 We put further INete=No's'e]“e Df. Thus =Ne‘e is the sum of the numbers of members of x. It is to be observed that ENe‘x is not in general a function of Nex. For, if two members of « have the same cardinal number, this will only count once in Nee, whereas it counts twice in Ne“. We shall find that, provided a+ 8, ENot(e'a v us) = Neva +, Notp. Thus where a finite number of summands are concerned, the two definitions of addition agree, except that the first allows one class to count several times over, while the second does not. In dealing with multiplication, our procedure is closely analogous to the procedure for addition. We first define the arithmetical class-product of two classes « and 8, which is a certain class whose cardinal number is the product of the cardinal numbers of a and @. We write @xa for the arithmetical class-product of @ and a, and define it as the class of all ordinal couples of which the referent is a member of « and the relatum a member of 8, i. as Ricqe.y).ceayeR. R=aly}. By «4077, this class is ofa “8. Hence we put Bxansale De The class a J «8 is similar to @, and each member of it is similar to a; hence if Nefa=p and Ne'P =>, sa] “B consists of » classes having » members each. The class a“ is important: also in connection with exponentiation, The product of two cardinals is defined as follows: 1x9 E (Ga, B). p= Nota. v=NotB.£sm(ax 8)} Df In regard to types, this definition calls for analogous remarks to those which were made on p+, Also, as before, we need definitions of wx,Ne‘a and Ne‘a x, 2, whence we obtain Ne‘ax,Ne‘@=NocfaxyNyoi8 Df. By means of these definitions, we can define the product of any finite number of cardinals; but in order to define products which have an infinite number of factors, we need a new definition, Tf x is a class of classes, we take es‘ as its arithmetical product. In simple cases, it: is easy to see the justification of this decision. E.g. let « consist of the three classes a,, a, a, and let the members of @ be «,,24; those of as, ¥:, 25 those of a, 2, 4. Then the members of es‘ are abaopdars| a, Hlavy laura a, a bavplouadla, Miaopdavadas,68 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PaRT rr with four more obtained by substituting 2 for 2, in the above. Thus No‘es‘« = 8 = Ne‘a, x, Ne‘a, x, Ne‘as. In general, however, the existence of este is doubtful, owing to the doubt as to the validity of the multiplicative axiom. (We shall return to this point shortly.) Hence there is no proof that the product of an infinite number of factors cannot be zero unless one of the factors is zero. When « is a class of mutually exclusive classes, e,‘« is similar to D‘‘es‘«. On account of its lower type, D“ea‘« is often more convenient than esf«. Hence we put Prod‘« = D‘‘ea‘e Df, or (what comes to the same thing) Prod=D,|es DE For the product of the cardinal numbers of the members of «, we pnt TINe‘«=Ne‘es‘e Df. As in the case of &Ne‘«, IINe‘« is not in general a function of Ne“«. We shall have FratQ.D.TINe(uav iQ) =Ne‘ax, NeB. Thus for products of a finite number of different factors, the two definitions of multiplication agree. It remains to define exponentiation. Since this is not a commutative operation, it essentially involves an order as between the base and the expo- nent; hence we do not obtain a definition of the exponentiation of a class «, analogous to ENo‘« or IINe‘«, but only a definition of w’,which may be extended to any finite number of exponentiations. We put aexph=Prod'al“@ Df, where a “8 has the meaning explained above, resulting from #3803. It will be observed that, if Nyfa=p and Nef =», af “2 is a class of » mutually exclusive classes each of which has w terms; hence a exp @ may suitably be used to define y’. Hence we put w= E(u 8) w= Noa. v=NeoB. sm (aexpA)} Df, and for the same reasons as before, we put: (Netay=(Nyetay Df and pXe#= Ne De. The above definition of exponentiation gives the same value of y? as results from Cantor's definition by means of “Belegungen.” The class of Cantor's “Belegungen” is : RiRe1 Os. DRCa. R= 4}, Seca (@TB)s‘B, and it is easily proved that this is similar to aexp 8. The usual formal properties of exponentiation result without much difficulty from the above definitions,SECTION B] ADDITION, MULTIPLICATION AND EXPONENTIATION 69 The above definition of exponentiation is so framed as to make proposi- tions on exponentiation independent of the multiplicative axiom, except when exponentiation is to be connected with multiplication, i. when it is to be shown that the product of p factors, each of which is p, is yr. This proposition cannot be proved generally without the multiplicative axiom. Similarly, in the theory of multiplication, the proposition that the sum of » p's is xq» requires the multiplicative axiom (as does also the proposition that a product is zero when and only when one of its factors is zero). Other- wise; the theory of multiplication proceeds without, the need for employing the multiplicative axiom. To take first the connection of addition and multiplication: this connec- tion, in the form in which we naturally suppose it to hold, is affirmed in the proposition: wy veNC. «evn Clsexcl(p.d. seem Xv (A) or pyveNC. neva Cl.d. 2K epxyr. We will take the first of these as being simpler. It affirms that the sum of » y's is pxqv. This can be proved when » is : finite, whether « is finite or not; but when v aan is infinite, it cannot be proved without the multiplicative axiom. This may be seen as ; follows. We know that ry aang oy FipveNC.aep.Bev.>. al “BevnClsexclty.sal “Benx,y (B). Se - - + de Thus (A) above will result if we can prove ke, Xeva Clsexcly.d. seams, since we shall put a“ for Nand use(B). {|---| a, $ Since «rev, we have «sm. Assume Sel+1.DS=x.0'S=n. os Let x, #,... be members of «, and let %4, Rese be the members of X which are correlated with fu tay oo by 8, 18. n= Sq a= Sg ete, We ae have, since «,r¢Cl yz, «,sm Ay. e,8m Ay. ete, : Thus aS. 2,,6.asm f, ie, SGsm. If « and 2 are finite, we can pick out arbitrarily a correlation §, for x, and 24, another S, for «,and A,,and so on; then S,wS,w ... correlates s‘« and s‘A, and therefore s‘csm s‘\. But when « and > are infinite, this method is impracticable. In this case, we proceed as follows: e « By #7301, aM P=(1slyaDaade De Thus “aama” will stand for all the permutations of a class into itself; “qam 8” stands for all the permutations of a into 8, ie. all the 1+ 1’s whose70 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part Or domain is a and whose converse domain is 8. It is obvious that FigtaamBnyais.d.a=7.B=8 In the case of the « and 2 above, we know that asm 8 when aS; thus den. Da G!a 5 (Sa) or Ber.2s-q!(S*8) HB. Put Crp ($8 = (SB) SHB DE, where “Crp” stands for “correspondence.” Thus Crp (8)‘ is the class of all correspondences of S88 and 8; Crp(S)"A is the class of all such classes of correspondences. If we extract one member out of each of these classes of correspondences, we get a class of relations whose sum is a correlator of s‘« and s‘A; i.e. ewe D'eaCrp (S)“X.D . Sor € (5x) ST (s°A). Thus the desired result follows whenever atesCrp (S). Now we have Sel—+1.8@sm..Crp(S)d¢ Cis ex? excl, Consequently Multax.3:Sel141.S8€sm.D‘S=x«.0‘S=2.«,r€Cls*excl. D.sfesm sh, whence, by what was said previously, Maltax.>:«evn Clsexclp. 2. seep Xov- ENe‘K =p Xp. The consideration of ea‘Crp (9) leads similarly to the proposition bi. Multax.3:p,veNC.cevaCly..eafwepn”. TNee= pr. The proof is closely analogous to that for the connection of addition and multiplication. It will be seen that, in the above use of the multiplicative axiom, we have two classes of classes « and ) concerning which we assume (qS).Sel71.S€sm.D‘S=x.0‘S=n, ie. we assume that « and ) are similar classes of similar classes. A slightly modified hypothesis concerning « and will enable us to obtain many results, without the multiplicative axiom, which otherwise might be expected to require this axiom. This is effected as follows. (qT). Tell. OTasr.0= Thar, where “sm sm” is a single symbol representing a relation. When this relation holds between « and 2, we shall say that « and \ have “double similarity.” In this case, 7 correlates s‘« and s‘A, while 7 correlates x and 2, so that if @ is a member of A, Te‘, i.e. TB, is its correlate in «. ‘We shall then have tixsmsmd.2. se sms, smsm2.3.XNe‘e==Ner, resmsm2d.2.TINe‘« = TINe‘d. Put «smsmSECTION B] ADDITION, MULTIPLICATION AND EXPONENTIATION 1 Also we have bresmemd,.D.(qS). Sell. SEsm.DS =". US=r. Conversely, bre, Xe Clsexel. Sel+1.9€sm.D‘San.0S=r. we De eg'Crp (SX. P= had. TelLol.OTasr.4= Ter, whence bs: Multax. D+. «,¢Clstexcl : (qS).Sel+1.8@sm.DS=ae.US=r: >.«smsmX. Hence the multiplicative axiom is only required in order to pass from (qS).Sel1+1.8Gsm.D'S=«.09=2 to esmsma. It is this fact, and the consequent possibility of diminishing the use of the multiplicative axiom, which has led us to the employment of “sm sm” in the present section. We treat also, in this section, the relation of greater and less between cardinals, We say that Ne‘a>Ne‘@ when there is a part of a which is similar to 8, but no part of 8 is similar to a. The principal proposition in this subject is the Schréder-Bernstein theorem, i. bipDvivDy.d.pay. This is an immediate consequence of *7388. It cannot be shown, without assuming the multiplicative axiom, that of any two cardinals one must be the greater, ie. pveNC.pty.Iip>v.viev>p If we assume the multiplicative axiom, this results from Zermelo’s proof that on that assumption, every class can be well-ordered, together with Cantor's proof that of any two well-ordered series which are not similar, one must be similar to a part of the other. But these propositions cannot be proved till a much later stage (#258).#110. THE ARITHMETICAL SUM OF TWO CLASSES AND OF TWO CARDINALS Summary of #110. In this number, we start from the definition: #11001. a+ R=] (Anpyau(Ana | “ep De a+ is called the “arithmetical class-sum” of a and 8. The definition is framed so as to give twe mutually exclusive classes respectively similar to a and 8, so that the number of terms in the logical sum of these two classes is the arithmetical sum of the numbers of terms in a and @ respectively. a+ 8 is significant whenever a and f are classes, whatever their types may be. By means of a+, we define the arithmetical sum of two cardinals as follows: #11002, pt .v=2 (qa, 8). p=Neta.v=NeB.£sm(a+8)} Df This defines the “ arithmetical sum of two cardinals.” (It is not necessary to significance that 4 and v should be cardinals, but only that they should be classes of classes. lf, however, either is not a cardinal, w+,y=A.) It will be observed that, when mu and » are typically definite, so are a and @ in the above definition; but £ is typically ambiguous, on account of the ambiguity of “sm.” Hence p+,» is also typically ambiguous, It will be shown that +,» is always a cardinal, and that, if n=Noefa.v=Nec, then p+,» =Ne(a+ A). Hence whenever and y are cardinals other than A, j-+y is an existent cardinal in some types, though it may be A in others. Two more definitions are required in this number, namely: #110038, Nea+,p=Nicca+.n Df #11004. w+,Ne‘a="+,Ncka Df These definitions are needed in order to apply the definition of w+,» to the case in which p and y are replaced by typically ambiguous symbols Ne‘a and Ne‘f. It does not make any difference to the value of Ne‘a+,Ne‘8 how the ambiguities of Ne‘a and Ne‘@ are determined, so long as they are determined in a way that insures q!No‘a.gq!Ne‘@; but if there are types in which either No‘a or Ne‘@ is A, we get Ne‘a+,Ne‘@=A in all types if we determine the ambiguities so that Ne‘a=A or Ne‘@=A. It is in order to exclude such determinations of the ambiguity that the above definitions are required. Also in connection with these definitions and the corresponding definitions #113-04-05 and *116-03-04 and *117-02-03, the convention ITT of the prefatory statement must be noted.SECTION B] ARITHMETICAL SUM OF TWO CLASSES AND TWO CARDINALS vB) ‘The propositions of the present number begin with the properties of a +8. We show (#110‘11°12) that a+ consists of two mutually exclusive parts, which are respectively similar to a and 8; we show (*110°14) that if a and 8 are mutually exclusive, au 8 is similar to a+, and (#110°15) that if y and 8 are respectively similar to a and 8, then y+8 is similar to a+. We show (#11016) that No‘(a+ 8) consists of all classes which can be divided into two mutually exclusive parts which are respectively similar to # and 2. We then proceed (#1102252) to the consideration of 1 +,». Here # and y are typically definite, and the definition #11002 applies to any typically definite symbols, such as Nyefa or Ne (n)‘a. We prove (#110'21) that if u and » are cardinals, their sum consists of all classes similar to some class of the form a+, where den. Bev; we prove (110-22) that the sum of Nycfa and Nyc‘ is Ne“(a+Q), and (#110-25) that if w and y are cardinals, their sum is equal to the sum of the “same” cardinals in any other types in which they are not null, i. #11025. bipveNC.q!sm,“p. gq tome. .y+.y=sm,“n+.smev We then (#110:3—-351) consider Ne‘a +,Ne‘, to which we apply the definitions #1100304. We have #1103. F Nota +,NetB = Nyofa +, Noo'8 = No"(a+ 8) whence the other properties of Ne‘a +, Ne‘ follow from previous propositions. We then have (#110-4—-44) various propositions on the type of w+. and its existence and kindred matters. The chief of these are #1104 bight y.2.pveNC-A.p,veNC #11042, Feu tpveNC This proposition requires no hypothesis, because, if w and » are not both cardinals, z+,»=A, and A is a cardinal, by #102°74. Our next set of propositions (#110°5—'57) are concerned with the permu- tative and associative laws, which are ¥110°51 and ¥110-56 respectively. We then (#110:6—-643) consider the addition of 0 or 1, proving (#110°61) that a cardinal is unchanged by the addition of 0, and (#110°648) that 1 +41 = 2. #11001. «+ B=] (An pyiau(Ana) | “8 Df #11002. wtav =F {(qa,8)«p=Nela.v=Neie-sm(a+f)} Df #11008, Ne‘a+,p=Nietaten De ¥11004. w+,Nefa=p+,Nocfa DE These definitions are extended by IIT of the prefatory statement. w1101. fr, Reatf.=: (qe). ea. R= (0) (AnB).v. (ay)-yeR. R=(Ana) | Uy) [¥38-13-131 . (#110-01)]4 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part 111 4110101. F. (12) | (An 8)4 (Ana) |} (Uy) Dem. b.a5515. Dh. D(a) | (An B) =e. D(Ana) | (uty)=(Ana) (1) F.x51161. 3+ t+ (Ana). [¥5123]) 9 Dh. ue 0 Ana) (2) F.(1)+ (2). Db. Duta) | (An B)+D(Ana) | (ify). DF. Prop w1101L Fed (Ang) an(Ana) “Baa Dem. b.m110101. DF rwea.R=| (An B)Ue.yeB.S=(Ana)] U'y.d.R$S: [¥87°67] Ds Re | (An Aya. Se(Ana) | "B.2. R48 qd) b.(1).#2487.94. Prop #11012. +.) (An 8) easma. (Ana) | ““Bsm 8 [#73-41°61-611] #110°11-12 give the justification for the use of a+ in defining arith- metical addition, since they show that a+ consists of two mutually exclusive parts which are respectively similar to a and 8. #11013. Fiysma.dsm8.yad=A.3.yudsm(a+ R) Dem. b.#11012.: Hp. D.ysm | (An Bia. 88m (Ana), “8 qa b. (1). #11011 .#73°71. +. Prop #11014. biran@=A.Dd.auQsm(a+A) [¥11013. #733] Thus whenever a and are mutually exclusive, their logical sum may replace their arithmetical sum in defining the sum of their cardinal numbers. 411015. Frysma.dsmQ.>.y+Ssma+8 Dem. #11012. Fr Hp.d. | (And) utysm a. (Any) | “088m B a) bemLLOL DE. | (An 8) y a (A ny) | SHA (2) +. (1). (2). #11013. 3 brHp.d. 4 (An dyeetyu (Ang) ] “Ssma+6i Db. Prop 110-151, H:.an@=A.D2£sm(avg).=.(qy,).ysma.dsmB.yad=A.E=y vd Dem. b.x7871.2bsHp.d: (ay, 5)-ysma.dsmB.ynS=A.E=yud..ésm(av8) (1) b #72411 . 487°25-22 . «73-22. biSel1.DS=£.0'S-auf.anB=A.d. San S“B=A.£=StauS“R. SMasma. S“Bom B. [*11°36] >. (qy,8).ysma.8smBiynb=A.E=yud (2) + (2) «1011-23-35 .473-1.D Fs. Hp. 3: £sm(auR).>.(gy,8).ysma.dsmB.ynd=A.E=yud (3) F.(1).(8)-DF. PropSECTION B] ARITHMETICAL SUM OF TWO CLASSES AND TWO CARDINALS 5 #110152, bs sm (a+ 6). =. (qy,d)-ysma.dsmB.ynd=A.E=yvd Dem. b.¥110151-11.3 FrEsm(a+8). =.(qy,8)-ysm | (An A) Ua. Sam (Ana) | “Kg, yodaA.E=yud. [¥73°37 -€11012] =. (qy, 8). ysma. dem B.ynd=A.£=7 8:94. Prop #11016, +. No“(a+A)=F {(qy,8).ysma.dsmB.yad=A.E=y ud} [#110152 . #100-1] #11017. Fr aetB.d.qtNo(t%a)(a+8) Dem. F. «10443. bi Hp.>.(qy,8)-ysma.yCta.Ssm8.8Cta.ynd=A. [#2259] D.(qyd)-ysma,dsmh.ynd=A.yvdCta. [#11016] D. (qe). EC ta. Ee No(atf)- [102°6.%63°5] D.q 1 Ne (t'a)(a+ 8): Db. Prop Thus when a and @ are of the same type, Ne‘(a + 8) exists at least in the type next above that of a and 8. We cannot prove that it exists in the type of aand 8. Eg. suppose the lowest type contained only one member; then if « were that one member, Ne'(‘e + ¢&«) would not exist in the type to which te belongs; but would exist in the next type, £@ there would not be two individuals, but there would be two classes, namely A and t‘«, so that UA vu Uutce Ne“(ta + Ua), ¥11018. bia + Betta t HB) Dem. b.x6453. DErwea.d. | (An p)uwet(tattB) a) .(1). #8761. F. | (An py eta Cita t8) (2) Similarly b.(Ana)] 8 Ce(tat fp) (3) F.(2).(3). Dk. + BC e(ta FHA). [¥63'5] Dh.at Pett(ta pts). It. Prop #1102. br fewt.v.=. (qa). w= Neta.v= Nota. £sm (a+) [(#110°02)] #110201. Fi. £eutay.=:y,veNC: (qa, A). aem. Bev. Esm (a+) [¥103-27 . #1102] #110202. bi. Feptyy. et Alpe gly: (ay, 8). = Nety.v=NeS.ynd=A.E=yud Dem. b.1102152. 3b: Eeptyy. st (a, B, 7,8). p=Ne@.v=NeB.ysma.damB.ynd=A.-ayvd: [108-28] =: (qy,8).qt a. givens Noty.v=NeS.ynd=A.Eayuds DF. Prop76 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part nT W021. Ft pveNC.D:fewty-=-(daA)-aen. Bev. Esm(a+A) [*110201] 110-211. Ft. y,veNC.D:kewter-=+ (qy,8).yesm“p. Sesmv.ynd=A.Esyud Dem. b, #11021152. 3b. Hp. Dds Fewtyve = (aa, By, 8).aep.Bev.ysma.dsmB.ynd=A.f=yvud. [¥871] =. (qy, 8). yesmp.Sesmy .ynd=A.Fayud:. IF. Prop #110212. bs p,veNC.D:£emtev. =. (ay) yesm“p.y CE. E—yesm'y Dem. F. #110211 . 24°47. bi Hp. D:£ep+ev.=.(qyd).yesm™p.desm“y.yC£.8=E-y. [#13195] (Gy) yesm“poy CE. E—yesm*y 3.3. Prop #11022. .Nicfa +, NctB = Ne“(a + 8) Dem. F.#103-4. #110211. 5 br €eNclat,Noi8 (a7,8) ye Nota. 8eNeB.ynd=A.E=yud. [*100°31] (q7,8)-ysma.3smR.ynb=A.f=yud. [#11016] EeNo(a+@):D+.Prop #110221. +: £e No(n)'a+,Ne(t)(8.5 .q!Ne(n)‘a. ql No(t)'B. EeNo(a+8) Dem, + #110202. Fz. Fe No(n)'a +,No(t)'R- AE Ne (na. gt Ne (0B + (ary, 8) « No (n)'a= Ney. Ne({)P=NeS.ynd=A.E=yud: [¥100°35) =:q!Ne(n)‘a.q! Ne(£)‘8:(ay,8).ysm a.dsm .ynd=A.E=yud: [¥110-16] =: ! Ne(n)‘a. qt Ne (LB. Ee No(a +8) t. Dt. Prop #11028. big! Ne(n)‘a.gtNe(ty8.>. Ne(n)fa +, Ne(g)B= Ne(a+ A)=Nectat, Nec’ [*110-221-22] Thus No(q)‘a+,Ne({) is independent of » and £ so long as Ne‘a and Ne‘ exist in the types of 7 and £ respectively. *110231. F:. Ne(n)a=A.v.Ne(6\8=A:3.Ne(n)fat+,Ne(\B=A [¥110-221] #11024. Finsma.fsm 8.>. Nyon +, Nett = Nicat,NecB Dem. F.¥10842. Db: Hp. d.Nye'y = No(n)'a. Not No (EB qa) F. (1). #10813.3+:Hp.d.qtNe(n)a.q!Ne (Qe. [110-28] D.Ne(n)a +o Ne (6)'8 = Nickat+.Nc8 Q) F.(1).(2). DF. PropSECTION B] ARITHMETICAL SUM OF TWO CLASSES AND TWO CARDINALS 17 #11025, Fr yveNC. gq tom“. g lam“. 2.p+.y=sm,y +,amey Dem. #10827. 2b:mveNC.aen. Ber qism,“p. ism, D.p=Niefa.v=Nc8.qism,“u. Ti smey, [#103-41.#102'85] 9, w= Nye“. v= Nic'8 «sm, “w= Ne(n)a. smg‘v = Ne (£)‘8.q 1 Ne(n)a.q I Ne(fB. [#11023] D.wtey= Neat, Noch =sm,“u+,sme qa F. (1). #1011-28'35 «> tiwveNO.qla.g!y.qilem,“p.qismye).D.y+.y=sm,“p+smy (2) b.437-29, Transp. DF: gq tsm,“u.qlsmev.>.qla. aly (3) F.(2).(8). DF. Prop #110251. Fi yw,veNC.3.u% 4,09 =ptor Dem. +. #110-25 . #104265 > biHp.gip!.qtv.3.n+.0 =p+oy q) be A110:202. Db iw (qt a gto). D. wl +0 =A (2) b.#104264. 3+: Hp(2).3.0(qtyegty). [x110209] Dipteyar. [2] Dp! ty 0 = wey @) F.(1).(8). DF. Prop 4110-262. Fr y,veNO.D. jen +e%y =H tev [Proof as in #110251] A similar proof applies to 2, »®, ete, and to any such derived cardinals whose existence follows from that of 4 and v. The proposition does not hold generally for j2q), vy) and other descending derived cardinals, because they may be null when gz and v exist. The following proposition (#110°3) is more often used than any other in this number except #1104 #1108. +. No‘a+,Ne“B=Nyo'at,Nec’B=Ne“(at 8) [#110-22.(#11008-04)] #11031. Frysma.dsm8.2.Ney+,NeS=Ne‘at+,NesB [*110-243] The following proposition is frequently used. #11032, Fran B=A.d.No‘a+, Nog = No‘(av A) [¥110°3:14] 11033, Fr Ee Nota +,NeB.=.(qy,8)-ysma. dsm B.ynd=A.f=yud [#110316] The above proposition is used in #11063, We might have used the above to define arithmetical addition, but this method would have been less con- venient than the method adopted in this number, both because there would have been more difficulty in dealing with types, and because the existence of Ne‘a+, Ne‘ (in the types in which it does exist) is less evident with the above definition than with the definitions given in #110:01-02-03-04.78 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART IT #110331, | .No‘a +, Ne‘@=2 ((qy)-ysma. £—ysm Boy CE} Dem. be ¥11033 924-47. br feNefat,NeiB.3-(gyd)-ysma.3emB.yCk.8=f—y. [#13-195] (Go) «ysma. E—ysm Boy C Erb. Prop #11034. Fi gtNe(n)'a.g! Ne('8.2-Ne(n)'a+,Ne(t)8 =No‘a+, NoB [x11023°3] #11035, F.Nicfat,Niek@=Neat,NeB — (#104-102-21 . #110'34] #110951, +. Nucta-+, Nac =Nefa+,Ne‘@ [#10621 . #11034) Similar propositions will hold generally for ascending cardinals. wou WW The following proposition (#110°4) is the most used of the propositions in this number. It is useful both in the form given, and in the form resulting from transposition, in which it shows that #+,»= A unless both w and y are existent cardinals. It is chiefly useful in avoiding the necessity of the hypothesis y, v e NC in such propositions as the commutative and associative laws. W104 Figtwtyy.D.pveNC—i'A.pveNC [110-201-2022] The following propositions, down to #110411 inclusive, are concerned with types. They are not referred to in the sequel, w110401. Fp =Neota.v=NycB.d.a+ Betty ty) Dem. b.#11018.#10812.3+:Hp.D.atB ett(Catt'p).acp.Bev. [x68-12] Diathett (Hatt). ta=tip Baty. [¥13'12] Dat Bett (hin ftir). [6413] DiatBett(ufv):D+. Prop #110402. Fr p,veN,O. 2. a! (utor) ntt(u fv) Dem. F #11022. #100°3. > big=Nyea.v=Not8.d.atBewters [*110-401] DiatBe(uter)att(u ty). [10-24] Dim! (wer) atte») q) b.(1).#108-2.5+. Prop #110408. Fi wjveNC.s.ql(utar) atten fv) [110-4024] 110404. beg! (Nota +, No'@)ntt(tat ee) — [#110°18'3.. #1003]SECTION B] ARITHMETICAL SUM OF TWO CLASSES AND TWO CARDINALS 79 #11041, bipveNC.tyaty.d.qi(utor) ate Dem. #10311. 3b: p=Nyota.v=NeP .twaty.d. wCta.vCtB twat. [63-2135] Do pata. Vath. ti =tiy. [13-16-17] D.ta=tP=tip. [#11017] Digi Neat B)a tofu. [¥110-22.%63'19] D.q!(u+er) a tur Dt. Prop #110411, bs ta=t8.3.q! (Nema +, Ne‘B) n tta. g 1 Ne (¢'a)\(a+ B) [*110-17°3] It will be observed that the following proposition (#110-42) requires no hypothesis. This is owing to #1104 and #102°74. 11042, t.p+t.veNC Dem, b. #11022. Dhip=Neoa.v=Nei8.d.p+v=Ne(at fA). [¥100-41] DiptveNC (1) F.(1).#108'2. DE pveN,C.d.ptoveNC (2) b.#1104. Transp. DFr~(yjveNC).d.ptyad. [102-74] DeptoveNC (3) b.(2).(8).b. Prop #11043. bipt.v=Nom.=.neutyy [#11042 . *103-26] #11044. b.sm“(u+,v)=ptov Dem. +. «37-1. #1102.5 Fs £esm“(ut_n).=-(qn, a8) p= Nofa.v=Nc8.nsm(at+f).fsm7- (¥73°3'32] = .(qa, 8). p=Neta.v=Nic'g.&sm(a+A). [110-2] =. £ewtevi dt. Prop The above proposition depends upon the fact that y-+,v is typically am- biguous, even when w and v are typically definite. It is used in the theory of inductive cardinals (*120°32-41-424), The following propositions are concerned with the commutative and associative laws for arithmetical addition of cardinals. ¥110B. +b. 8 +a=Cnv"(a +8) Dem. F554. 3b. Cav“(at+A)=An pl “aul Anaig [(110°01)] =B+a.2t. Prop #110501. +.B +asma+ 8 [*1105.%73:4] 411051. eg dv=vt,u [#1102501 . #7337] It is not necessary to the truth of the above proposition that » and v should be cardinals. If either is not a cardinal, ~+,v and y+, are both A.80 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr UT ‘The following propositions lead to the associative law (#110'56). 411052. 1: Esm(at B)+y-=.(q7.p,.¢).7sma.psmB.osmy- map=A-woc=A.pno=A.E=rupue Dem. b. #110152. DF: £sm(a+8)+y-=1(G70)-nsm(at+A). osmy-nao=A.E=nuct [#110152] =:(qm,p,9,¢).msma.psmf.rap=A. osmy.nag=A. [a13°195.%2268.424'32] =: (qr, p,o). sma. psmB.osmy.-7ap=A. maczA.pno=A. aru puac:ob. Prop =TUp- =nvat #110621. F: Fsma+(8+)-=+(Gmp,0)-wsma.psmB.osmy. map=A.macsA.pac=A.F=rupue [#1050152] #11053. +. (a+8)+ysmat+(8+y) [#110:52'521] #110531. a+ 8+y=@+8)+y DE #11054. F. (Ne‘a+, Ne‘@) +, Nefy=Ne(a+8+7) Dem. b.#1108 DF. (Ne‘a +, Ne‘B) +, Ne“y = Ne(a +8) +,Nety [#110°3.(4110°581)] =Ne'(a+8+y).2+. Prop #11041, F. Nota +, (NeB +, Ne“) =Ne(a+8+4) Dem. b.41103. Db. Nota+,(NeB +, Ney) = Ne‘{a+(8+4)} [¥110°53.(4110°531)] =Ne(at+P+y). 2+. Prop #11005. +. (Ne‘a +, Ne“B) +, Noy =Ne‘at,(Ne‘B +,No%) [11054541] 110651. F. (Nyc‘a +5 Noc'B) +e Nuc’y = Nic’a to (Nec +. Nec*y) [#110°55 . (#110:08-04)] #11056. bo (u +r) +.5 = to(¥ +.) Dem. +, #110551 . #103:2.3 FipyoeNC.d.(uterv)t.7=pte(V t,o) qd) +.#1104. Transp .> bin(ureeNC).D.(uter) te =Aswto(vtea)=A. [#13171] Di (ute) teP= pM +e (V +65) Q) F.(1).(2). 3b. Prop This is the associative law for arithmetical addition. It will be seen that, like the commutative law, it does not require that y, vy, should be cardinals, #110561. pt+ov+.7=(ut,v)+,.o Df #11057. F(eter)to(@tep)=HteVteTtep [#110°56. (110°561)]SECTION B] ARITHMETICAL SUM OF TWO CLASSES AND TWO CARDINALS 81 ‘The following propositions, concerning the addition of 0 or 1,are used fre~ quently in dealing with inductive cardinals (#120). #1106. FiweNC.3.n+,0=sm"p Dem. F.#101-11 . #11021. Fi Hp.2:£ep+,0 [54102] (qa,A).aen.Be0.Esm(a+). (qa).aep.Esm(a+A). [110-152] (q%7,8).aen.ysma.demA.yndah.E=yud. [¥73-47] (ga,y).aep.ysma.E=y. [#18195] (qa).aew.Esma. [487-1] Eesmy:. +. Prop When » is a typically definite cardinal, sm‘ is the same cardinal rendered typically ambiguous; when is a typically ambiguous cardinal, sm“p is p. In place of the above proposition, we might write weNC.>.u+4,0=p; this would be true whenever the ambiguity of +,0 was so determined as to make it significant. But the above form gives more information. #11061. +.Ne‘a+,0=Ne‘a Dem. b.#LOL1. DF. Nofa+,0=Ne‘a+,Ne‘A [¥110°32) Ne(av A) (424-24) =Ne‘a.3#. Prop In this proposition, Nofa is typically ambiguous; hence we escape the necessity of putting sm‘‘Ne‘a on the right, as we should have to do if Ne‘a were typically definite. We can deduce #1101 from #1106 as follows: .¥1103.3+.Nea@+,0=Nic%a+,0 [x110°6] =sm“Ny'a [#103-4] =Ne‘a We have to travel via N,c‘a in this proof, in order to avoid the possibility of a typical determination of Ne‘a which would make Ne‘a=A. It is for the same reason that we cannot put “smNe‘a=Ne‘a”; for if the first Ne‘a is determined to a type in which Ne‘a=A, while the second is not, this equation becomes false. #11062, Frp4.v=0 Dem. p=0.7=0 + .#108-27.#101-1113. 3+ .0=NyctA a) F. (1). #11043. biwtov=0.siAentey: [#110-202] tomo: (ay,8)-u=Nemy-v=NeB.ynd=A.yvSaAt [¥2432.61822) =: qiw.q!v:a=Ne‘A.v=Ne‘A: [#101-1-12) w=0.v=0:.94. Prop R&W IT 682 -ARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PaRT 11 411063. |. Ne‘a+,1=2 {(qy,y).ysma.yrey. f=yu tty} Dem. b.#LOL2. b.Nefa+,1=Ne‘a+, Net's [x11033] = 2 {(qy, 8).ysma.demie.ynd=A.F=yu 8} [x73-45) =2 ((ay,8)-ysma.deleyndaA.fayvd} [#521] =F {(qy,8,y).ysma.d=ly.ynd=A.E=yvd} [¥18-195.451-211] = E {(qy,y)-ysmaryrey.E=y vey}. DF. Prop The above proposition is much used in the theory of finite and infinite, both cardinal and ordinal. It connects mathematical induction for inductive cardinals with mathematical induction for inductive classes (cf. +120). #110681. Fs weNC.D-p tel =F (ayy) -yesm“p.yrey- Eau e'y} Dem. + 110211. #101-21.3. FrHp.d.w+.1=8{(ay,8). yeom“p. desm“1 yn 8=A.£=7v 8} [101-28] =F {(ay,8)-yesm“p. deliynd=A. Fay vd} [521451211] =F ((qy.y)yesm“p.yrey. E=y vty} DF. Prop The proposition weNC.D.n tol =F ayy) vem yrey-Esmyv ety} which might at first sight seem demonstrable, will only be true universally if the total number of objects in any one type is not finite. For suppose a is a type, and z= Nyefa. Then if ais a finite class, y= 0a Hence yep. 2y,y+y ev Hence ? {(qy,y)yem-yrvey. £sm (y ¥e'y)} =A inall types. But p+, will exist in all types higher than that of y. If on the other hand the number of entities in a is infinite, we shall have yea. d.a-iyeNea.yrea—Uy. Hence in this case the above proposition will be true universally. #110682. Fs weNC.D. tol =F i(qy).yek. E—Utyesmp} Dem. F . 110631 .#51-211-22.5 FeHp.D.mtol=£{ary).yesm“u-yeb.y=E-ty} [#18195] =E (ay) -yek. €—c'y esmu}: DF. Prop #11064. +.04+,0=0 [x110°62] #110641. F.14,0=04,1=1 [#1105161 . 4101-2] #110642. F.24,0=04,2=2 [411051-61. #10131]SECTION B] ARITHMETICAL sUM OF TWO CLASSES AND TWO CARDINALS 83 #110643, F.14+,1=2 Dem. F. #110°632 . #101-21:28. 9 b.1+,1=Fi(qy)-yek. E-vtyel] [#543] =2.54. Prop The above proposition is occasionally useful. It is used at least three times, in *113°66 and *120:123-472. #110°7°71 are required for proving *110°72, and *110°72 is used in *117°3, which is a fundamental proposition in the theory of greater and less. #1107, Fs BCa.D.(qu).peNC. Nea=NeB ton Dem. b.e2441121, 5b: Hp.d.a=Rv(a-f).Ba(a—A)=A. [#11032] >. No‘a= No‘ +,No(a— 8): Dt. Prop #11071. 1 (qu). Nefa= NoB +... (qd).8smB.8Ca Dem. +. #1003. #110°4.5 biNea=NeBt,y.2.peNC—us Q) +. "1103.3: No‘a= No‘ +, Ne‘y.=.Nea=Ne(B+y). [#100'3-31] D.asm(8+y)- [*73-1] D.(qR).Relol. D‘R=a. dU R=L Au Bu ds | ey. [87-15] D.(qR). Rell. J AseepeaR. RL ALB Ca. [4110°12.473'22] D .(qS).8Ca.dsm 8 (2) F.(1).(2). DF. Prop ‘The above proof depends upon the fact that “No‘a” and “Nc‘8+.p” are typically ambiguous, and therefore, when they are asserted to be equal, this must hold in any type, and therefore, in particular, in that type for which we have ae Ne‘a, ie. for N,c'a. This is why the use of *100°3 is legitimate. #11072, F:(q8).89m8.8Ca.=.(qu).peNC.Nota=NoB top Dem. +, #100°321.#110-7.> f:,8em @.8Ca.3:NeS=NetB:(qu)-peNC.Nefa=NeS tent [w13-12] D:(qu)-meNC.Nea=Ne‘Btop @ F.(1). #11071. 3b. Prop«111, DOUBLE SIMILARITY Summary of #111. ‘The arithmetical properties of a class, so far as these do not require or assume that it is a class of classes, are the same for any similar class. But a class of classes has many arithmetical properties which it does not share with all similar classes of classes. For example, if « is a class of classes, the number of members of s‘« is an arithmetical property of «, but it is obvious that this is not determined by the number of members of x, but requires also a know- ledge of the numbers of members of members of «. For example, let « consist of the two members a and A, and let d consist of y and 8. Then esm A; but in order to be able to infer sesms‘h, we require x, XeCls*excl and asmy.8sm 8 or asm&.8smy or some such further datum. The relation of “double similarity,” to be defined in the present number, is a relation between classes of classes, which, when it holds between « and 2, insures that all the arithmetical properties of « and 2 are the same, eg. we have (in particular) Nofs‘e = Ne's‘® and Ne‘es‘x=Ne‘es‘n. This relation we denote by “sm sm,” which is to be read as one symbol. It is defined as follows: We define first the class of “double correlators” of « and 2, which we denote by “« am S102,” and of which the definition is -— Aa #l1L01, «SM GDA=(11) a Ts'an Pea Ter) De so that b:Texsmmmnr. Pell. GT=s8.c=TEDr We then define “«sm sm ” as meaning that « Si SM is not null, ie, that there is at least one double correlator of « and 2. To illustrate the nature of a double correlator, let us suppose that « consists of the two classes a, and a, and that a, consists of a,,, @,s, while a, consists of 24, 2, %. Similarly let X consist of 8, and Ay, while 8, consists of yn, Yo and , consists of Yu, Ya, Yas Now let T correlate each # with the y having the same two suffixes, Then 7’ is a one-one, and its converse domain is sn. Moreover 7.8, (which is T“B,)=a,, and TéQ,=a;, 80 that TeéX=«. Thus T is a double correlator according to the definition. The essential characteristic of a double correlator 7 is that (1) Tis a correlator of s‘e and 3‘, (2) Te[% is a correlator of « and 2. If we write S in place of TePA, then if Be, we have S(Bex; moreover Th is a correlator of S‘8 and @ Thus « and » are similar classes of similar classes. They are not merely this, however, for we not only know that $* is similar to 8, butSECTION B] DOUBLE SIMILARITY 85 we know a particular correlator of S* and 8, namely TP. This is essential to the use of double similarity, as will appear shortly. Let us consider the relation between « and d which consists in their being similar classes of similar classes. This means that there is a correlator 9 of « and A, such that, if 8 ed, S*B is similar to &. Thatis to say, we are to consider the hypothesis (qS).Selo1.DS=n.0S=r.SEsm or, as it may be more briefly expressed, qieimdn Bi'sm, Let us assume Sex SiXn Ri‘sm. If we attempt to prove (say) that se is similar to s‘A, we find that we are forced to assume the multiplicative axiom, unless « and » are finite, This necessity arises as follows. Let us put Crp (8) = (S*8) SH 8, where “Crp” stands for “correspondence.” Then we know that whenever Bend, Crp (8) is not null. Further it is easy to prove that, if and \ are classes of mutually exclusive classes, and if we can pick out one representative member of Crp(S)‘8 for each value of @ which is a member of A, then the relational sum of all these representative correlations gives us a correlator of sfc and sX, That is, we have br, Xe Cle excl. Se xsi An Ri‘sm . ReesCrp(S).>.5D‘Re(s'x) ili (8°). But in order to infer hence s‘w sm s‘A, we need @! ea‘Crp (8), ie. we need to be able to pick out a particular correlator for each pair of similar classes “8 and 8. This, however, cannot be done in general without assuming the multiplicative axiom. It follows that we must not define two classes as having double similarity when gq! «8m Ao Ri‘sm, but must give a definition which enables us to specify a particular correlator for each pair of similar classes. This is what is effected by the above definition of double correlators, where our Sis given as of the form T'e['A, where 7e11.0‘T=s% If the multiplicative axiom is assumed, but in general not otherwise, we have (#LLT'5) &, Ne Clstexcl. Dr .Tefr Gsm ' Dem. be w1111 .¥60°57.3t:Hp.d.Telol.accrar, [w73'5] >. 2.fX Gsm: Dt. Prop wAILL12. bi Pecamama.>.TePreeaHrXaRlem [xll1-11-111]SECTION B] DOUBLE SIMILARITY 87 The two following propositions are useful lemmas for the case when Tis replaced (as it often is) by Tf a. w11112, is Cad. (Ppa aa Ter. (LP ae X= Lepr Dem. +. 487101421. : 8 Ca.d. (Tp aeA=2éB Q) b.x4018, DE. Hp. 2 8er.2.8Ca (2) F.(1).(2). DE Hp.D:Ber.d.(Lfa)tB= TR: [437-69.435-71] Di(TPaer= LEN. (ThaePr= Topas. db. Prop wULLIL, F(T D8 A) A= Tet (LeP YOR (TP 8 ADePN= Lepr Dem. bemOT421 DR LEN = (Tefen re) be (1). «111-12 © +. Prop #11113. +. IP}sXexXsm SMA Dem. b.#7217 450552. Db TP shell. Adpsayasr (1) Fexl1L121. Dh. (TP oryOra Ler [450-1617] =n (2) +.(1).(2).#1111.3+. Prop #111131. bs Pee STD Dem. F.a71212.34: Tells. Telol a bielI111. 3b: Tees smr.d.DT=s'e Q) F.w111-1. (2). 460°37. br Dees amr. d.Lelal.eCClD'T ACCIKAT n= Tele -Terxm HK [4746] D.rn= (Dette (3) b.(1).(2).(8) #11. Dh: Texemamn.>. Pers ame (4) rae Dh: Pexmmame. >. Texan wr () +. (4). (5). Db. Prop 111182, }:SeeSmmr. Ter THI. Dd. S|Tex MIM py Dem, Fb. #111-11.#73'311. br Hp. >. |Z ¢(s%e) Si (s'u) «(Sef A (Tef w) € «5 qa F, #35°354. Db. (Sef A)|(ZeP w) = Sel(X1 Teh 4) (2) b.a74251 41D. DF: Hp. d. S:[1Lef u) = Sel(ZeP uw) [35-23] = (Se Te) P [¥37°34] =(S|Def we (3) F.(1).(2).(8). DF: Hp. >. S|2'e(s') a (s'u)«(S|D)cf we x Bmi w- (w111-13) D.S|Tex sma wD. Prop88 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART IT gll1d4. bs TPs Neeser. =.Thsrela1l.sraCAT.n= Ter Dem. +. «1J11121.3 bi Tf sex Ham A Psrel al. A(Tpsr)=sr.e= Ter. (35°65) Dh shell. sr CO. e= Fé: Db. Prop #11115, bi TPs Neeser. =. Tf sre (s‘x) Sm (sr). Tere we Dem, b.xl1T11.5 eT P seem Gr. =. TPs e(s'n) sm (A). (TP sep re eTHA (1) f.(1). #111121... Prop #11116, bq !adm Pn ysis.d.a=7.8=8 Dem. +.#7308.+:Hp.>.(qk).D‘R=a.0'R=8.DiR=7.0R=8. (¥13171] D.a=y.B=5:D+. Prop #11118, +.aamSC(af 8)‘ Dem. + .435°83.#73-08. Dt: Ream @.d.REatB (1) +. #7303. Dt: ReammB.>.Rel—+OCls. R=8 (2) F.(1).(2).#8014. DF. Prop The class (a T 8)a‘f is important, being the class of Cantor’s “Belegungen,” used by him to define exponentiation; we have in fact Ne‘(a f A)a‘B = (Nefare?, Thus the above proposition shows that No‘(a smi 8) is less than or equal to (Ne‘a)Ne'#; and since, whenever it is not zero, Ne‘a = Ne‘, it is less than or ual to i (Nea)Nes The following propositions lead up to #111°2'38°34: #1112, bs E1S¢(8.D.Crp(S)(A = (SB) HUB [14-28 . (*111-02)] w111-201, Ff {Crp (8)'8} . =. f{(8'8) si 8} [4-2 . (4111-02)] #111202. ts Re Crp (88.2. Rel 31. DR=88.0R=8 [#111-201 . «73-03] w11121, F:q1Crp(S)'8.=.88sm8 [111-201 . «78-04) ALL 211, br gt Crp (S)@.D.E188.BeCS — [wl 11-21.#14-21.%88-43] #11122, 12. BeOS De. gq! Crp(8)\B1=.Se1—>Cls. SE am Dem. b ¥L1121.34:. BeOS. pig! Crp (S81 =: Be MS. Dp. SBsmZ: [¥72:93] =1Sel—Cls.S@sm :.+.PropSECTION B] DOUBLE SIMILARITY 89 #111221. F:.Sel—Cls. SGsm.3:q! Crp (SB Dem. b #11122. D4: Hp.d:ReC‘S..q! Crp(syp ay F. (1). #111211... Prop #11123, b:Se141. 9 eC... Crp (8)'8 = Cnv“Orp (8.98 Dem. Beas b. #1112. #71163. bs. Hp.3: Orp(sy(8 = (S48) 8 [*73:301] = Cnv“(8 mi S¢8) [472-241] = Cav (S*S* ti S“B) (ly F.(1). 111201 Be >t Prop ‘ #11124. b:Se1—Cls.aA CAS. 3. Crp (Sr € Cls* exel Dem. b.#111-2. #71:163.5 bie Hp. 32 8,yeX. py Crp (8)‘8 = (S‘B) 5m 8 . Crp (S)*y = (S*y) SHH y- (1) [111-16] Dp,y-t! Crp(S)'Bn Crp(S)y.2.8=y- [(1).#30°37] 2 -Crp(S)‘8=Crp(S)'y (2) b.(2).48768. Dbz. Hp. D:p,ceCrp(S)A.g! pro +Dp,op=ot It. Prop #11125. +:Se1—+Cls.SEsm.rC A'S. >. Crp (S)re Cls ex* excl (4111-24-22) #1113. Fr Xe Clstexcl. 3 . Deg'a BMA C (af o'A)as Dem. b «87-29. #2412. Frese A= A.D 5D est SHAE (af stra‘ Q) + .#881.9 bp. glesammiA.D: Bed. Ip-q lass. [#11118] Det (at BatB- [480-15] Deeg Mat oryatBt [#8083] Di fat sAryA} [ah Aged (2) asm, (ats F. (2). #1118 . 485-72 aE eT 2 brHp.glesasmn. D. Di elamtnr € Ditea(af sd)ar. [¥87-2] DD egha TA CHD eat 8 )al [*85-27] Cat sryatsn 8) F.(1).(8). 4. Prop90 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part mm eIIL1. 1A, Se Clstexel. Sel vl. ReesOrp(S)"a.D. SDR ¢ (s‘S“A) Siti (8) Dem. b.4882.D bi. Hp. 3: Ber.=. BeCrp (SB e Crp(S)'R« [w111-202) RCrp(S)'8 el +1. D'RCrp (SB =S'8- d‘RCrp (Sp =8 qd) +. (1). #72322. Dh: Hp.d.sRCrp(S)“rAel 1. [480°34] 2.sD‘Rel 1 (2) b (1) .87°68.#5017 DF: Hp. >. D“R“Orp (8) = 9A. A“RCrp (8) = 2. [*80'34] 2. DDR=SA.TD'R=d. [w41-48-44] Dd. DSD‘R = 58%. UDR = 8 (8) F. (2). (8). #7808 . +. Prop #111811, + 2d, SX Clstexcl.Sel— 1. qt ea’Crp (S)X.D. 9S Aam 8A [111-31 . 473-04] #111318. +X ¢ Cls*excl. Re ea‘Crp(S)"A.f er. M=ID‘IR.D- MPB=RCrp(8)'8.MP Be Crp (8)'8 Dem. b.488-2, Fit Hp. Dt. aed. Da: RCrp (S)ae Crp (S)'ar Q) (111-202) Dat OR Crp (S)'a=at [488-14.4°71] Da20{R'Orp(S)'a}y.=.a{ROrp(S)a}y.yea (2) F .#35°101 .#83°23 41-11. bi Hp. D:a(MPA)y. =. (qa). aera [R'Crp(S)a}y.ye 8. ((2)] (qa). aer.%{BCrp(S)'a} y.yeanB. [m84°11.422°5] (qa). aer.a{RCrp(S)aly.yeR.a=B. [¥13°195] Aer. 2{RCrp(S)‘Bhy-yeR- (Hp.«473.(2)] =. 2 {RCrp (8)'8} y @) + .(1). (8). DF. Prop ¥11132, 20,8 Clstexcl. Sel +1. Re esCrp (SX. M=sD‘R.D. Mell. 0'M=sr. SX = MD. SP r= Mpa Dem. b.¥11181.478°03. 3b: Hp.>.Mel 1. 0M as qa +. #111813202. Dh: Hp.d:Rer.2.D(MPS)=SB.d(MPA)=8. [37-25] D.(MPB)“B = SB. [487-421-11) >. MAB =SB: [35-7 1.437°69] D:Mefr=SPr. Mer = 8 (2) F.(1)-(2). 3+. Prop #111321. Fd, SX Clstexcl. Sell. a fes‘Crp(S).2. (GM). Mel 1. 0M =s%. SX = MEN. SPN = Map rd [w111-32]SECTION B] DOUBLE SIMILARITY OL #111322. +: «,reClstexcl. Sexsmir. Re es‘Crp($)“A. M=sD‘R.D. Men sm SirX.S=Mefr [w111-32-1 . #35-66 . ¥73-03] ¥11133. + :, Multax.3:Se1—1.S€sm.«,reClsexcl.n=SA.ACAS.9. sfesm 8 Dem. +, #111'221.5 br. Sel—»1.SGsm.x,deClstexcl «= S.C US. 3: Bers. q! Crp (SB: [#8837] D:Multax. >. qlea‘Crp(S)r. [x111-311] D. seams: +. Prop #11134. + :,Multax.3: (q8).Sel1+1.SGsm.D'S= «0S =r. w, de Cls?exol.. (qM).Me131.0Masr.e= Mer Dem. + .#111-25.3 F:i.Selo1.SGsm.D‘S=xn.0S=r.«,re Clstexcl. I: Crp (8) € Cls ex? excl : [88:32] 3: Multax.D.9 !es‘Crp (SX. [111321] D.(qM).Mel—1.0Masn.e= Mer (1) fF. (1). #10°11-23. Comm. 3+. Prop The following propositions are concerned with the elementary properties of “smsm.” It will be seen that they are closely analogous to those of “sm.” x1114. biesmomd.=.(q7). Tell. 0 Tas.e= Teh. eA [111-1 . (#111-08)] #111401, Fresmemd.=.(q7).Telal.srC OT. n= Ter Dem. .#22-42.4111-4. bs xesmsmr.>.(q7). Tell sa CaL. «= Ted (1) +,(1). #11114. 54. Prop #111402. F: ¢sm sm A (¥111-141-121] #11143. b:esmem2.>.(qS).Sel141.SEsm.DS=e.0S=r (#111-11-111] (ql). Thsrelolsr COT. c= Ler 11144, Fresmemd.D.esmr.seome'% — [#1 11-114. #73-03] 11145, .Asmsm 2 (¥111-18-4] #111451. Fixsmsmd.=.Asmsme (#111-131-4] #111452. Fr eamemA.Xsmsmp.D.esmemp [#1111924] wALL46. FA, 8X Clstexcl. Sel 1. q 1eaCrp (9). 9. SA smamr [#111°32°4]92 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part #11147. Fs. esmsmd. 3:4 ¢Clstexcl .=.¢ Cls* excl Dem. bewlll4. Dh Hp. Di(q?). Tell. OTasn. c= Tr: [84°53] Dre Clstexcl . D. we Cls? exel (1) F. (1) -#L11'451. +s. Hp. :0¢ Olstexcl..X¢Clstexel (2) +.(1).(2). DF. Prop #1115, fi: Multax.3:.4,¢Clstexcl.d: esmsmX.=.(qS).-Selo1.SGsm. Dan. QS=r. al eemAn Rim [1 11-34-48-4] #11151. fs. Multax.3:0,X¢Clstexcl fd Xm Rifsm.D.sfesms [w111-5-44) #11152. bipveNC.«,rewnClv.d.g le md n Ris Dem. f.#100°5. 4731.9: Hp. d.(qS).Sel+1.DS=x«.0S=% (1) +. #1005. DhiHp.Diaew.Ber.d.asmB (2) b. (1). (2). Prop 411108, +s. Multax. 3: y,veNC. «Xen Clexcly.csmsmr [w111-52'5]#112. THE ARITHMETICAL SUM OF A CLASS OF CLASSES Summary of #112. In this number, we return to the arithmetical operations. The definition of addition in #110 was only applicable to a finite number of summands, because the summands had to be enumerated. In the present number, we define the arithmetical sum of a class of classes, so that the summands are given as the members of a class, and do not require to be enumerated. Hence the definition in this number is as applicable to an infinite number of summands as to a finite number. If « is a class of mutually exclusive classes, the number of s‘« will be the sum of the numbers of members of «; i.e. if we write “XNe‘e” for the sum of the numbers of members of «, we Cls’ excl 3. Nofs‘e = ZNe‘e. But when the members of « are not mutually exclusive, a term « which is a member of two members (say a and 8) of « has to be counted twice over in obtaining the arithmetical sum of x, whereas in the logical sum x is only counted once. Thus we need a construction which shall duplicate «, taking it first as a member of a, and then as a member of 8. This is effected if we replace « first by «|a, and then by 2|@. In fact, | a has the kind of arithmetical properties which we mean to secure when we speak of “# con- sidered as a member of #”—a phrase which, as it stands, does not serve our purpose, for # is simply w however we may choose to consider it. Thus we replace a by | a‘‘a and & by | AA and so on; i, (using *85°5), we replace a by eJ a and @ by «J A and so on. These new classes are similar to a and 8 and so on, and are mutually exclusive. Hence their logical sum has the number of terms which is wanted for the arithmetical sum of the members of x. Thus we put Se=seT% Ds ENefx=NeofSe Dé With regard to the second of these definitions, it is to be observed that =Ne‘x is not a function of Ne“, unless no two members of x are similar; for No‘‘e cannot contain the same number twice over. For the same reason, if & is a class of cardinals, and we define “Sum‘A,” we do not get what is wanted for arithmetical addition, because our definition will not enable us to deal with summations in which there are numbers that are repeated. We could, if it were worth while, define “Sum‘n” as follows: Take a class of classes «, consisting of one class having each number which is a member of A, i.e, let «x94 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [paRT mI be a selection from A; then E‘« will have the required number of terms. Ie. we might put Sumr=# (qu). eD ead. £sm Sx} Dee. But since this definition is only available for sums in which no number is repeated, it is not worth while to introduce it. In this number we prove the following propositions among others. 1215. Fs ee Clstexcl. 3. s8'ee ZNe‘w This is an extension of ¥110°32. #11217. Frxsmsmd..=2No%e ==ZNer. Xesm TA The chief point in the above proposition is that it does not require «, Xe Cls* excl. #112-2—24 are concerned with the use of the multiplicative axiom and the propositions of #111 in which it appears as hypothesis, We have #11222, fs. Multax.:q! (ce “«)am(eJ A) n Bi'sm. 3. ZNote = ZNer whence we derive the proposition 11224, f:.Multax.Dip,veNC. ue pnClv.d.3Nete= SNonr Le. assuming the multiplicative axiom, two classes which each consist of classes of » terms each have the same number of terms in their sum. This number would naturally be defined as » multiplied by v, but owing to the necessity of the multiplicative axiom in this proposition, we have selected a different definition of multiplication (#118) which does not depend upon the multiplicative axiom. The reader should observe that the similarity of two classes, each of which consists of » mutually exclusive sets of v terms, cannot be proved in general without the multiplicative axiom. The remaining propositions of this number give properties of = in special cases, We prove that ‘A = A (#112'3), that ZNe‘e‘a = Ne‘a (#112-321), that at B.D. 2NeM(i'a v UB) =Ne‘a +, No‘B (#112°34), which connects the defini- tion of addition in this number with that in #110. Finally we prove the general associative law for addition, in the following two forms: wAL241. Fs SV = SA #11248, F: Xe Cletexcl .D. NoS Er = Nef Ssa *20L Semste[e De #11202, Nowe =Ne‘Se Df WOLF. Semate THe [¥20°2 . (4112-01)] #112101. F. ENohe = NeSin = Netste [Me [#202 . #1121 « (411202)]SECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL SUM OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 95 112102. F.Se= A (qa,c).aex-vea. Rael a} Dem. F856 . 40°11 1121.3 FS =R (quia).aen. p= lata. Rep} [418195] = 8 {(qa).aen. Re} aa} [155281] =f ((qa,0).acc.cea.R=a 1a}. 2'. Prop #112108. b. Ee stf (qa) cen. w=] aca} [4112]. 485-6] wl1211. bi Be ENe'Ke =. Gsm se [x [¥112101] #11212. bse Tee ENote {x11211] ¥11213. Fiasmsme|ie.d.s%eSNove [111-44 . #11211] w11214. Fixe Clstoxel. .e]“xesmsme Dem. b.¥21:33.9h:. Hp. 2= Ra {(qa).ace.wea.Roalajl.d: aTR.yTR.D.(q%,8).R=0ha.R=yJh. [45531] Diaays [¥7117] 3:71 Cls Q) f.42133.3 F:Hp(1).a7R.02S.>.(ga,A).a,Ben.ceanB. Racla.Saclp. [«8411.Hp] D.(ga,8).a=f.R=ala.S=al8. [¥13-195] D.R=8: [¥71171] >: 7eCls 1 2) 438131. Dh: Hp(1).D:2eQ'7.=.(qR,a).aex.cea.R=zla. [55-12] S.wes'e (3) bea87111.9 biHp. Di. aex.2: Re Tea.=.(qu,8).ceanR. Bex Rach Bf. [a84-11.Hp] =.(qo,A).ceanB.Bex.a=A.RachB. [¥13-195] =. (qe). vea.R=alf. [85-601] =.ReeJan [487-69]. Tee =e Ye (4) b. (1). (2). (8). (4) #1114. F. Prop #11215, Free Clstexcl.D.s%eeENe%e [w11214-11 . #111-44] #112151, se [X= RK (qac).aer.cea Racha}. dste]r=efr Dem. F 40-11 . (85:5). bi ste Ja Ri(qa).aed. Rel aa} [a38-181] =A ((qa,2).aer.vea-R=ala} qd) F.(). #411. b.S6sfe TX = 98 (GR, a2).aed.rea.Rawl a.yRB}96 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART Ir [13°195.455+18) = 98 ((qa,2).aeA.cea.y=x.B=a} [13-22] =98 (Berd. eB} [435-101] =epPr (2) F.(1). (2). 3F. Prop The following proposition is a lemma for #112°153, which is required for 4#112'16. #11216 in turn is used in ¥112'17, which is a fundamental proposi- tion in the theory of addition. 112152, ts Tel > Cls. BCU. 9. (P| T)“e] B=} (T"B) Dem. b . 4376. #85601. DF. (TI T.)e TB=R(qy)-yeR R=( F. (1). 55°61. FrHp.2.(P\ Tote] 8=Riqy).ye8- R= (Ty) | (Té8)} oGLS) a) (487-11) =Rcay).ye8- R= (Ty) 1 (L48)} [¥38:131] = 1 (PB) (28) [#85-601] =e] (LB): D+. Prop In the following proposition, we have a double correlator of a sort which will frequently occur in cardinal arithmetic, namely 7’|| Te with its converse domain limited, where 7 is a given double correlator (or single correlator, on other occasions). As appears from the propositions used in the above proof of #112°152, if 7 is a correlator whose converse domain includes @ and has y as a member, (T'|| T.)(y | 8) =(T*y) | (£8). Thus 7'|| 7, is an operation which, when operating on suitable relations of individuals to classes (including sclec- tors), turns the individuals into their correlates and the classes into the classes of their members’ correlates, This is why it is a useful relation. 112153, Tee STA. D. (TI Te P se [Ae (e ]“x) sm SMH (c TX) Dem. be wLL2 151 a41-43°44, DF. 8 Dsfe JA=D(ep a). a Us'e [*A= (ep a). [62:41:43] DE. sDeste A= 8H. 8AeTA=A—UA (1) F (L)o#1 11-1 487-281 D+: Hp.D.8DM'ste JX CUT. safe] XCOT, (2) Fewl1L1 47129. DErHp.d. PP sD%s'e [rel a1 (3) Few11L11.(). DhiHp.d. Teh Ase] rel 1 (4) F (2). (8). 4). «74775 EU Fe \Topsteye $2) (8) (8) T4775 Db sHp.D.(Ti Lh sfe]Rel 91 (5) F#48B02. Dh. sfe TX CAT Ze) (6) F. #112152. b: Hp. >. (2 Tote Trae Teron, [48711] DP Te [rae TEN [*111-1.Hp] =eTn @ F (5). (6)- (7). #ILL14. +. PropSECTION B) THE ARITHMETICAL SUM OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 97 #11216. Freomsma.D.eTesmsme] A [#112158 .#111-4] W217, Fresmsm2.D. ENete = ENe. Ses EA Dem. be w11216 #11144, +: Hp. d,s’ [eam ste] (1) b.(1).#1121-101.3#. Prop #11218, b.ENowe = Neve ]e Dem. F .H85-6L #11215. DF. fe Jee ENove [ce @ b. (1). #11212. #10084. F . Prop 1122.0 Fr Sel1. DS ae Ye. TS ae]. gl e'Crp(S\r. D.ENo‘e =SNe%. Sesm EZ Dem. F.4111811 . #85°61. +: Hp. 2. se Te sm se [A qd) +). #1121101. . Prop #11221, fs. Multax.3:(q8).Sel—+1.S Gem. D'S=e]e. TS=eJr, Jetesmsm e JA [1115 . #8561] 112-22, Fs. Multax. Dig! (e Je) am (e JA) n Ri'sm.D. ENofe = =Neo‘r [¥*112°1718-21] 4112-23. fs. Multax. 3: x, ¢Clstexcl. qi ximrn Rifsm.>. 8'x, "Ne ZNe‘x. ZNe‘«e = TNer Dem. F. #11215. DF: Hp.x,reClstexcl. d,s eSNeve sXe ENer qa F.#11151.3b: Hp(1). qt camivn Ri‘sm.D.s'esms'r @) b.(1).(2). DF. Prop #112281, b: Sex ataan Ri'sm.D.e]|9|Cov'e] ee] x) sii(e] A) a Rifem Dem. b. #7868. w85°601. DF: SexSHr~D.€]|S|Cnv‘e] e(e]«)mM(eT“A) (1) b.#85°601 . #78:98'34. DF: $Gsm.D.e]|S|Cnv'e] sm 2) b.(1).(2). Dk: Seeditinn Ri'om.I.€]|S|Cnv'e] ee] “e) Sai (TA) a Ri'am : DF. Prop 112-24. fs. Multax.D:y,veNC.n,repnClv.>.ENee= ZNoW Dem. b.K11152.9 Fry veNO. x, rena Clv.d.q teed Rim. [#112281] Dog Me] x) BH(e TA) aRitsm (1) F. (1). #11151. ¥85°61.> bs. Mulbax.Dig,veNC.ereuaClv. >. [nm se Yr. [#112101] D.ENe%e = ENo%:. DF. Prop Rew 798 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr or #1123. FS AA [437-29 40-21. #112-1] #112301, F. SAA Dem. b,w112102. 9+. SA=R {(qa,c).aevtA.cea.R=aha} (¥51-15] =R((qe).ceA.R=2 A} [24°15] =A.2+. Prop 112802. +. Se = Be — 0A) Dem. F.#112102. 3+. S%e= Ri(qa,2).aex.zea.R=ax4a} [w10-24] =Ri(qac).ace.qia.vea.R=2la} [53°52] =R(qa,c).aex—UA.cea.R=al a} [#112102] = 3(e— UA). DF. Prop Thus if A is a member of a class of classes, it does not affect the value of their arithmetical sum. #112308. ren dA=A.D. Sen SA=A Dem. #112102. bi ReSMendn.=.(qa,8,ay).aex.Ber.wea.yeR. RaalaaylB. [455-202] (Ga, 2).aexnX.cea. [x24-5] sqiear qa f.(1). Transp. . Prop #112304. b:Se=A.s.eeel Dem, b #1128301. #58-24. Db se A.D. Tee A qa) Fe 112102, Dhiaew.wea.d.alacS«e: [w10-24.840°11] Dhigtse.I.qiE% 2) F.(1).(2). DF. Prop w1231, FS (e vA) a Seu EA Dem. F.xlI21.3F. (eu A) sate (eva) [#4031] =ste Te uste Tn [¥1121] =BevE%. IF. Prop W2B1L bre md A.D. ENoM(e vd) = ENete +, ZNo'r Dem. +. #112808. ¥110'32.> brHp.>.Nef(Seu Sa) =Ne'Ste +, NeeSAn (¥112101] = ENete +, Nov a) +.(1). #11281. 4. Prop vuSECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL SUM OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 99 #11232, b.EaaeTa Dem. +. #5331. «1121.5. Sfaasvey a [¥53-02] =eJa.d+. Prop #112321, }. SNo‘'a = Ne‘e [11282101 . 485:601] #11238. F.S(Waurs)=eJave] A [1123281] #112331. F.E(evUB)= evel [41128132] #11234 bia+8.3. ENoM(ifavi'@)=Ne‘a+, NoB Dem. + #51231. #112311 .3 bs Hp.d.2Ne(u'av 8) =2Netia + ENoUe [#112821] =Ne‘a+,No‘8:3+. Prop This proposition establishes the agreement of the two definitions of addition, namely that in *110 and that in «112. It will be seen that the definition of ¥112 is inapplicable to the addition of a class to itself, if this is to give the double of the class, instead of (like logical addition) simply reproducing the class. Hence the need of the condition a+f in the above proposition. #112341. bs Bren. 2D. TNe(«e vu U8) = ZNokK +, Neve Dem, b.aS1L 211.3: Hp.d.enuBaA. [x112'811] D.ENel(ev 68) = BNele +, ENoUw's [¥112321] = SNe‘e +,Noi@i Dt. Prop 11295, brat B.aty. @ty.d.ENeK(Mave‘Buiiy)=Nea+.NoB+ Nery Dem. . 451-231 . #112311. br Hp. d. SNet(ulau uf uity) = SNo(iav UB) +. SNey [11234321] =No‘a+,Ne‘B +, Noty: DF. Prop Similar propositions can obviously be proved for any finite number of summands. #1124. br s%e, see Clstexcl. 3. ZNe‘s'« = ZNe‘s"'x Dem. b.a11215. Db: Hp. d. SNo‘ste = Ne‘s's'e [#421] = Ne‘s'e“« [#11215] = ENetee 2 Db. Prop 7-2100 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part ur #11241. es BASS Dem. F ellQ1. Db. Erm sise [OX [e422] =sioe J [40°38] =sfe [oH [w1121] =X. . Prop #11242, b:reCls* excl. >. 22 Cls* excl Dem. F.#112308.D 1.2 Clsexcl. 3:8, yer. By. Dey SAO Sy: [480°37.Transp.#37-63] Dipvel A pty dye pnvaAt [x84-1] 323% Clstexel sf. Prop #11243. bi reCistexcl. 3. No'SEA = NeMSiar Dem. #1121542. : Hp. >. No‘S‘S*A =Nofs EO [w112-41] = NofSen: D+. Prop The above is the associative law for arithmetical addition,#113. ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CLASSES OR OF TWO CARDINALS Summary of #113. In this number, we give a definition of multiplication which can be extended to any finite number of factors, but not to an infinite number of factors, We define first the arithmetical class-product of two classes a and 8, and thence the product of two cardinals 4 and v as the number of terms in the product of a and 8 when a has » terms and @ has v terms. In #114, we shall give a definition of multiplication which is not restricted to a finite number of factors. The advantages of the definition to be given in this number-are, that it does not require the factors to be of the same type, and that it enables us to multiply a class by itself without (as in logical addition and multiplica- tion) simply reproducing the class in question. The disadvantage of the definition in this number is the impossibility of extending it to an infinite number of factors. The arithmetical class-product of two classes a and 8, which we denote by 8x", is the class of all ordinal couples which take their referent from @ and their relatum from 8, i.e. it is the class of all such relations as « | y, where zeaand ye. For agiven y, the class of couples we obtain is | y“a, which is similar to a; and the number of such classes, for varying y, is Ne‘@. Thus we have Ne‘ classes of Ne‘a couples, and xa is the logical sum of these classes of couples. The class of such classes as | ya, where y «8, is important again in connection with exponentiation; we have | yYaral y, whence the class of such classes, when y is varied among the fs, is a“, and Bxa=sal“B (of #407), which we take as the definition of 8x a We represent the arithmetical product of ¢ and vy by ¢X,»- This, as well as Ne‘a x, Ne‘, is defined in terms of a x exactly as, in #110, the sum was defined in terms of a+ A. The present number contains many propositions which belong to the theory of af “8 rather than (specially) of @ xa; and many propositions are rather logical than arithmetical in their nature, i.e. they might have been given in #55. The line is, however, so hard to draw that it has seemed better to deal simultaneously with all propositions on a J “8 or on its sum, which is 2 x a. Thus in the present number, the early propositions, down to #113118, deal mainly with logical properties of a | “8 and 8 x a; the following propositions, * We dofine this as @ xa, rather than a , for tho sake of certain analogies with products in rolation-arithmetio. Cf, +166.102 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr ur down to #115°13, deal mainly with arithmetical properties of a “B; the pro- positions *11314—191 are concerned mainly with arithmetical properties of Axa; *113:2—27 deal with the simpler properties of wz x, v; #113:3—34 give propositions involving the multiplicative axiom, and exhibiting the connection (assuming this axiom) of addition and multiplication; #113-4—'491 are con- cerned with various forms of the distributive law; #1135541 deal with the associative law of multiplication, and the remaining propositions deal with multiplication by 0 or 1 or 2. The most important propositions in the present number are the following: #118101. F: Re @xa.s.(quy)-weayeB.Raaly This merely embodies the definition of 8 x a. ¥#113:105, Figqta.d.afelol This proposition is especially useful in dealing with exponentiation (#116). #113114. Fna=A.v.B=Ars.8xa=A It is in virtue of this proposition that a product of a finite number of factors only vanishes when one of its factors vanishes. #113118, F.sD“(8 xa) Ca.sA(BxalCB This proposition is chiefly useful in the analogous theory of ordinal products (#165, #166), where it enables us to apply #74773. Unless @= A, we have s*D“(8 x a) =a, and unless a= A, s(“(8 x a@) = 8 (#113-116), #11312. Figta.>. al “Be NefB 9 Cl excl*Nea Te. unless a is null, al “8 consists of Nc‘ mutually exclusive classes each 3 having Ne‘a members. wlI3197. Fs RP yeattiy. SPseRams.>. (RISE x re(al “Ayam aT (y | &3) This is an important proposition, since it gives a double correlator of @ | «(2 with y | 8 whenever simple correlators of a with vy and of 8 with 8 are given. It leads at once to #11313. Frasmy.Asmd.9.a) “Bsmsmy { “8. (8 x a)sm(3 x7) This proposition is fundamental in the theory of multiplication, since it shows that the number of members of @ x a depends only upon the numbers of members of a and 8. It is also fundamental in the theory of exponentiation, as will appear in «116. #113141. F. No‘(a x A) =Ne(8 x a) This is the source of the commutative law of multiplication (*113'27). #113146. Fa+ 68.3.0 x Bsm eg (Ufa viB) This connects our present theory of multiplication with the theory of selections.SECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CLASSES 103 We come next to propositions concerning # x_v. We have #118204. brew A.Viv=A.vin(gveNC): 2d pxvah ‘The use of this proposition, like that of #110-4, is for avoiding trivial exceptions. 11328. F.yx,veNC 4113-25. +. Ne‘y x, Ne‘S = Ne“(y x 8) This proposition enables us to infer propositions on products of cardinals from propositions on products of classes, and is therefore constantly used. #11B27. bipxpvevxye This is the commutative law of cardinal multiplication. ‘The chief proposition using the multiplicative axiom is #11331, Fs. Multax.Dip,veNC.cevnClu.d. Sew Xev Te.assuming the multiplicative axiom, the sum of the numbers of members in v classes of terms is zx,v. If we had taken this sum as defining 4 xqv, almost all propositions on multiplication would have required the multiplica~ tive axiom. The advantage of a | “A is that, given asm y and Bam 8, we can construct a double correlator of a | “8 with y | “8, without using the multi- plicative axiom, This is proved in *113+127 (mentioned above). The distributive law, which is next considered, has various forms. We have, to begin with, #1134, b.(Buy)xa=(8 x a)u(y xa) whence, using also the commutative law, we easily deduce #113-43.b. (V5) Xp =H Xo (Vo) = (MH Xe V) Ho (HM Xo) But the distributive law also holds when, instead of enumerated summands 8, 7 or v, w, the sunmands are given as the members of a class x, which may be infinite. We have #113-48. fF. sfa x “ema x sf = Cav"{(s'x) x a} whence, using the definitions of #112, we find #113491, fs ¢ Clo excl. D. ENeta xix = NeM(a x Efe) = No‘ax, SNefe This is an extension of the distributive law to the case where the number of summands may be infinite. The associative law w11S54. F.(u Xev) Xe =MXo(v XB) is proved without any difficulty. We prove next that # x,v=0 when, and only when, »=0 or v=0, wv being existent cardinals (#113'602); that a cardinal is unchanged when it is multiplied by 1 (#1162621); that »x,2=+.p (#11366) and that B Xo (vt 1)= (pw Xv) +o (#118671).104 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr ur #11302, Bxa=s'al “8 DE % #11303. px.v=F {(qa, 8). p=Necla.v=NoB.ksm(axA)} Df #11904. No@x,u=Ne'@ xen Df #11305. 2 x,Ne‘a=px,Ne‘a Df In relation to types, #113:03-04-05 call for similar remarks to those made in #110 for addition, MSL b.Bxanctal “B [("113:02)] ; x113101. b: ReBxa.=.(qa,y).cea.yeR.Raely [#407.*1131] w113102. Frye. D.aby=@t Baty Dem, }.#35°108.':. Hp.D:2(atA)y wear (*85°51] Dat As'y = | ya [(#38-03)] =afy:Db. Prop #113108. Fa) “B= (at B)sMU“B=(aTA)]“@ [*113102. 48552] #113104. F. Eta y [#38-12] % #115105. Fig !a.d.aLell Dem. F.¥113104. #71166. +a el > Cls Q) b.#98181. bral yaal‘e.c6ea.d.clyeal e. [x38-131] D.(qe’).weaaly=a' fz. [55-202] Diy=e (2) F.(2).#10112935.Dhigtacal(yqal‘e.d.y=z (3) j .(1).(8).#71'54. DF. Prop ¥113-106. Fiwea.ye8.D.clyeAxa [¥113101] #118107. Figla.g!8.D.qi@xa [113-106] MISLL bigla.d.al“BeNeBr(y).af yeNeta Dem, + .¥119'105104. #7826. Db rqla.d.af “gsm @ F.488°2. #78611. Drealysma (2) F.(1).(2). >t. Prop MUIBLLL boa Be Cle excl [4118-103 . #8555] MIISLI2 Fras A. gt 8.D.af “BaUA b Dem. F.6883. 3h: Hp.D.af “B=B((qy).yeB-m=Ly“A} [¥37-29] =Al(qy)-yeB.ped [Hp] aeSECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CLASSES 105 #113118. b:8=A.D.a)“B=A [87°29] % #113114 Fia=A.v.B=Ars.@xasA [#118-1112°113-107 . ¥53-24] #LIS 15. FSR xa)=at Be Dem. +. 4113101 «4111.3 bru (s(@xa)}v.2.(qR,o,y).ceayeRsR=cly.uRv. [x13°195.45513] =.(quy).cea.yeR.u=o.vay, [x19:22] swea.veR. [*35°103] .u(at Bu: DF. Prop RUIB116, bgt #.d.sD“(Bxa)=aiqia.d.sM(Bxa)=8 [WL 18-115 . 441-43-44 . 435°85°86] #USLIT. Frea=A.v.B=A:d.8D(Bxa)=A.sO(8 xa)=A [w119-115 .441:45-44., #35:88] #118118. F. 8 D(8 x a) Ca. sO"(B xa) CB [*113°116117] #1I1B12. Figta.>. al “Be NefBn Clexcl‘Ne‘a [#11311111] #113121. +. Xa “BsmBxa [#112°15 . #1131111] #118122, Fs Ry, SpdeCls1 .y CUR. 8CAG.D. (RIS) M8 xy) e191 [#74773 .4113°118] 118-123. Fr fy, SP Sells. yCU'R.8CAS. cey.wed.d. (RIB | w)= (Re) | (Sw) [45561] #LIZI24 Fs RP y, SPS el—+Cls.yCAR.SCAS.wed.3. (RUB) y | w= (By) (Sm) Dem. F. #119123 438-131. fF: Hp. >. (RIS) | why = | (Sewy"BMy- [x88-2] 2.(RI By | w= (Ry) J (Siw) sD F Prop #118125, : RP y, SP Bel Cs. CUR. SCA. D. (BI Seley | B= (Ry) | (98) [118124] #118126, Fs Hp 113°125 .D. (Rl) 8)!"(8 xy) = (88) x (Ry) Dem. F118. #4038. DF. (RI S)(8 xy) =8(R |S) ey | 3 a) 3 F.(1). #113125. Dk: Hp.d. (RIS) x 7) =9(RMy) 4s) [*119-1] = (88) x (RM“y) 2 Dk. Prop106 4113-127. #113-128. #11313. #11314, #113-141, 113-142. Dem. ¥113-143, Dem. #113144, Dem. F .21:33 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [par? ID bi RP yeasty. SPseAams.>. (RUSE xy) e (af 8) am Ba (y | 8) [119*122-125 . 443°302. «73°142. #11114] ts Hp #119-127 .>. (RI) S)p (8x7) (8 x a) a (B x). (RI Seb (| Bea 8) Rw (y LB) [119-127 . #11115) 3 Frasmy.@smd.3.a | “Psmemy J “8, (8 xa)sm (3x) 3 [¥119-127 . 111-444. #113-1] Fax @=Cnv(@xa) — [113°101 . #55°14] b.Ne(ax @)=Ne(@ xa) [*113°14. #734] Figtf.d.D“(Rxa=targla.>.a“(B xa)=18 F #55261. #202. Dhiyes.d. Dial y=wta [*37°63] DhiyeDMlal MB.D.y=ia Q) b.aBT45 . Dhigia.d.qi Deal “B (2) F.(1).(2)-KOLLAL.D EGA. Dd. Dela “Bm utetea. [#40°38.458:02] >. Diista ep =e (3) f.w55251 Dhigta.d.dMaly=uiy. [#37°355] 2. da | eB =p. [¥40'38.453-22] 2. data | ep =u (4) +. (3). (4). #1131. 4. Prop brate.P=ely.R=elavy|f.>. P=(Rea) | (Rif). R=D'P ft vavd'P Pus } #5562. Db: Hp. >. Ra=a.RB=y. [#30-19.#1915] >. P=(Réa) | (R‘A) q) b.45515.Db: Hp.>.D'Pai'e. Pay. [x55-1] 2D.R=DPP avd P pugs (2) F. (1). (2). D4. Prop brat@.T=PR((qa,y).sea-yeR.-P=a0ly-R=alavy}S}. D.Tel 31. DT=p xa. M'Taea(ua vB) ski. Hp.d: PTR.QTR.D.(q2,y,2,w).0,2ea.y,wep»P=rly.Qazhu. R=xlavylB=zlavwlB.SECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CLASSES 10% [¥118-143] >. P = (R'a) | (R&B). Q = (Ra) | (RB). [413172] >.P=Q Q) F.*2133.3h:.Hp.3:PTQ.PTR.D. (H2,y,2,w). 0, 2ea.y,wef.P=axly=wlz.Q=r2lavy|8.R=z lav} p. [#113143]. Q=D‘P ft iauGP pip. R=DPtvavd Ppp, [¥13-172] 3.Q (2) f.43313.h:Hp.>. DP=P (gh, «,y).cen.yeB-P=aly.Raalavy}B} [w11-5541919] = B{(qay).wea.ye.P=oly} [4113101] =Bxa (3) .#33181. Db: Hp.>. OT=R(qP,2,y).cca.yeh.-P=aly.R=alavy| Bp} [#11°55.413-19] =Ri(qa,y).vea.yeB.R=aclavy |B} [80-9] sea(Uau iB) 4) F. (1). (2). (8). (4). DF. Prop Note to #113144, In virtue of #118:143 and *55°61 we have bi Hpall9144.3: PTR. =. Reeat(taue'g).P=(R| Bal A). At a later stage (in #150) we shall put RYS=(RIRYS Dt Thus we shall have, anticipating this notation, +: Hp#l13144.3.7=(t(a] A) hea(tfa veg). Hence we have Frat B.D. {ta} B)} fea (tau UB) e(B x a) smi ea(U'a UB). W113.145. Frat @.d.Bxasmes(aveg) [¥119144] #118-146. Fiat 8.D.ax Bsmea(vaveB) [el13141°145] #113-147, F: Hp #113144. 8xa=p.>. T=PRIP ep. R=DP fh eD “pod Pf sy} Dem. F.¥118-114. Transp. #:Hp.Pep.d.qia-gis- [#113-142.453-22] Dia=s Dp. B= sp qa) F.4118101143. 3b. Hp. Pep.3:PTR.2.R=D‘Ptravd Pte (2) F.al18144. Db:Hp.PTR.D.Pep (3) F (1). (2). (8). #113101. 9. Prop The advantage of this proposition is that it exhibits the correlator of 8 x a and ea‘(ifav t*8) as a fanetion of 8 xa.108 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr tT #113148. Fran B=A.>.Ch(ax Bell Dem. b.#113101.455°15.> bt. Hp.3: RB, Seax8.CR=CS.5. (gq, 2, yy’). 0,0 ea.yy eh R=ylaSa=y Lal vevityaea vty’. [454-6] D.(qa,2y,y)-nalea.yy'eR Rey le.S=y lao=a'y=y's [#1322172] >.R=S qa) b. (1). 47155. 4. Prop wMI815. 1. OM(ax 0)= 08 xa) =F i(quy).wea.yeR-E=teur'y} Dem. Fe WLI3'T #4038. DF. OM(B x 0) =stCa | «8 [40-4] =Ficay).yeB- beady} [455:27.438'2] =F ((qa,y).wea.yeB.E=Uaury} (1) FES. dh. OKaxs)=Flgay)-ceayea Eateur'y} @) F.(1).(2).2. Prop #113151, Frat @.D.O%(ax B)=DMes(uau vB) [4119-15 . 8092] #119162, Fran B=A.D.C(a x R)sm (ax B).DMeat(t'a ve“) sm (a x 8) Dem. F. #844162. Hp.a+@.>.Déeat(fa uu) sm ea“(u'av U8) @ F. (1). 113146151. b:Hp.at 8.3. 0(ax 8)sm(a x A). Dé ea4(t'a v 198) sm (a x 8) (2) F.#2438.Dt:Hp.a=8.2.a=A.R=A. [#113-114.483°11.48729] D.ax B=A. Dieai(t'a v(p)=A.0“(ax B)=A. [473-47] 2.0(ax 8)sm (ax B).Dex"('aue'B)sm(ax 8) (3) F.(2).(8). DF. Prop The following proposition is only significant when \ and are classes of relations. It is used in relation-arithmetic (*172'34). wLLBL03. Fs As p= A.D.4/C HA xp)e(SAO™ ETH (A Xp) oA psmA Xp > Dem. + #5515 45818. Db: R=TLS.2.8CR=SuT ay #1). #113101. bi RR rx. sOR=sOR’ Dd. (GS,8',7,7').8,8'ed.T, Ten. R=T]S8.R=1' |8'.SvT=S'oT" (2) F. (2). #25°48 4113.3 Hp.2: RR edx ps OR=8CR .D.R=R (3) F. (1). #113101. DF. SO" xp) = Mt (gS, 7). Ser. Pep. M=Sv 7} [M407] =o Mp (4) , }. (8). (4). #7325... PropSECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CLASSES 109 w113-16. Fi tfa=t'8.2.Ne(ax B)= D Fay. d).ye Meta. Se Nic'B yo 5= A. Fsm Deea(uy v U'8)} em. f. #118152. DF eye Nica. deNeiB.ynd=A.D Fem Dé‘eg"(t'y v0) &sm (yx 8). [#113'13,#104101] =. £sm(ax 6). [¥100°31] =.EeNe(axf) (1) F (1). 45°82. #1111841. Fs. (gy, 8). ye Nola. SeNefB.yn d= A. Esm Diteg"(uty v'8). =: (an d)«ye Nea. SeNc'B.yndaA.FeNe(ax A): [¥1145] 2 (qy.8).ye Neca. deNeiB.ynS=ArEeNe(axf) (2) F.(2).#10443. +. Prop #11817. +.B xaett(at 8) Dem. bALISI15 4113.4: Re Bxa.d.RGatp. [*64'201] >. Ret(at A) a) fF. (1) «63°. DF. Prop #ISITL Fran GHA... qt Ne (ta)(ax 6) Dem. b. 11915215. b+ Hp.>.E{(qa,y) wea.yeB.E=ucurty} eNo(ax A) (1) b.k5T1G. = - Dhrwea.yeR.E=Uwvily.d.wea.wek. [63113] D. Feta 2) F. (2). #111135. bE ((qa,y)-wea-yeR.FaUeuly}Cta. [e635] DEE (quay) wea.yeR. Fata urty} etitta (3) F.(1)- (8). Dt: Hp. D+ q!Ne"(ax B)atitta (4) F.(4).#102°6. DF. Prop Note that the hypothesis am @= A is only significant when a and f are of the same type. #113172. FraetB.D. qt Ne (t#a)‘(a x 8) Dem. .wl1816. DtiHp.DiyeNieta.SeNeB-yndad.d. Défest(ufy uv t3)eNe(ax 8) (1) F.(1).#10443.9:Hp.>. (a8) «ye Nieta. Se Neh. Ditea(uhy v v8) eNe(axB) (2) b.#l041. Dhiye Nicta.Dd.vet™a. [63°61-621] Di thy uy Betta, [83:81] D. Détegi(uy v 8) et'ta (3) F.(2).(8). DF: Hp. d. qt Nea x 8) n tit a (4) f.(4). #1026. DF. Prop110 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (Part IID ¥113.18 Fiqla.gq!@.ax Baa xf. dasa. Bap’ F.#113114.5+:Hp.d.qia xp. [#113114] D.qia qh’ qa) 43037. Db: Hp.d.sU(a x 8) =sA(a' x f’). [*118142,(1)] D. suas sia’. [453-22] D.asa’ (2) Similarly t:Hp.>.8=8" (3) + .(2).(3). DF. Prop w113181, bi q@la.gtad.axB=dxf.>.R=h Dem. F.x1B172. 4: B=A.B'=A.3.8=f% Q F.#11318.3+:Hp.w(@=sA.f’=A).2.8= @) F. (1) «(2).3. Prop w1181982, big! @.q16’.axB=a'xf’.d.a=a [Proof as in ¥#113°181] ¥118-183, big ta.gi@.d.P (ax p)=sO(ax A)=av8 Dem. F.aO57. Dh. 8C“(ax B)=sD“(ax B)vs(axf) (1) b.x4056. DE. Fax A) =s'C(ax B) Q) b. #113142. bs Hp. 2d. fI(a x 8) =o" [459-22] =a (3) b. #113142. F: Hp. >. Dax B)=se"p [«53-22] =6 (4) +. (8)-(4). Dkr Hp.d.9D(ax Q)vsU(ax p)=avZ (5) F.(1).(2). (5). DF. Prop #11319. Fiqi(axB)a(yxd).=.qlany.qiBad Dem. b.#118101. Fig tax B)a(yxd).s! (qa,y,2,w).wea.yeR.cey.wed.clyswlet (2,4, 2,w). wea. yeB.zey.wed.mae.y=wt (qt, y).veany-yeBnd:. IF. Prop [455-202 [#1322] wUS19L Fogle. Digtal “Boal “y.s-atBay Zi Dem. bex876.Dhegtal “nal “y=. (ays).yeB.ccyalymals (1)SECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CLASSES U1 F. 4118105. #7157 Dk Hp. Drafyqales.ymar {@] Digtal“Bnaly.=.(Gy,2)-yeR.zey.y=e- [¥13°195] =.qlanQsDF. Prop #1132. Fr Few xgv- =. (qa, 6). p= Neta.v=NoetB. Fem (ax f) [(*113-03)} #118201. ti. Few xv [¥119-2 . #10327] veNC:(qa,8)-aen.Bev.£sm (ax p) 113-202, bs. Bey xgveS2 ql meg! (Gy, 8) «p= Ne‘y.v=No‘S. £sm(yxd) Dem. fF .#118-201 . #1004. bin ew xv. 21 (qa, By, 8). w=Nety.v=NeS.aeu. Rev. €sm (ax A). [#10031] ‘1a,8,y,8)-" = Nety.v=NeS.asmy. 8 smd. Esm(a x B)+ [4113-13 .473:37] = + (Ga,8,7,8) . w=Nety.v =No'B.asm y. 8sm3.£sm (yx). [#10031] 28,98). w= Noty.v=NeS.aew. Bev. £sm(yxd). [10°35] Vw. gtv: (a8). w= Nety.v=No'S. Esm(y x 8)% Db. Prop 118-208. Fig tp xev- D+ p,veNC—UA.p,veNC [¥113-201-202'2] 4118-204. Fim Awvev=A.vin(uveNC):D.p xvod [4113-203] 113-208. bin(y,ve NC). 2. p xv A [#113-203] #11321, bs. y,veNO.d: Few xov.=- (Ga, 8).aen. Bev. &sm (ax A) [#113201] 11822, Fr EeNe(n)'y x, Neo(f)8.=. gq! Ne (ny. HE Ne (OS. £ sm (yx 8) Dem. F. a119-21.#100°41 . DF: Ee Ne (9)My x, No({)'3.=- (qa, 8). a¢ Ne(n)"y Be Ne (65. Esm (a x B)+ (qa, 8) .aeNo(n)*y.BeNe(t)‘S.asmy. sms. £sm(ax A). (qa, 8). aeNe(n)*y.BeNe(f)3.asmy.8smd.Esm(y xd). (qa, B). ae Ne (n)*y. Be Ne(£)'3. Esm (yx 8). aE Ne(n)y qt Ne(f)'8. Esm (y x 8): +. Prop ¥l18-221. 2g ENe (n)'y gq! No(£)'8.D« Ne (n)My x4 Ne (£)'3 = Ne“(y x 8) [113-22] #113-222. F . Nycfy x, Nic‘S = No“(y x 8) Dem. #108113. F. Nyoty = Ne (yy. NieS = Ne (8)'8. qt Nocty .g ENS « [#113221] DE. Nicty x, NictS = Ne“(y x 8). Prop [#1026] [¥11318.¥73'3 [x1026] [x10'35]112 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part #11323. be x,veNC Dem. F.#113-222 #10041. 3h: u,veNC.>.nx,veNC qa) F.#118-205 #10274. Db :~(u,ve NC). DepxeveNC (2) F.(1). (2). +. Prop #11324, +. Noty x, NoS = Nyo'y xp Nie'S [(#113-0405)] #11825. F. Noty x,NetS=Ne(y x8) [#119-24-299] This proposition constitutes part of the reason for our definitions. It is obvious that such definitions ought, if possible, to be chosen as will yield this proposition. #113261, Fay x Se Ne“y xpNe‘S [#119-25 . #100'3] 4113-26, Fiy,veNC.g toma. g tomy. >. w xov=sm,%e x,smey Dem. +.48729. Transp. 4: Hp.d.q!a.gly. [#102°64] > «(Ga B.7,8)-w=Ne(a)'y.v=No(B)'3. (2) F. #10288. 2p =Ne(a)4y.v=Ne(A)'8.qlsm,“u. yl sme“v. >. sm,t* = Ne (n)fy . smyv = Ne (£)'8..q ! Ne (n)'y gq INe(0)3. [4113-221] >. sm, Mp x, smz“y = Ne“(y x 8) (2) + .#37-29. Transp . #113'221.> Fi p=Ne(a)y.v=Ne(8)'S.q!sm,“u.gismev.d.px,v=Ne(yxd) (3) F.(2).(8).D Ft a= Ne(a)'y.v=Ne(Q)3.q !sm,u.q tomy. >. wxpv=sm,ux,smey (4) F. (4). #1L11-85°45 (1). DF. Prop #113-261. i p,veNO.D. p xov =p x. 9" = pin) Xo Yon = CHC. Here “ete.” includes all ascending derivatives of «. We shall only prove the result for 2“ and v%, since it is proved in just the same way for the other cases. yp”) xX, v! or pu) Xq Vi OF etc. will serve equally well; ie. it is not necessary to take the same derivative of as of v. Dem, + 4104264265. biHp.qtp.qiv.2.p%=sm,“p. 0 =om,“p. gl aM .giv®. [#113-26] Dip xXev=p" xy v Q) F.#104°264.. #118204. bin(q tp. gin) Dep xeva A. pl x, 0 =A (2) F. (1). (2). F. Prop As appears in the above proof, if i and »/ are any derivatives of » and », the above proposition holds provided we have Tin gly. d.qipigty. Thus it holds for all ascending derivatives, but not always for descending derivatives.SECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CARDINALS 13 #11927. be pxyv—vxep Dem. +. #1182141. bi€ewxay (qa, A). w=Nefa. v= Nye. Esm(8 xa). [e132] =. Fev x,u:Db. Prop Note that this proposition is not confined to the case in which w and y are cardinals. When either or both are not cardinals, BXgv=A=vV Xo pe #1133, bs, Multax. D: ee Ne‘Ba Cl'Ne‘a. D. See Ne‘ax, Ne Dem. +, #11224, #11312. Fi. Multax.q!a.dieeNo@nClNea.d. Sesm Safe. [#113121] D.Besm Bxa. [¥113-141-25] D. Eee Nota x, Ne‘B qQ) f. 411311425. bra=A.d.Ne‘ax,NefB=0 (2) FewLOLT4. Dh rea =A. ee NofBn ClNota. Die e Clu: [*60:362] DieaAwvieaA: [¥1123301) DiMee A (3) b. (2). (8) #54102. trae A. eeNe‘Bn Cl'Nela.d. SeeNctaxeNeB (4) b.(1). (4). Db. Prop #11831, bs. Multax.ip,yeNC.wevnCly.d. Seep xp [1193] #11332, b:. Multax. Di p,veNC. evn Clexclp. >. seep Xev (W112-15 . #113'31-23] #11933, f:. Multax.3:y,veNC.xevnCly.reunCly.>. ENete = ENO =p xov [4113'B1-27-23] 11334, bi, Multax. Di p,veNC. evn Clexclfy.re nn Clexcl'. >. Notefe= Nes =p xq» [#118°32-27] The above propositions give the connection of addition and multiplication. The following propositions are concerned with various forms of the dis- tributive law, W134. b.(Buy)xa=(Bx a) U(y xa) Dem. b.aIBT. Db. (8 vy) xaastal (Buy) [#4031] aaa Busta My («113-1] =(8 x a)u(y xa). 3b. Prop #119401. bi Aay=A.d.(Bxa)n(yxa)=A [#11919 . Transp] R&W IL 814 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PaRT It #11341. |. No(8 ++) x, Ne‘a=Ne‘{(8 +4) x a} = Ne‘{(8 x a) +(y x a)} = No“(8 x a) +, Ne“(y x a) Dem. + #11325. #1103. DE. Ne(B +) x, Nota = Ne‘{(8 +4) x a}. No‘{(8 x a) + (yx a)} = Ne“(8xa)+,Ne“(y xa) (1) #1134. (KMOOL). DE. (B Hy) xa=(L AU“ Bxayu(Ag | “U%yxa) (2) -#LIDTB.#LIOI2Z. Dh. LA MueBxasmBxa. Ag | My xasmyxa (3) #LIS401 411011. DE.C LAME Bxa) An (Ap | My xa)=A a f.#110°152.(2).(3).(4). DF. (8 + y) x asm {(8 x a) +(y x @)} (5) b.(1).(5). DF. Prop #11342. +. (Ne‘B +, No“y) x, Ne“a= Ne(8 +4) x_ Neva = (Neg x, Nea) +, (Ney x, Ne‘a) [#1103 . #113-25 . ¥113°41] #119421. +. No‘a x, (Ne‘@ +, Nety) = Nea x, Ne(8+ 9) = (Nefa x, NetQ) +,(Ne‘ax,Nety) [¥113:42-27] #11348. be (v +,01) Xp ep Xe (V9 7) = (We XoP) +o (ue Xe) Dem. b. #1182742] Ds y,v, ceNC.D. (v4.0) X= 4 Xo(V +. 7) =(Xer)te(uXom) (1) + rrr b. #113-204. #1104. > bie(u,v,oeNC).3.(vt.o) XopHA px (v+,a)=A. (4 Xe) te(H Xe =A (2) b. (1). (2). 3. Prop oe The following propositions are concerned with various forms of the distri- butive law, when the summands are not enumerated, but given as the members of a class, The first of them (#113'44) gives the distributive law with regard to arith- metical class-multiplication and logical addition of classes. #11344. +. (3%) x asx a) Ce Dem, Fe wl1S1. Db. (x a) n= ssa s oe ; [x42-1] =alola | Me % [40°38] = ofa | he x (#113-1] =(8'e) xa. DF. Prop #11345. bi eeClstexcl. >. x aM‘n ¢ Olstexcl Dem. bewl1819. DhighxatBaxaty.d.qiBay ay b. (1). #8411. 3b: Hp. 2:8, yee. gtx akBn xaty. py Bays [¥80°37] Dpny XaB=x aly? [#37-63] DipoexaE.g!pac-Dye-po (2) +. (2). 48411. 3+. PropSECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CARDINALS 1lt #11346, bce Clstoxol. >. E4x afte sm (Ex) x a Dem. bel O15 DtrHp.d. Seam ste. [x113°13] D.(Stx) x asm (3) x a Q be w11215 4118-45. 2 Hp. D. Sfx afte sm of ate (2) +. (1). (2). «118-44.9+. Prop 118-47, brace Olstexel. >. ZNotx ax = No“((B‘e) x a} = ENete x, No“a [#113-46] This is the distributive law for arithmetical multiplication and arithmetical addition of the kind defined in #112. 11848, fafa xem ax sfc = Cav"“{(s'e) x a} Dem. be wl1B14. Db 8fa xe = o'Onv'x afte [#40°38) = Cav'“sx ate [w113-44] = Cnv*{(s%«) x a} Q) (w113-14] =axse (2) F.(1).(2). D4. Prop #11849, bree Clstexel. >. Ba xe sm a x (Ex) Dem. be lIS14. Db. a xe = Oni x alte q@) b.(1). 113-45 . #7 2°11. #8453. b:Hp.D.ax“eeClstexol. [112-15] D. Sa xesm sia xe [#11348] D. Sfaxesm ax (5%). [a11215.4113-18] -D. Sa xeoma x (Be): Dt. Prop 113-491, bree Clstexcl .D. ENota xn = Nol(ax E'x) = Nofa x, SNe‘ [#1134925] The following propositions are concerned with the associative law for arithmetical multiplication. W118. bay x A) xa=R((qa,y,2).cea.yeR.sey Real (yds)} Dem. +. #113101 .5 b.(yx 8) xa=R (qo, P).wea.Pe(yxf). R=a] P} [18101] =R{(qa,y,2).cea.yeR.zey. R=2](y}2)}.2+. Prop #11351, F.(ax 8) x ysmax (8x) Dem. +. «113141. 3b.ax (8 xy)sm(8 xy) xa ql) b.¥1185. Dhi(axP)xy=R((qa,y,2).wea.yes.zey. Raz] (ylo)}. (8x9) x a=P ((qa,y,2).cea.yeB.zey.P=e}(2ly)} (2) 6-2116 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr nr +.Q)- Db: T= RP ((qa,y,2).vea-yeB.sey-R=2|(ylo).Paal(yl2)}-2- D‘T=(ax 8)x 7. UP =(8 xy) xa (8) .#2133.+:Hp(3). RTP. RTQ.> (a2, 2,yy,2,2).0, 0 ea.y,y eB.zfey Raz (yla=2' liye). Paahely.Q=el@ly). [#55:202]).P=Q (4) Similarly +:Hp(3). RTP.Q7TP.>.R=Q (5) F. (8). (4). (5). Db. (ax 8) x ysm (8x y)xa (6) F.(1).(6). 3. Prop #113511. ax xy=(ax P)xy Dé 411352, +. (Nea x, Ne‘Q) x, Nety=No(ax 8 xy) [#11325] #11353, +. (No‘a x, Neg) x, Ne‘y = Ne‘a x, (No‘g x, Ne“y) Dem +, #113°52°51.3 F . (No‘a x, NotQ) x, No“y = Ne‘{a x (8 x)} [#11825] = No‘a x, (Ne‘ x, Ne‘y). +. Prop ¥11SESL F. (Nooa x, Noc'B) xq Nooty = Noota x, (Nic'8 x_ Nic“y) {¥113-53 . (#113-04-05)] #11354 b.(uxQv) Xp = ps Xy (V Xoo) Dem. + ¥113°531 . #103'2.3 tp,vaeN,C..(uxor) Xo T= pXo(v Xo) qd + #113:204.3 0 (u,v, 7 NC) +d. (uw xq») XeT SA. pXe(VXea)=A (2) «(1). (2). . Prop WIS54L pXpvxpo=(4 Xr) xo DE #1186. +. No‘ax,0=0 rrr Dem. + #11825 «#1011. 3+. No‘a x, 0 =Ne‘(a x A) Je113-114.#101-1] =0.3+.Prop #118601. br peNC-U'A. 3. x,0=0 Dem. + .#103-26. +: Hp.>.(qa). p= Nea Q) F, #101-11-13 . *103-27.3F.0=NetA. (2) .(1).(2). Dk: Hp.d. (qa). px,0=Neota x, Not [x113-222] = No‘(a x A) [*113-114.#101-1] =0:3+. PropSECTION B] ON THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF TWO CARDINALS #113602. Frew x.v=0. Dem. b#113-203 . #10112. bipxev=0.3.p,veNC—1A b. (1) «113-201. tinpx.y=0.32£e0. pveNC-UArp=0.v.v=0 [454-102] «22: (qa,8)-aep. Bev. Esm(ax A) [¥10-1.#13-15] a%.8). aep. Bev. Asm(axf)t [473-47] (Ga, 8).acp.Bev.ax B=An [#119114] D:.(qa,8):aep.Bevsa=A.v.B=An [#13195] Aepev.Acvin [(1)#10045] Dep NofA.v.v=Ne‘As. [#1011] Dip=0.v.v=0 b.¥113601-27. Db: p,veNC~UArw=0.v. 90:3. px.=0 f.(2).(8). 24. Prop (qa, A). ep. Bev. £sm(ax Bs, 7 a (2) @) The following propositions are concerned with multiplication by a unit class or by 1 or 2. #11961, bielexa= Joa Dem. bewl1B1. Db. examofal “2 [453'31-02] salts [¥38-2] =| 2a. 3+. Prop #113611. b.uzxasma [#11361 .#73°611] #119612. biaxcsoma [K113611‘141] #11362, +. No‘ax,1=Ne‘a Dem. +. #1012, 3b. Ne‘ x, 1 =Ne‘a x, Nee (w113-25] = Ne“(a x U's) [¥113-612] =Nefa.+. Prop #118621. brpeNC.3.px,1=sm“p Dem. } 4113-204. Dbrp=oA.d.px, Led [*87-29] =sm“p +. «10326. Db: Hp.aepw.d.p= Nea. [(#113-04)] D.pxpl=Ne‘axel [x113°62] =Ne‘a [#103-4.(2)] =sm“p #. (2). 1011-2835.9: Hp. gly.d.pxlasm%p F.(1). (4). D4. Prop qa @) @) 4)18 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (Parr m1 Observe that if w is a typically definite cardinal, emp is the “same” cardinal rendered typically ambiguous; while if 4 is typically ambiguous, p=sm“y in every type. #11363. brzvea. Dd. | 2 asm Desa vie) Dem. +, #113152. 3+: Hp. >. Dea(fav vu) sm a x oe (1) F. (1). #118°61-141.3 +. Prop #11364, b. | offax )o@omaxB. J eax | 28am | (ax 8) Dem. F #78611 -x118-13. 34. | eax | 2Bsmax eB @ +.(1).«73611. 9 Dh. L 2hax | 28am | 2“(a x 8) @) f.(1).(2). 3. Prop #11365, be | oax | f= (J 2||Cnvé | 2)(a x B) Dem. F #72184 .«5521. +. |zelol.aCd}2.ecd bz. [4113126] Dhed hax | oB=(L2|| Cav! | 2)(ax fp). Db. Prop #11366. b.px,2=p+,4 Dem. b.¥110643. Db. x.2—p x%(Lt_1) [¥113-43] = (4 Xo) ta(u# Xe 1) a) +.(). Dh p= Neola. D.px—2— (Nyela x, 1) +4 (Nyefa x51) [w113°62.(4113°04)] = Ne‘a+, Ne‘a [x110°3) stop (2) .(2).#10B2. Dkr weN,C.D.px.2=etow (3) fb. #118-205.4#1104. Db i pweNjC.d.ex,.2sA pt wad (4) b.(3). (4). DF. Prop #11367, +. No‘ax, No'(8 + u'y) = (Nea x, No‘) +, Nefa Dem. +, #113421. #1012. +. No‘a x, Ne(8 + uy) = (Ne‘a x, Ne“®) +, (Ne‘a xo 1) {*11362] = (No‘a x, Ne‘) +, Ne‘a. D+. Prop #1ISE71. bux, (V4+,1)=(u xy») ton [#113°67-205 . #110°4]#114. THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF A CLASS OF CLASSES Summary of #114, The kind of multiplication defined in #113 cannot be extended beyond a finite number of factors. We therefore, as in the case of addition, introduce another definition, defining the product of the numbers of a class of classes, and capable of being applied to an infinite number of factors. We define the product of the numbers of members of « as Ne‘es‘«; thus we put TINe‘« =Nefese Df It is to be observed that IINe‘x is not a function of Ne‘‘«, because, if two members of « have the same number, this will count only once in Nes, but, will count twice in IINe‘«, It is very easy to see that, in case « is finite, Ne‘es‘« will be what we should ordinarily regard as the product of the numbers of members of «. For suppose (¢.g.) K=UAV UB Ully, where a+ 8.a+y.8+y. Then esfe= BR ((qa,y,2).R=elavy|Buzly.cea.yeB.sey} Thus if Ris a member of ea‘x, Ris determinate when a, y, 2 are given, @, y, 2 being the referents to a, 8,7. Whether a, 8, overlap or not, the choice of any one of @, y, z is entirely independent of the choice of the other two, and there- fore the total number of choices possible is obviously the product of the numbers of a, 8,y. Thus our definition will not conflict with what is commonly under- stood by a product. The propositions of this number are less numerous and less important than those of #113, We shall deal first with products of a single factor, and products in which one factor is null (*114-2—27), We shall then deal («114’3—36) with the relations between the sort of multiplication here defined and the sort defined in #113. Then we have a few propositions (#114-4—'43) showing that unit factors make no difference to the value of a product. Then we prove (#1145—52) that the value of the product is the same for two classes having double similarity, and then (#11453—571) we give extensions of this result, which depend upon the multiplicative axiom. Finally, we give some new forms of the associative law of multiplication, Among the more important propositions in this number are the following: #11421. +. TINe‘t‘a> Nota Te, a product of one factor is equal to that factor.120 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr or 411428. F:Aex.3. TINK =0 Te. a product vanishes if one of its factors is zero. The converse requires the multiplicative axiom, as appears from the proposition #11426, f:. Multax.=:TINe‘*=0.5,.Aen Ze, the multiplicative axiom is equivalent to the assumption that a product vanishes when, and only when, one of its factors is zero, #114801. brenda A.D. eaf(e vA) sim eae X ead whenee w11431, Fiend =A.D. IINo‘e x, TNo' =TINo'(e va) which is a form of the associative law, and #11435, Frat 8.D.TINeM(iau 1B) = Ne‘ax, Nowe which connects the two sorts of multiplication. #1441. 2A C1... TINe(e va) = TINete Te. unit factors make no difference to the value of a product, wLG61, bs PP sre HTT. D.(T| Te) Pea'd € (eae) stm (ea‘d) This proposition gives a correlator of es‘ and ea‘ as a function of a double correlator of ¢ and X, and thus leads to #11452, Fr esmsm2.>. [Note = TINo. eae sm ea Hence, by the propositions of #111, we infer #114571. bs. Multax.D:p,veNC. «Xe wn Clv. >. TINo‘e = TINo® Te. assuming the multiplicative axiom, if « and 2 each consist of p classes of » terms each, their products are equal. We have next various forms of the associative law, beginning with #1146. bee Clstexcl. >. TINo‘ea“e = TINe‘s‘e which is an immediate consequence of *85°44, The other form is #114632, b: SPyelol.yCAS.ynSy=A.d. ea'B {(qa).aey.p=ax Sa} sm ea(y v Sy) As to the sense in which this is a form of the associative law, see the observations following *114°6, #11401. IINe‘«=Ne‘es‘e Df eID. F.TINe‘n = Ne‘eae [(*114-01)] w11411. F: Re TINe‘e.=.Bsmese.=.BeNe‘es‘e [#1141. #10031] wAMG12, eae e IINo“e [#100°3. #1141] 1142, TINA =1 [488-15 . ¥101-2] Thus a product of no factors is 1. This is the source of y= 1, as we shall see later.SECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 121 #11421, +. TINe‘ta=Ne‘a [#83°41] 411422. +. TINc‘u“A=0 (411421. #1011) #11423, bidex.d.TINe‘e=0 [#83°11. #1011) Thus an arithmetical produet is zero if any of its factors is zero. To prove the converse, we have to assumé the multiplicative axiom, which, in fact, is equivalent to the proposition that an arithmetical product is only zero when at least one of its factors is zero. #11424. TINCA+0.¢CX.3. TINee +0 Dem. FewLI41. #1011. Db: TINO $0.D.q tear Q) F.(1).4806. DRITINCA +0. «CX. Dig tenes [wl14-1.4101-1] >. TINe‘e $0: 3+. Prop #11425. 3. Multax.=:TINe‘«=0.3,.Ae« } . #88'37 . Transp. > b:. Multax. ese=A.DeeAent [#114-1.4101-1 TINe‘e =0.3,-A ex. 3+. Prop Note that Aex.=.0eNe“k. #11426. +:.Multax.=: TINe%® = een [*88°372 . ¥1011) #114261, +:. Multax.=:IINe‘«=0 + Oe Noe [114-26 . 101-1] #11427. /:: Multax. dex. De. Gla: =, TINK +0 [#11426 . Transp . *24°63] #1143. bier. Dd. ca(Uea‘e v Ueg'A) om eae x Ca Dem. b. #LIS 146. Db eg’e + ea. D. ca'(Ufeate U Len‘) sm cafe X eg°A a b.e8081. Dhigpleste viplesNretrrD scale ead (2) +. #83:908 . «113°114.3 breafe=A ses Xa A.D. caf(Ueate Ulead) =A. cate X a h=A (3) F.(1). (2). (8). DF. Prop #114801, bien XA. Dd. ca4(e UA) smn cate X €a'D Dem. b.8545 241143. bremdeAcetr. 2. ea(eu d)sm ese x ea qa) b.xQ25. DbtenrA=A.e=Hrd.D.KHA-ASAL [#8315] Dieser aA. eatealAear=uh, [#113611] Dy eat(ev A)am ese x car (2) F.(1).(2). 34. Prop122 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr nr 11431, brend=A. 2. TENe‘e x, IINo% = TINe(e vd) (#1143011 . #11325] The above is one form of the associative law of multiplication. 114311, +. INe‘(e vA) = TINete x, HNo‘(A—«) [#11431 422-91] #11432. +: TINe(eva)+0.=. DNe‘e +0. N40 Dem. b, ¥114311. #113602.3 br TINet(e vA)+0. 3. T1Nete +0 a F(DEE. Dr TINe(eua)+0.9.TINe™ +0 (2) F 411424. 3b: TINo+0.3. TINe(A—«) 402 [Fact] Db: TINo‘e+0.TINo‘A +0. >. TINo‘« +0. TINo(A ~ x) 0+ [*113°602.#114311] D.TINe (eva) +0 (3) F. (1). (2).(8). DF. Prop #11483, Frawew.d.TINoM(« vv'a)=TINe‘n xpNo‘a [#1143121] #11434. br TINofe+0.qta.=.TINo'(e vv) +0 [#114°32-21 . #10114] #11435. brat @.d.TINeM(iaus'8)=Nofax,Neo(@ [1143321] 11496, Fiat B. ay. 6+ yD TINe (Mavi Bully) =No‘ax,Ne'B x,Ne'y [*11433:35] 1144. F:AC1.D. TINA =1 [483-44] wAM44L, b2AC1..1INe(e va)=TINe‘e [48357] 11442, +. TINo‘e = TINo“(x ~ 1) Dem. 42441. Db ee (e-Du(end) qa) b. (1). #11441. +. Prop 11443. + f wll45, Dem. sWUIDI, (br Hp.>. 2. 2eprelol Q + #8014. MBS-21. DH. wD ea'A Cot, often CA (2) + (1). (2) .#74°773.. > Hp. >. (2) Te)p eae ((T'll Pe)fea‘A} 5 (ead) (3) «Te + #8243, PQ #623. rE, TPrelol.sXCOT.ACT Le. = TED. (Lh ePA| Te)a'e = (Tl Le) es (4) be (4)-(1)-MLID1 #87111. : Hp. d. (Pl eh a] Peale = (LI) Pees (5) -TINe'(e u ea) = TINote [4114-41 .452'3] 2 Tex Smad. >. (Tl) Te)f eatde (cae) SiH (ea‘A) pre erator deirtereccereSECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 123 4341. 437101 .3 rre(Plepa|T)a.=.(gy,A).2Ty.y eB. Ber.a=T"B (6) +. (6) #7252 #1111. bi Hp.d:a(TlePa| Ta. [AL11°1°131,413'195] [437-1] i -(ay, 8)-2Ty yeB.Ber.B=Ta.aCDT, (gy) Ty -yeT*a.acn. =. aeTTa.aen. atl [¥72°502.«111-1] a(efea (2) F.(5).(7). DES Hp. D. (ef wate = (Pi Te)Meath. [*89-12] Dv eae = (Pll Te) ead (8) +. (8). (8). DF. Prop #14501. FS = TPs. D. (S|) Se) Pea R= (PI) Pep eat Dem. F.m80'14.. 483-21. bi. Reesd.D:yRB.D.yesr. Ber. [*4013] Di yesh. ACs? ay [#471.Pact] D:07y .yRQ.Blea.s.0Ty.yesh.yRB. Blea. BCS. [«37101."22621] 3.0 (TP sd) y yRB.a=TB.R=Bnsr. [).¥37-412] o(Tps'n)y-yRB.a=(TPsXyB (2) + .(2). Db: Hp.d: Reese. D.7|R) T= S| R|Se: [*35°71] D:(T|| Pp este = (S| Se) cate DE. Prop ALG BL bs Ph se eS A.D. (P || Te)f ea € (ea“e) 5H (ea"d) (#1145501) #11452. Fiesmsmd.D.IINe‘e=TINe'. esfesm esd [411451 . #1114] #11453. Fr: Multax. 3s. x, Xe Cls* excl : (gS). Sel+1.8€sm.DS=x.0S=r: 9. MNe‘e=TINer [#11452 . #1115] #11454. +2. Multax.3:y,veNC.«, deur Clexcl'y. >. IINe‘e=TINe‘d [a114°52 . #11153] The condition «,¢Cls*excl, which is involved in the hypothesis of #11454 (through x, Clexcl‘v), is not necessary. The following propositions enable us to remove it, We first prove eafxesm enfe [re and then we use #11454 to take us from ea‘e [“« to eae [“A. Thence we arrive at ea‘esm ea. #11456. b. cafesm eg’e [x . Note = TINe‘e [ie [#85°54) #114561. bs Se eaTHA n Rife .D .€f|8)Cnv“(eT)e(e] x) amie] A)aRI‘sm [73°63 . #85°601 . 88°12 . #33°432]124 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr rt #114562. F:.Multax.3: (gS). Sel1.8@sm.DS= 0.08 =r..e]“esmsm J Dem. + kL14°561 . «85°61. > bs. (qS)-Sel+1.SGsm.D'S=".0S=.9: e] x, [Xe Clstexel : (q 2). Pel 1.7 Gsm. DP ae]. P= Yr: [#1115] D:Multax.D. J «smsm ec]: DF. Prop «11457, F:.Multax. 2: (gS). Sel+1.8G@am.D'S=«.0S=n.D. IINe‘e = TINe‘n f .#114'562'52.> bs. Multax.3:(qS).Se1—+1.$Gsm.DS=".06=2.9. TINe‘e | c= TINe‘e | 2. [#11456] D.TINe‘x = IINo‘n:. DF. Prop w14571 bs. Multax. Di p,veNO. «Xena Cv. >. TINe‘e = IINe% [w111-52. #11457] #1146. Fs we Clstexcl. >. TNo‘es‘e = IINe‘s‘e [#85°44] This is the most general form of the associative law for arithmetical multi- plication. Owing to the fact that we have two kinds of multiplication, namely ax 8 and ea‘, we have four forms of the associative law of multiplication, namely: (1) «1146, above, (2) #118°54, ie, Fe (uw Xqv) Xp =p Xo (v Xem), (8) #11431, te brea d= A.D. TNe‘e x, Ne‘ = IINe“(« ud), (4) a form of the associative law which has not yet been proved, which may be explained as follows. Suppose we have a number of pairs of classes, eg. (0, 8,), (a: A), (a3, 83); +... Suppose we form the products a, x Ay, a% XA, as x Ay,... and multiply all these products together. We wish to prove that (with a suitable hypothesis) the result is similar to the product of all the a’s and all the 6’s taken together as one class; i.e. if we call d the class of products a, x Ay, a X Ba, % X Ms,..., and w the class whose members are a, 2, 03, +++, Bi» Be, By, +++) WE wish to prove TINe‘n = IINe‘p. In order to express this proposition in symbols, let $ be the correlator of the a's and fs, so that @,=S‘a,. (The suffix v will not be used further, since it implies that the number of a’s and of 6’s is finite or denumerable.) Then our class of products of the form a x 8 is Be). wey. w=ax Sa},SECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 125 where y is the class of all the a’s; and the product of this class of products is ca {(qa) aey. p=ax Stal. On the other hand, the class of all the a’s and 6's is y v Sy, and the product of this class is ea(y v Sy). Thus what we have to prove (with a suitable hypothesis) is ex'B (qa). wey. w= a x Sta} sm est(y v S*y), The hypothesis required is SPyeloliy CAS. ya Sy=A. A smaller hypothesis suffices, however, for a proposition which, in virtue of #114301, is closely allied to the above, namely eaty X eS sm ea‘f (qa) aey p=ax Sa}. For this, a sufficient hypothesis is SPyelol.yCas. Thus eg, we may write I for S, and we find bs eaty x eafy sm caf (Ga) ey. p=axa}. We shall now prove the above propositions. What follows, down to #*114°621, consists of lemmas, For convenience, we write Sa for a x S'a in the course of these lemmas; this notation is introduced in the hypotheses of the lemmas. WUL400L, Fs. SP yell y COS. Avery. 8, =fa(aey. pax Sa). Dt Sy e141. 0S, =7.DS, = 2 {(qa).aey.p=ax Sa}: acy. D.-Sxa=ax Sa Dem. F.x33-11, Dh: Hp... DS =A {(qa)-aey-p=ax Sa} q) b.42133. Dh Hp.aey.Dip(Sx)a-S,- pax Sat [«80°3] D:8,fa=ax Sa (2) +. (2).#14204. Dh: Hp. Diaey.2,- E!Sx‘a, (3) [33:43] D.- ae MS (4) + .#21-33.438°131.3+:. Hp. DraeMS,.2.-067 (6) F. (4). (5). Dt: Hp.d.d8, =. © {(8).#71-16) 3.8, ¢1—Cls (7) b #113181 . Dt Hp.Ddiaa’ey.ax Sasa’ x So. >.Sa=S. (¥71°59] D.a=a’ (8) +. (8) #7155. (2). (6) .(7). DF: Hp. .8x el (9) F.(1).(2).(6). (9). DF. Prop126 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC {part mt #114602, Fs Hp #114601. A = Ra {ac y.R=(S'a) La}.D. Aelo1.CtAay Dem. ‘As in *114°601, we prove brHp.d.d4e1->Ols. ‘A = Q) } #2133. #13171. bs. Hp. 3: RAa. RAB.D«(S'a) |a=(S'B) 1 B+ [%55:202] D.a=B (2) F.(1).(2). 94. Prop #114603, fs Hpx114602. X eeatyy. Feea'Sy. P=(VIX)|A|S,.-D. Pees DSx Dem. b 43°12 . #71°166 . #114°601-602.3+: Hp.3.Pel—Cls (1) .443°122 . #3732322 .*38431. Dt:Hp.d.d*P=S,“d‘d [4114:601-602] =DSx 2) F.4341.92.Hp.d: MPy.=.(qR,a). M=Y| RX. R= (Sa) Lacey. p=Sfa. [#119-123.480-14] =. (qa). M=(Y*S'a) | (Xa). po S,fa.aey. [x18-195.*114601] =. (qa). 8=S'e.aey.M=(Y*R) | (X‘a).p=ax Bp. [*83:2] (49, B,u,0)-B=Sa.aey.wea.veR. M=(o{u).p=axZp. [#113101] >. Mep (3) F. (1). (2). (8) .#80°14. +. Prop #114604. F: Hp 114602. T= PQ ((qX, VY). X ceaty. Ve esSy- Q=YIX.P=(Y|X)|A\8x}- D. Pel Ols. UP m cay x eS. DIT Cea DS, The relation T here defined is the correlator required for proving ca°B [(qa) «wey «w= ax Sa} sm eaty x e4'S%y. Besides what is proved in the present proposition, we shall have to prove TeCls—r1. ex‘D‘S, CD‘T. The proof of the present proposition is as follows, Dem, + 42133. %13171.3b:.Hp.d: PTQ.PTQ.>.(qX,¥,%',¥").¥|X=V 1X. P=(¥ | X14 Sy P= aidiaisa. [455202] >.P=P” ay F . 21-33. #114°603.3+:.Hp.d:PTQ.3. Pee D'S, (2) F.(1).(2)- #113101. . PropSECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 127 #114605. +: Hp #114604.9. 7eCls1 Dem. #114601. 3+: Hp.>.8,¢131 ( F. (1).#74°71 .#114601-602 . > bre Hp.X,X' eeaty. V,Y'e egy. (YI X)|A |S, = (VX) A [Sy dt (P| XY Aa(V' | XA: («74°7] DVR pda =P XPD: [*114602] Diaey. Da-(¥ |X) (Sa) La=(¥" | X)(Sa) Ja. (¥113123] De. (L*S*a) | (X'a) = (Vea) | (Xa) « [55-202] >. X= Xa. PSta= PSta: [x80'14.488-45) 3:X=¥'.Y=¥": [#55-202] D:V{X=V yx’ (2) F.(2). #1822. 421'33.+:. Hp. d:PLQ. PLY’ ->-Q=G sD. Prop The following propositions are required for proving that, with the same hypothesis, e4D‘S,, C D7. 11461, +: Hp #114602. Pee D'S, . X =1| | P[S,.¥ =1[D|P|Sy|3.>. X eeaty. VeeaSy Dem. b.¥72181-13'181 #8014 .4114601.9:Hp.>.X, Yells (1) + .«72-2°181°13-181 . #8014 . *114°601.> biHp.D:0Xa.=.0=00PSy‘a. (2) [#5153] D.weO PS, a. [489-2.4114601] D.(qR). Reax Sa.ceOR. [#113142] D.cea (3) b#LI4601. Db Hp. Di vey =. SxfaeDSx [488-2] EI PS,‘a (4) b.w882. 00 Dh: Hp. D: Et PS, fas. PSxfae8, a. [4113-142] >. 0°P8,‘ae1. [452-15] >. ENP sa (5) F.(2).(4).(5). Db:Hp.d.yCaX (6) | #8436. #114601. F:Hp.>.0'X Cy (7) b.(1).(8)-(6). (7). DE: Hp. d. Xeeaty (8) Similarly trHp. >. YeesSy (9) +. (8). (9). DF. Prop #114611. bs. Hp #1461. 3: aey.d. (P'S) | (X'a)= PS, a Dem. b.6722. Db: Hp. ey. 3. Xam lI P syle, VSa= TD PS, a [455°16.451°51] D.(PS'a) | (Xa) = PS, a: DE. Prop128 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part mr #114612, +: Hp#11461.9.(¥X)|4|Sx=P Dem. .88815.Dt:Hp.g!P.d.q! DiS, . [#114601] Deghy qd) be¥841. Db. Hp. dM (Y|X)|4|Sh au (GQ, 0)» M=(Y|| XQ. Qa. w= Sx'a- (ga). M= (YI) X)(S'@) La. p=S8,a-aey. [4114601602] [a113123] (qa). M=(YSa) | (Xa). w= S,fa-aey. [w114611] (qa). M= PS,S0. w= Sxa.aey. [#19°198.#11460L.«7116]=.M=Pu.gty- [#71'36.480-14.(1)] MPu:. D+. Prop #114613, |: Hp #11461. Hp #114604... PHT(Y|X).(V | Xe eaty x eatSy b.#21°33..114604, DF: Hp #114604.3: Keesty. VeeaSy..1(Y | X)=(¥X)|4 |S 0) b.(1)-#114°61°612 . #113°106 DF . Prop w114614. Fs Hp #114604. 9. oD, CDT b.¥114618. 4: Hp. D: PeeaDSx.3.(qQ). P= 7Q. [83-43] 2.PeD'T:. 3+. Prop #11462. |: Hp*114604.9. Tell. ‘T= ea‘D‘S,, . UT = n'y x ea Sy [ *114°604605°614] 114621. Fs SPyel aly CMS. Aney.>. ea f(a) wey. w= ax Sa} sm entry x ex Sry [114'62:601] The hypothesis Ave y is not necessary, since, when Ae, cxf (qa) acy. pax Sa} and eaty x exS are both A. This is proved in «11463. #11463, b:SPyelo1.yCOs.d. ex f.{(qa).cey. =a x Sa} sm ea%y x ea y Dem. b 410-24. 483-11. D brHp.Aey.d.Ax SA cf [(qa).aey- pax Sa}. essy=A. {¥118114] 3. Ae B{(qa).ney.m=ax Sia}. esy x ea Sy=A. [#8311] D+ caF [(qa).aey-p=a x Sa} =A. esty x ea SY=A (1) b.(1). #7847 . #114°621. +. Prop The above is one of the two variants of the associative law for ea and x.SECTION B] THE ARITHMETICAL PRODUCT OF A CLASS OF CLASSES 129 116631. +. es fi (qa) aey. pax a} sm eae x est [rstsss 4] #114082. F: SP yel ley COS. yn Sy=A.2. xB {(Ga)-aey. pa x Sea} sm ex(y v Sy) [€114°63'301] This is the second variant of the associative law for es and x. w11464. F(R) 1B, SPyelol.yCOR.yCES.D. cat Ry x eg4Sthy smn cxf (Ge) + 267. w= Rée x Se} Dem. Ke ors os ER 1. Ope eee eat Ry x eat SR RM aim estf (Ga) «te Bey m= ax (S| B)'a} ® b.7414 . 435854. 2b: Hp. >. S|RP Re y= Styly1R. Rp Ryay1 Re [71-252] >.S|RPRyel 1 2) F.aB72, Dkr Hp.d. Ry CREA, [*87-32] >. Ry Ca(S| BR) (3) bea74171. Db: Hp. d. R4R yey (4) +. (4).47414. >: Hp. >. (Ry) R=RPy- [*85°7.871-4] D.Al(qa).ae Ry. p=ax (S|.R)a} =Al(qa)-2ey-m= Rex SRR} (74°53) = Bq). 267. n= Re x Se} () f. (1). (2)«(8)-(4). (5). DF. Prop In the above proposition, the hypothesis has to be such as to yield ReRe‘y=y. Various other forms of hypothesis will secure this result, and will give other forms of the above proposition, This subject is treated in #74, above. #11405. ft. (Ry) R,SPyelol.y COR. COS, Ryn Sy=A.D. ea'(By u Sy) sm ea'B (Ge) - #67 w= Rie x Se} (*114°64°301] R&W IT 9«115. MULTIPLICATIVE CLASSES AND ARITHMETICAL CLASSES Summary of #115. Whenever « is a class of mutually exclusive classes, es‘ is similar to Déea‘x; hence TINe‘s = No‘D‘‘ea‘x, Now Des‘« is of the same type as x; and when « is a class of mutually exclusive classes, D‘‘ea‘x consists of all classes formed by selecting one repre- sentative from each member of «. It often happens that Dé‘eg‘e is easier to deal with than ¢a‘«; hence when ‘possible (i.e, when « ¢Cls*excl), it is con- venient to use D«‘es‘x, rather than ea‘x, a8 the standard member of IINc‘x. "We therefore put Prod‘x =D*‘es‘« Df. We shall call Prod‘x the “multiplicative class” of x. The associative law, Prod‘s‘« sm Prod‘Prod‘‘x, requires not merely x ¢ Cls* excl, but also s‘xeCls*excl. The combination of these two hypotheses gives a completely disjointed class of classes of classes, ie. a class of classes of classes x which can be obtained by dividing a given class (s‘s‘x) into mutually exclusive portions, and then dividing each of those portions into mutually exclusive portions. For example, take a square (a class of points) and divide it by horizontal lines, and then divide each of the result- ing rectangles by vertical lines; then the resulting rows of little rectangles form such a class, each row of rectangles being one member of the class. Such a class we call an “arithmetical” class, and denote by “Cls* arithm.” The present number is concemed with the properties of multiplicative classes and arithmetical classes, Some-of these properties will be useful in dealing with exponentiation. The present number begins with various propositions concerning Prod‘« which are merely repetitions of previous propositions of #83, #84, 485 or #113. Thus we have wA15141. Fg! Prod‘x.>.s'Prod‘e=s'x by #83'66, #115142. F. Prodvfa= 1a by *83°7, 115-148. F. Prod‘uta= ita by %89°71, #11516, +. «eClstoxcl. >. Prod'xCNe‘x by *100°64, and various other properties.SECTION B] MULTIPLICATIVE CLASSES AND ARITHMETICAL CLASSES 131 We then proceed to consider Cls*arithm. We prove #11522. Fs. ce Cls*arithm, :6*« e Clstexcla, Bex. 9 Istans’B.Da9-.a=8 and #115°23 gives a similar proposition substituting “ Prod ” for s, After a few more propositions on Cls*arithm, we proceed to the associative law for Prod (4115'34), i.e. br eCls*arithm . >. Prod‘Prod“« sm Prod‘s‘x, (This proposition, *115°34, also states that, with the same hypothesis, Prod‘s‘x sm ea‘s‘x.) Hence we have #11535, }:xeClstarithm.> . Ne‘Prod‘Prod‘‘x = Ne‘Prod‘s‘« = UNe‘Prodr = TINe‘ea“e = INe‘s'« We have also #11542. b:eCls*tarithm. >. Prod‘Prod‘‘« = D'«Prod‘es“e= DD esfeae #11544 b:eCls’arithm, >. Prod‘s‘« = s“Prod‘Prod“« We have next to prove that if two classes of classes have double similarity, so have their multiplicative classes. The proof is simple, since the double correlator is the same as for the original classes, ie. #115502. +: TPs ex5m SM r.D. Tf s‘Prod‘a e(Prod‘x) sm 8m (Prod‘n) whence #11551. t:esmsm. >. Prod‘esmsm Prodd The number ends with some propositions which result from ¥11464°65 and are analogous to them. One of these is used in the following number in proving w™ Xv =(u X,»)”, namely, #1156. (RM) RSP yel > LeyCOR.y COS, Ry, SyeChstexcl .D. Prod‘ Réty x Prod‘S‘y sm ex'fi {(qz)- ee. w= Rie x Se} The subject of this number will be useful in dealing with exponentiation, since wé shall define yu” by means of Prod‘a | «, where »=Nyc‘a and v= Ne‘. #11501, Prod‘e=D‘es‘x Df #11502, Clstarithm =f («,s‘ceClstexel) Df M51. F. Prod‘x=D ea‘ [(*115-01)) ¥115-101. bieaex.D.-anael:aCserd.@eProde [484411] #11511, bie Clstexcl. Dt. oe Prod‘x. [#84412] Owing to this proposition, Prod‘ can be treated without any reference to ca‘ whenever we Cls* excl, aex.2.-onaeliaCse 9-2132 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [paRT mI 411512, tree Clstexcl.D. Prod‘ e IINo‘r. Prod‘ stn egte [48441] It is this proposition that makes the notation Prod‘x appropriate for the multiplicative class. 411513. bran Q=A. >. Prodf(uaue)sm(ax 8) [#113-152] e1154181, brat B.D, Prod (fav vp)=O(ax 8) — [#113151] MIB14. Freend=A.vesiensXoArd: we Prod(xuX).=.(Hp,0). pe Prod’x. ge Prod‘\. 7 =puc [#83'64'641] #11B-14L, bi gt Prod‘e. 2. s'Prod‘e=ste [#83'66] #115142. b. Prod‘ia =a [*83°7] 115-143. 1. Prod‘t“a= ia [¥88°71] #115144. bx C1... Prod e=u's‘e [#83'72] #115-145. bz. ce Clstexcl.aex.unael.d: w—ae Prod‘(x—v'a). =. yeProd‘e [84-422] #11515. br. 0,XeClstexcl. sess. D2" C Prod’. =.2C Prod’ [¥84'43] wLLBLBL Fr ce Cle? excl. >. ease = sProd‘ente [485'28] 115-152. +. Pa‘asm Prod‘P Ja [*85°55) 115-153. +. eg‘ sm Prod‘e ]“e [w115-152] 116-154. b. Prod‘e Jee TINe“« [w115-153] #11516. Fre Cle! oxcl.D. Prod'x C Nove [*100-64] ‘The following proposition is used in the theory of well-ordered series (*250°5). #11517, big! eaClex‘a. >. Prod‘Clex‘a= ua Dem. F.#80'14 #1151 8745.9: Hp. d. qt Prod‘Clex‘a a) b.460°61 . Fact . > ti Rel Cls. RGe. O'R =Clex‘a. 3: Rel Os. Rea MR: [¥51-15] Diwea.d,-0R (0a): [83-14] DiaCDR (2) b. #8321, Db: Hp(2).>.D‘RCs‘Clex‘a. [¥60°501] 2.D‘RCa (3) b.(2).(3).Db: Rel+Cls. RGe. 'R=Clexa.3.D'R=a @) f. (4). #115°1 #8014. F. Prod‘Cl ex‘a Cufa (5) Fe (1). (5).451'4. 9b. PropSECTION B] MULTIPLICATIVE CLASSES AND ARITHMETICAL CLASSES li #11518. +. t'Prod‘e=th [*83-81] 1152. Fie Cls*arithm #11521. +s. «e Cls*arithm wsteeClstexel {(#115-02)] WBeKk-GlanB.dap.tsB: a, eK-ped-TEB-T!PAT-Dapperp= [¥]15°2. 48411] #115211, t:eeClsarithm.a, Bex.peaceB.Gipac.d.a=8 Dem. b.#115°21.3+:Hp.d.p=c.pea.ces. [*13"13) D.peang. [#11521] D.a=8r3b. Prop #11522, :..c¢Clsarithm . D:s"xeClstexclia,Bee. q tsans'B.Dap.a=6 Dem. b.MO1L. DErgistans(@.=.(qu,p,c). peaceR.wep.cec. [#1035] (ap,0)-peaceR.qipag @ Fe (1). #L15-211.9 bi. Hp.d:aBex.qisansB.d.a=f. 2) [«30°37] D.sa=s8 (3) F. (2). (8). e841. +. Prop Observe that, although “sx ¢ Clst exel” follows from “a Bex. GtstansB.rap.a=8,” the converse implication does not hold. If there were two different classes a and @ having the same sum, we might have qlsfans'8, ie qls‘a, without having a=, in spite of “see Clsexcl.” In proofs, less use can be made of “se e Clstexel” than of “a, Bex. qtsans@.I,2.4=8.” If Anew or Avex, the latter implies sf « ¢ 1-1. #11523, br. eeCls*arithm. >: Prod‘‘xeClstexcl: a, 8 ex. q!Prod‘an Prod‘g.2a.-a=8 Dem. F. #8362. Dkr we Prod‘an Prod'B.d.aCs‘ans'B qa) F.(1).42458. Dk: weProd‘anProd’@.gia.2.qletansB (2) F.(2).#11522. Dt: Hp.afex. me Prodan Prod’g.qia.2.a=8 (3) +. «83°16. Transp. DF: Ae Prod‘an Prod{@.3.a=A.R=A (4) F.(3).(4).DFt. Hp. 31a, 8ee.g ! Prod‘anProd’f.3.a=8. (5) [¥30°37] D.Prod‘a=Prod‘B (6) F .(5).(6) #8411. +. Prop 115-24 Free Clstarithm.=.eP «ef steels 1 [¥115-2 484-14] #11525, Fie eCls'arithm .. ese C11. ca'ae C11 [#843 #1152]134 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART nT 4115-26. f:xeCls*arithm. >. en's CL 1. cafeae C11. es'Prod eC ll [843 . #1 15°22 . #84°55 . 115-23] In the above proposition, es‘ea“«C 1—>1 does not require the hypothesis «¢ Cls* arithm, being true always. It is merely included here for convenience of reference. *115:27. bse Clstarithm. >. «CClstexcl [#1152 . #84°25 . *40°13] We have now to prove the associative law for “ Prod,” i.e. «eCls*arithm . >. Prod‘s‘« sm Prod‘Prod‘«. In virtue of #115°12, we have only to prove (under the hypothesis) a's" sm €q’Prod‘‘« which, by #85°44, will follow from eafea‘'« sm e4'Prod x which, by ¥114°52, will follow from ea*csm sm Prod‘«, Now Prod¢ = Deca‘. Thus the correlator which will give our proposition will be Df s‘es‘‘x. We have only to prove that this is a 1—> 1, and the rest follows. #1153, sxe Cls*arithm. R, Ses‘es“«. DSR=D'S.3.R=S Dem. F.#115:23.3+:xeClearithm.a,Bex. Rees a.Seess8.D‘R=D‘8.3.a=8 (1) F.115:27 484-4, DF: eeClstarithm.aex.R,Sees‘a.D‘R=D'S.3.R=S (2) F.(1).(2). DF:xeCls*arithm.a,fex. Rees‘a. SeessB.D'R=D‘S.3.R=S (3) F (8). #1011-23'35 . #40°11. F. Prop #11531. F:«¢eCls*arithm . 3. Prod«sm sm es« Dem. b #1153 47155 #7213. 2: Hp.d.Dfsteseelol (1) F.«83-431. Dh stexeC OD (2) F #8711. #1151. DE. Prod = Detteate (3) F (1). (2). (8).#111-402. F. Prop #11532. tse Cls*arithm .D . e4'Prod‘‘« sm es‘es‘e [WL15'31 . ¥114'52] #11533, tree Cle arithm .D.esProd“csmesse — [W115°32. #85-44] #11534. bie Cls'arithm. > . Prod‘Prod‘e sm Prods‘ . Prod's‘e sm eas‘ [#115'38-12-23) This proposition gives the associative law for “ Prod.” The following proposition embodies the last three propositions.SECTION B] MULTIPLICATIVE CLASSES AND ARITHMETICAL CLASSES 135 #115°35. +:«eClstarithm.>. Ne‘Prod‘Prodx = Ne‘Prod‘s‘« = INe‘Prod‘‘« = TINe‘ea“‘« = IINe‘s‘« [#115:34-33'32] In connection with Prod‘s‘< and Prod‘Prod‘‘«, there remain two pro- positions of sufficient interest to deserve proof, namely xe Cls*arithm . >. Prod‘s‘x« = sProd‘Prod‘‘« and xe Cls* arithm . 3 . Prod‘Prod“« = D‘D'es‘ex«, Of these, the first is deduced from the second, while the second is proved by means of #11451, putting D for the 7’ which appears in that proposition, and es‘‘« for the ® of that proposition. e154 Tp stel1.sXCA'T. 2. Prod'T“A= T"Prod'r Dem, F 11114. 437103.3b:Hp.c=T°%.9. Ths Xexsmsmnr, (w11451.#73°142] D cate = (Pil Te) eatr @ F.(1). HIST. © DF: Hp. D. Prod‘ Tq = D“(Ti Te) ea® (2) b.a87321291. 9 DF. D(T|R|T)=D(T|R) [¥37°32] =TDR (8) F.C) x4B112. DED TI Le)tteatn = LD ear [wL15-1} = TProd’n (4) F.(2). (4). F. Prop #11541, Fs. R,Ses%.D‘R=D'9.2,.5.R=G: 2. Prod’ Dr=D“Prod [usa .XTL55 « #7213] #11542. :«¢Cls*arithm. >. Prod‘Prod“‘« = D‘‘Prod‘ea“«. = DO Diesen Dem. F.#1151. Db. Prod‘Prod‘x = Prod‘Dé‘ex‘*« q@) +. #1153-41.3+: Hp. >. Prod‘ Dea =DProd‘eae (2) [115-1] = DD es‘eae (8) F. (1). (2). (8). DF. Prop #11543, bee Clstexel .d. Prod‘ stn = sD“ Des'ea“x Dem. F #1151. #8528. ki Hp. 2. Prod‘s‘e=DsDMea‘eae [41-43] = 3" DDea'ea''e2 DE. Prop #11544. bree Cls*arithm .2 . Prod‘s‘x = sProd‘Prod‘‘e [#115-43'42] The following proposition is a lemma for ¥115°46.136 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part mt #11545. bina, Bex. qis'ans'B.2,a.a=Bid. (s|D)Pesteel—1.sf Prod‘ee1—>1 Dem. F.488'2.44013. 3b: Reeste.aee. 2. RaCsta qa) +4832 .433-43.D+: Rees‘x.aex.2.RaCsDR (2) F.#83-28. bs Reea‘n.aen.@e(s*D'Ras'a).>.(gh).Bex.veRB.wesa. iM) D. (GA). Bex weRB.wes'B.xesta(3) F.(8). Dh: Hp. Rees‘e.aex.Dine(s'D'R a sa).D.(q8)-weR'B.B=a. [#13195] D.we Re (4) F.(1).(2).(4). Fie Hp. 3: Reeste.aen-2.Ra=s'D' Rasta (5) R,Seeax.sDiR=s'DS. ex. De. Ra= Sta: b.(6). Fi Hp. [¥38°45,.480-14] :R=S:. (6) [¥71-55.#7213'161] D :.(s|D)Peateel— 1 (2) b.(6).#37°63.#115°1.43037. Dbz. Hp.D :p,veProd‘x.s{u=s'v.D.p=v: [¥71°55.#72°161] Desf Prod‘cel—1 (8) F.(7). (8). DF. Prop ¥115-46. +: ¢Cls*arithm . 2. sf Prod‘Prod‘ee1— 1 Dem. b. #115141. bia, Be«.qisProd‘ans‘Prod‘g.>.qis‘an s'8 @ F. (1). 115-22. bi.eeClstarithin. 31a, Ge. q!sProd‘an sProd{g.2.a= 8. [#30°37] >. Prod‘a= Prod‘@: [#3763] DipveProde.gqispasy.d.pavi [#115-45) Dsaf Prod‘Prod‘ee1—>1:.9#. Prop The above proposition is used in dealing with products in relation arithmetic (#174-42). #1155. TPs exemsmr.. Prod‘e=Te“Prod‘a [¥115°4. *l11-14] ML15501. F: Uf se «SMS. Gy! Prod’. . Tp sd e(Prod‘«) SHSM (Prod‘n) [#1155141 . #11114] #115502. Fr Uf Sten THEA. D. Pf s'Prod‘a e(Prod‘«) sm sm (Prod‘a) Dem. F.#85°75. Db rg Prod‘. 3. 7’ f sProd = A (1) F .¥115°5 43729. +: Hp.wg! Prod‘n.2.Prod‘e=A. [¥37-29.440-21] >. 8Prod‘e = (Lf s‘Prod‘n)‘s‘Prod‘n (2) F. (1). #721. (2).41155 111-1. bi Hp.wg!Prod%.>. 7'f sProd‘d ¢(Prod‘«) am ami (Prod‘n) (3) +. (8). 4115501141. +. PropSECTION B] MULTIPLICATIVE CLASSES AND ARITHMETIOAL CLASSES 187 #11551, F:esmem2.>. Prod‘xsmsm Prod‘ [#115502] The above propositions show how, in certain respects, Prod‘« is more convenient than ea‘«. We cannot have es‘x sm sm e4‘A, because ea‘x is a class of relations, not a class of classes; and the correlator of es‘ and ea‘ is by no means so simple a function of the correlator of « and 2 as Te} Prod‘a, which correlates Prod‘ and Prod‘, in virtue of #115'502. The following propositions are a continuation of those given in #114601 ff. WIE, Fs (RM y)] R,SPyell.yCO' Ry CAS. Rit, Sy € Olstexcl >. Prod‘ RM‘ x Prod‘ Sy sm es‘f {(q2)- 2ey w= Re x Sz} Dem. F y¥115-12.. 411313. bi Hp. >. Prod‘ Ry x Prod‘ Sy sm ea! RMty x ex'S¢y (y) + .(1). #11464. 5+. Prop w11B601. F (RM) 1B SP vel ley COR. y COS. Rye Cis excl .D. Baz). 2ey p= Rie x Sz} e Clstexel Dem. fF. #11819. tr. Hp. 2: z,wey. GQ! (Ri x Siz) a (Rw x Sw). D.qi Ren Rw. [m84-11] 2. R= Rw, [¥74°53.430°37] Disew, [¥80°37] 2. Biz x Stz= Rew x Stw (1) F.(1).#8411.F. Prop 118-602. Fs (RM) 1B, Sh yell. y COR. y COS, Sy e Clst excl. D. BA(qz).2ey. p= Rie x S'2} eClst exel [Proof as in #115601] 11661. Fs. (RMy)] R,SPyel—> Ley CUR iy CUS, Ryn y= At Rétye Olst exel .v . Sy ¢ Clstexel : 3 eat Rly u Sy) sm Prod’ {(s12) «2 €7y« w= Rez x Sz} [115-601-6022 . #114°65] #11862, (RM y)1 RSP yelLal.yCOUR.y CUS. Ryan Sty=A, (Rly u Sy) eOlstexcl «>. Prod (Rit u Sy) sm Prod‘ {(qz). ze y+ a= Riz x S's} [115-6112 . 484-25) 11663, F(R) 1K, Sp yel > Ley COR. y COS. Roy, Sy € Clstoxel «9. Prod! Ry x Prod‘S*y sm Prod‘fi ((qz) «2 ey «m= Rez x S} [¥115°6:601-12]#116, EXPONENTIATION Summary of #116. In this number, we define “aexp8,” meaning “a to the exponent 8’ where a and are classes, as Prodfad 8. Now Prod‘a | “(8 consists of all ways of selecting one each from the members of af “8, i. from the classes | y*a, where ye. Thus to get a member of Prodfa J +2, take a set of couples 2 y, where wis always an a, and there is only one @ for a given y, and y is each member of in succession. Thus for each member of 8, we have Ne‘a possible referents; hence it is plain that the number of possible sets of couples consists of Ne‘ factors each equal to Ne‘a, and is therefore fit to be taken as defining (Ne‘a)X«?, The definitions of yw’ and (Ne‘a)N*? are derived from the definition of aexp 8 exactly as the definitions of 1+,» and No‘a+. Ne‘, or of u x, and Ne‘a x, No‘, were derived respectively from a+ and ax 8. The chief difficulty in this number lies in the proof of the three formal laws of exponentiation, namely BY xee™ = prtew, B™ Xgv™ =(u Xv)", and (wy = pe, The proofs of the second and third of these, in particular, require various lemmas; but there is no difficulty involved except the complexity of the classes and relations concerned. The definition of y” is so framed as to minimize the necessity for the multiplicative axiom (see the note on *113°31 in the introduction to ¥113). ‘We have #11636. +:.Multax.3ip,veNC—UA.cevaCl.>.TINeKe=p that is, assuming the multiplicative axiom, the product of » factors each equal to y is w” (assuming p and » to be cardinals which are not null). If we had defined yw” as the product of v factors each equal to 4, we should have required the multiplicative axiom for almost all propositions on w’; but by taking the particular class al “8, we avoid the multiplicative axiom 5 except in a few propositions. Among these few is the above proposition connecting exponentiation with multiplication. Cantor has defined y” by means of the class of “ Belegungen,” ie. the class R(Re1+ Cs. PRCa. ‘R= 8)SECTION B) EXPONENTIATION 139 which (#11612) =(af @)s‘8. By *85°53 and #113°103, this class is equal to é(aexp) (as is proved in ¥116°13), whence, since sfaexp@el—l, it follows (#116°15) that the class of “Belegungen” is similar to aexp@. Hence our definition gives the same value of a” as Cantor's, The propositions of the present number begin with various simple properties of aexp A. Its existence follows from #116182, F:vea.d.2] “Be (acxp 8) whence (#116'16) F .Cavp | “aC aexp @, and #11618. Finglas. f=A We have #11619. F:asmy.@sm.>.(aexp 2)sm sm (exp 8) in virtue of *113°'13 and #11551. +*116192 shows that, if Rfy correlates a with y, and Sf8 correlates @ with 8, then (Ri|S)f (8x1) is a double correlator of (aexp 8) with (y exp 6). qiaexpp We then proceed to a set of propositions on yw”, which are analogous to #1132 ff. on »x_v. We have #116208. Fig! p’.d.p,veNC- UA. p,veN,C #11625. . (No‘y)Ne* = No‘(y exp 8) and various other less useful propositions. We then have various propositions on 0 and 1 and 2. We prove #116301. Fs eNO-U'A.3.p!=1 116311. :veNC-A—0.3.0°=0 #116321. FipeNC-v'A. 2. g=sm"p (Observe that smu is the same cardinal as y, but rendered typically ambiguous.) #116381. t:zeNO-vA.3.=1 w11684. bap xem (This proposition does not require that p should be a cardinal.) After the proposition (#116'36) already quoted, on the connection of exponentiation and multiplication, we proceed to a set of propositions on the case where a number of classes are all given as similar (by assignable correlations) to a given class. In ¥116-411, we prove that if « is a class of mutually exclusive classes, each of which is similar to a given class +, and if, when aex,M'a is a correlator of a and y, and Tis the sum of Mx, then Notes Pety = No! Ta'y = Ne“(x exp y) = (Nee)X¢v.140 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part mm ‘This is a further connection of multiplication and exponentiation. (On the purport of this and following propositions, see the explanation preceding 116-4) In 4116-43, the hypothesis is somewhat modified. We still have a set « of classes which are all similar to y, but the correlator for a given class a is not given as Ma, but is given as M‘w, where w is a member of a class 8 which is sfmilar to «. Then «= D*2f"8. We assume that MPS isa one-one, and that if M*w and M‘v have domains which overlap, then w=». Thus « is a class of mutually exclusive classes, each of which has Ne‘y terms, while x has No‘ terms. Then it is proved in *116-43 that Prod‘D*Mf*8 sm sm (vy exp 8) « INo‘D“M“8 = (New), This proposition and another (*116:45) which follows from it are useful in proving the formal laws of exponentiation. The proof of these occupies the following propositions from ¥116°5 to #11668. We have #11652, bea? xpp7 = pre #11655. b.p™ x,v7 = (pn x40)” #116638. bp = (Wye An extension of the first of these is ¥116°661. +. IINo‘(a exp)'‘« = (No‘a)?%e* Here the number of members of « need not be finite. The purport of the proposition is as follows: Let 8,7, 8, ... be the members of «; form aexp 8, aexpy, aexp6,..., and take the product of the numbers of all these; then the resulting number is the same as if we first took the sum of the numbers of all the members of «, thus obtaining (say) a number y, and raised Ne‘a to the wth power. An extension of *116°55 is given by #116°68, where we prove F:«eCls* excl. >. INe‘exp y“« = (IINe‘«)Nov, There is no analogous extension of #11663. We prove next Cantor's proposition (which is very useful) #11672, +. No‘Clfa= 2c Ie. the number of combinations of « things any number at a time is 4 (Observe that » need not be finite.) The remainder of the number is con- cerned with consequences of this proposition. #11601. aexp = Prod'a | “a Df \ ¥11602. w=4 ((qa,8).~=Nefa.v=NeB.ysm(aexps)} Df #11603. (Ne‘ay = (Niefa) Df #11604, pe? = prow -SECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 141 ¥1161. Fs £e(aexpQ).=.(qR). Rectal “8.£=DR [w115-1 . (4116-01)) #11611. b:.£e(aexpA).styeB.dy-and(alyefpelrECBxa Dem. b.#113°111.#11511.5 bt. Be(aexpA).=:peal “R.D,.pnGel:ECoal “A: [¥88-241131] =rye8.D,.byankeliECRxa (1) +876. Fily“angel.=.R{(qe).cea.R=ely.Regjel. [#13193] R(qe).cea.cl ye. Raalyjel. [437-6] Ly @(wea.rlyebjel. [¥78°611-44] B(wea.wlyebyel (2) F.(1).(2). DF. Prop #11612 + «(a7 6)s‘B=R {Rel + Cls. D'RCa.U'R=8} Dem. b. 48014. 3: Re(at 8)ss8.=.Rel+Cls.RGat fh. aR=p. [35°83] -Rel>Cls. PRC a.URCB.OR=8. [22-42] Rel—Cls. D‘RCa.0‘R=8: DF. Prop #11613. F.é(aexp8)=(aT A)s‘8 Dem. 48553. IF. (af B)sB=s Dena f 8) [8 [113-103] =i Di ega “8 [¥115-1.(4116-01)] = é(aexp @). It. Prop (a7 8)s68 is the class of one-many relations whose converse domain is 8 and whose domain is contained in a. This is what Cantor calls the “ Belegungsmenge,” and is used by him as the definition of exponentiation. In Virtue of ¥116-15, his definition gives the same results as ours. #116181. +. sf (aexp 8)e ((@t B)a‘G} sii (a exp 8) Dem. b w84-241 9118103. D4. o6B e Cistexcl af “B= (at A)sU“R qa) , b. (1) 485-42. 3h: M,Veestal “@.sD'M=sDN.D.M=N. % [#3037] >.DM=DN (2) F. (2). #8768 #1151. (AL16-01). 3: w,ve(aexp A). &p=sy.D.pave [#71°55.472'163) Dr. sh (wexpA)el aL (3) F. (8). #11613... Prop w11614. F.(aexpA)smesfal “8 [w11512. x1 13111]142 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART 1D #11615. +.(aexpf)sm(at @)s8 [w116131] #1167151 is a lemma for *116°152. w116151. brwea. D0] |Cnv(al PAceatal “8 Dem. F .113°105 . #72184. +: Hp. 3. || Cav(al pA)e1—Cls qd) Fex8$1 8981. Ihe Hp. ds Rie} |Cavay raya (ay). Ra=2ly.yeB.r=alyvea. [#3821] D.Rer (2) FeaB7B22401. Dh. Ae} [Cava PA aah 8 (3) F.(1).(2)+(3).#8014. > F. Prop #116152. tswea.d.0] “Be(aexp 8) Dem. b.4B732.43505. Dt. Dew] |Cav(al TA}=01 “8 (1) b.(1).#116151-1.. Prop w11616. +. Cnv(@ | “aC acxp 8 Dem. F.#116152. 45514. 3b: cea. 2. Cav" | a e(wexp B). [438-2] 2.Cnv | we (aexpQ): Dt. Prop The above propositions are useful in establishing existence-theorems, as appears in the following propositions. w11617. Fig! @ja.2.q!aexp@ [¥11616. 437-47] #116171 biqta.v.8=A:.q!aexph Dem. F #113113. 83°15. 451161.3%:8=A.d.qtaexp8 (1) be w116152. Dkigta.d.qlaexp8 (2) F.(1).(2). 9. Prop #116172, Fig tacxpB.Iiqta.v.B=A Dem. FeK8SLL. Db Hp. DiAwead “Br [*118-112] Din(@=A.g!tA): [*24°51) Digta.v.@=A:.IF. Prop #11618, Fiegqta.v.god #126181. F. aexpA =A Dem. F.¥118113, +. aexpA=Prod‘A [¥88-15.433-241] ='A.3+. Prop qtaexpA [#116171-172)SECTION B} EXPONENTIATION 148 #116182. Fig! B.2.AexpQaA [#l1B112.48311] #116183. |. s(aexp B)=B xa Dem. F #115141 #11618. Fs. qta.v.@=A:D.0(aexpA)=stal “8 {*113-1] =Bxa (1) Fb. «116182. Dhna=A.g!@.D.8(aexpS)=A [#113114] =Bxa (2) f.(1). (2). DF. Prop #11619. F:asmy.8sm5.>.(aexp 8)smsm (y exp 8) Dem. + #11813. +:Hp.d.af “Bomamy | “3. [w115°51] >. (aexp 8)smsm(yexp 8): D+. Prop #116191, |: Readtiy.SeA sm S.D.(R|S)P (8 x y)e(aexp 8)amaM(yexpd). (Bl) e"(y exp 8) = aexp 8 [#113°127 . #115-502 . #116183] #116192. +: RE yeattiy.SfSegamd.>. (BILS)P (8x 7) € (a exp 8) aii BMH (y exp 8). (Bll SP (y exp 8) e(aexp 8) 50 (y exp 8) [#113127 . #115502. #1161883 . #111157 #116194. F: Rh yeaitiy. SpSeRsms.>. e (BI S)P A(T 8)s°8} ¢ {a T B)a‘B} SiH {(y T 8)s°8} em. FL1G12. Db: Hp. d.8D(y P88 Cy. Ay P8SCS. [AT4773.K73142] (RIS) {y P 8adhe (BS) 7 8)a°8} 8mm ey T §)a5} (1) + #116192 #11114. 3: Hp. >. exp @= (Ri S)e(yexpd). [¥116:13] D. (aT B)sB=H(R a S)e(y exp 8) [43-43] = (BI S)“8"(y exp 8) [116-13] = (Bi S)“(y T8)aB @) +.(1).(2). +. Prop The following propositions (down to #116'27 exclusive) are the analogues of propositions with the same decimal part in #118. #1162. Fi Fey. =. (qa, 8).~=Nea.v=Nee(B.£sm (a exp A) [(x116-02)] #116201. Fs. Fey. = 2p, veNC:(qa,8).aeu. Bev. fem (aexpf) [#1162 . 4108-27]144 CARDINAL ARITHMETIO [Part OT 4116-202. Fs. Fey arg lp. qty: (ga, 8).p=Nea. v=Ne‘B. Esm(aexp A) [Proof as in #113:202] #116208. Fig ty’. D.p,veNC—etA.p,ve NC [#116-201-202'2] #116204, FinpeA.vev=A.vir(uveNC):d.y"=A [#116203] #116208. F:w(y,veN,C).d.u= [#116203] #11821. bt. p,veNC. 3: Feu". =.(qa,8)-aep. Bev.£sm(aexpQ) [4116-201] #11622, be {No(n)y]No8.= qt No (n)"y. gq! No (£5. Esm (yexp 8) [Proof as in #113'22, using #11619 in place of #11313] #116221. bey ENo(n)fy gE Ne ()'3. D« {Ne (n)"y]8o 614 = Net(y exp 8) [¥116-22] #116222. |. (Nyo“y)%e'S = No"(y exp 8) [Proof as in #113-222] #11623, pre NC [Proof as in ¥118:23] 116-24, F.(NeMy)No = (Nyowy) Ne? —_[(#116'08'04)] F b F #11625. +. (No“y)No# =Ne(yexp 8) [#116'24'229] #116251, +. (y exp 5) ¢(Noty)Ne# [#11625 . #1003] #11628, tip,veNC.gtom,“p.gtsmey.D. p= (sm,“p)™ [Proof as in #118:26] This proposition shows that we may raise or lower the types of » and v as we please, without affecting the value of yw”, provided » and », or rather omy and smév, exist in the new types. 4116-261. bsp, veNC. 2. pr = {2%} = {yan} = ete, [Proofas in #113-261] Here “ete.” covers any derivative of yu or » whose existence follows from that of p or v. 116-27. bw =F ((qa, 8). w= No. v=Nye'B.ésm (at B)a‘B} [M1615 . «73°37 . (#116-02)] #116271. Frp,veNC.aep.Bev.d.(aexp hep [K116-21] #1163. +. (Ne‘a)'=1 Dem. b. AOL . #11625. DF. (Ne‘a)’= Ne(aexp A) [4116-181] = Nowa [4101-2] =1.9b. Prop #116301. b:peNC-U'A.>.p!=1 [Proof as in #113'601] #11631. £2 B+A.>. ON =O Dem. b #LOL-1 . 116-25. . ONC = No“(A exp 8). [#116182] Dh: Hp.>d. ON = Nets [#1011] =0:3+. PropSECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 145 #116311. b:veNC —'A~00.3.07=0 Dem. +. #10334, #1011. :Hp.>.(q8)-A+A.v= Nes. [*13:12-15] D.(qB) « B+A.0" = ONoB [#11631.(#116-04)] =0:2h. Prop #11632, F.(Ne‘a)! = Nea Dem, }. 116-25 . «101-2. F. (Nea)! = Ne“{a exp (t‘2)} [(#116-01)] =NetProdfa| “fe [w115°142.453:31] =Netial @ [#113-11.4100°6] =Ne‘a. IF. Prop #116321. FipeNC-UA.D.e=sm“p [#11632] It would not be an error to write “y'=y” instead of “y!=smy” in the above proposition. For if the “sm” is typically determined so that sm“pe tp, then smy=, Thus in virtue of #116321, .°=y is true whenever it is significant. But the above form gives more information, since it preserves the typical ambiguity of yi and sm‘“p. #11633, +.1N#=1 Dem, +. #11811. Driael. Daf “ecr. [4#115:144.#101°2] 2D. Ne‘Prod‘a 4 “B=l1 qa ; F.()e#1012. DE. Ne“{(i'e) exp 8} =1 (2) b .K10L-2. #11625. DF. 1Ne® = No‘ {(u'x) exp @} (3) b.(2).(8). DF. Prop #116381. t:peNC-v'A..=1 Dem. +.#103'34.+:Hp.>.(q8).p=Ne'R. [#181215] D.(qA). 1H = LN, [(*116:04)] D.(q8). = 1N, [x116-33] D.H=1:3+. Prop #11634. bew=p x,y Dem. +. #241. K101'3. DEA UV. [116-222] Di p= Nota. D. w= NetProdtal “(uh vitV) [53:32] = NeProd(efa Av ve] V) [#115°13.%55'233.438-2] =Ne(aAxalV) [11811-2513] = Ne‘ax,Ne‘a [113-24] =U Xp a b. (1). #1082. Dh: peN,C.d.p=p Xone (2) +. #116205. DkiywveNC.d.wt=b {#113-205] = Xp (3) F. (2).(8). 9. Prop Rawi 10146 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART KI w11635, rw =0.5.n=0.veNC—10-UA Dem. F.xLIGSIL. Db tp =0.veNO~10—UA.D.pr=0 (1) F.x0112. Dhryr=O0.I.qtpr. [116-203] DepveNO-unr (2) F, (2).#116°21 . #54102. kip? =0.3:£=A.=.(qa,8).aen. Bev. £sm(aexp 8): [x73-47] D:(qa,f).aep.Bev.aexp@=A: [411618] D:(qa,8).aep.BevamA. BHA: [#19195] DidepevtUA. gly: (#101-1.*100°45.(2)] Dt p=0.veNC—vA 00 (3) F.(1).(8). D+. Prop #116351. b: peNC—e'A.e=A.v=0.3.p"=TINe%K= 1 [#116301 . #1142] #116352. be =O0.veNC—U'A.cevs News>. p?=TINeKe =0 (#116311 . *114-23] 4116358, bs w=0.veNC—U'A.cevnCly.2.p’=TINeK Dem. F.#60362.8541. DbinHp.Die=A.vie=UA (1) +. «10045 .#1011.3+:Hp.«=A.>- . [#116351] Dp’ = TINete (2) + «5116. Dh:Hp.c=UA.D.Aex. [¥116°352] D. pr =TINete (3) F.(1).(2).(8). 2. Prop #11636, +:.Multax.>:p,veNC—UA. ceva Cly.>. Nee =p? Dem, + .#11912.#10045.3t ty, veNC.aen.Bev.gla.D.al “Bevn Clip (1) F.(1).e114571. Db: Multax. 3: pveNC.aen.Bev.gia.ceva Clip. 2. UNote=TNeal “p [¥11614.4114-1) = Ne‘(aexp 8) [*116271] = ) F.(2).2 bi. Multax.D:y,veNO—UA.glp—UA.eeva Clu. >. TINee =p (3) F514. #541. DE: peNO-uA wg tw—UA.D.w=0 (4) +. (4). #116'353 > Fr veNC=tA wg tp—UA.wevn Cl py. >. TINete = pe (6) +. (8). (5). 9. PropSECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 147 In the above proposition, “yeNC” is sufficient hypothesis as to v, since “v# A” is implied by ceva Cl. But w+A is essential, since if w= A, yp’ =A and «=A (provided v= 0), whence INe‘« = 1. The above proposition connects exponentiation with multiplication. #116361. + :. Multax.3:y,veNC~i'A.cevn Clexcluy. >. Prod eeu” Dem. F. #11512. Db re evn Clexel(w. >. Prod‘ e IINe‘e qa) b.(1).#11636.4. Prop ‘The following propositions, which illustrate certain generalizations of the relations of rows and columns, may be made clearer by the accompanying y=OR R=Mw DR=DMw : ee ee By Fay figure, in which, for the sake of simplicity, all the classes concerned are taken to be finite. Let « be a set of classes, constituted by four rows of five dots in the figure, which are each given as similar to a given class y, represented by the top row of five dots in the figure, namely the row enclosed in an oval. We assume that an actual correlating relation is given correlating each member of « with y, Let A be the class of these relations, and assume that consists of one correlator for each member of «, and that «¢Cls*excl. Thus D*‘r=«, and Red.>.0'R=y Put T=sX Then, if zey, 7 relates to z every > member of the column below 2, #.¢. T*z consists of the four dots which are vertically below 2; assuming, what in the circumstances is possible, that each dot is placed below its correlate in y. Thus 7*y represents the columns, while DX represents the rows. . We prove, in 116-41, that Ty, the class of rows, has double similarity with A Jy, ox, what comes to the same thing, with « |“, Hence it follows 5 that Ty, which is the whole class of dots, is similar to y x © or y x «, and > that No‘e‘7"‘y, which is the product of the numbers of the columns, is equal 10-2148 OARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART OT to (Ne‘A)NY or (Ne‘«)Ne'v, The correlator which is used for proving these propositions is W, where, if R is a member of A and z is a member of y, W correlates R‘z with R | z. Similarly, by correlating R‘s with | R, calling the correlator U, we have U | Riy= Ry, ie. Ucty | R= DR, whence Ucity | “X= DA. Hence % x Dt, ce, the class of rows, has double similarity with y |“ or y | ‘x, whence 3 the product of the numbers of the rows is (Ne‘y)°* or (Nefry)Ne's, Finally, we take a class § similar to « or 2 (illustrated in the figure by the column of dots enclosed in an oval), and calling M a correlator of \ and 8, we replace & by M“8 and « by DM“. We thus find that, if M[8 corre- lates with 6a class of relations whose domains are mutually exclusive, and which each correlate their domains with a given class y, then DMS has double similarity with vf, “8, whence the same results as before with 6 in a place of « or X. The following propositions are useful in connecting multiplication with exponentiation, and in proving the formal laws of exponentiation. *116-4401 are lemmas for *116°41. #1164 F.ACI 91: B,SedA.qIDRaADS.I25.R=8: CA Cuy. W=BP (qh, 2). Red.0=R2.P=RI 2}: 2D. Well. OU Way xr. DOW= Dr Dem. +. #21°33.3+:.Hp.d:cWP.cWQ.=. (GR,S,2,w). B,Ser.0= Be = S'w.P=R | 2.Q=S |v. (GR, S,2z,w).R,Ser.c= Re=Sw.ceDRaD‘s. P=Rz.Q=Slu. [Hp.*13'195] 2. (qR,2z,w).Rer.c=Re=Rw.P=Riz.Q=Rlw. [¥71-532.418°195]D .(qR,2z).Rer.c=Rz.P=Rlz.Q=R lz. [#13-172] >.P=Q a) b.42138.9b:.Hp.d:2WP.yWP (AR,S,2,w).R,Ser.9= Re.y=Sw.P=Rlz=Qhw. [#55202] 3. (qR,S,2,w).R,Ser.2=Re.y=Sw.R=S.2=u. [41322172]. 2=y (2) + .#88:131.34:.Hp.d:PeQ‘W.s.(qa, Bz). Rerd.c=Re.P=Rlc. i [438-43] (*71-411] «(QR 2). Rer.2eQ'R.P=Rz. (Hp) -(qB2).Red.zey.P=R lz. [#113-101] «Peyxr (8) 48813. Dh: Hp.d:e2eDW. [55-12."71-36] [#41-11.433-13] F. (1). (2). (8). (4)... Prop (@P,R,2).Red.a=Re.P=Riz. (GR, 2). Red.aRz. weDEr 4SECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 149 #116401. bs Hp #1164. 7=5.3.Ty= Wer yy , Dem, .43711-1.438-2.34:.Hp.zey.D1 ceWeale.2.(gR).Red.2W (RL 2) , (42:33) (qB,S,v).R,Ser.o=Sw.Ryz=Slw. [#55:202.413-22] =.(qR). Red.2= Ri. (#71°36] (qR).Rer.ake. (x41-11] =.0(H) 26 [Hp.#3218] eT ( F. (1) .#3768 DF. Prop MALOAL b ACL 91. WAC: Sed. GIDRaDS.2p.5- RS: Tasr: >: Bey som sin df My. Ty amy xd. Te Cls—>1. Pty ¢ Clstexel « Br NoteatPety = No‘ Pty = No'Prod' Pty = Ne(d exp 9) = (Ne)Nr t a 401. #111-4.4#1131.3b:Hp.>. Feysm sm df My « a [111-44.4405] >. Tey om y x x (2) F #7221 .a8514.9 +: Hp.>. Pe Cls—>1-Neteg'Ty=NetTaty (8) F.(B).K8451. Dkr Hp.d.TeyeCistoxcl, (4) [#11512] D. Noten! Try = Ne‘Prod‘ Try (5) b.(1). #11452. Dh: Hp.d. Notes Pe = Notes | ey [x116-14] = Ne“(Aexpy) (6) [#116-25] =(NefA)Nev (7) F (1) « (2). (3) + (4)+ (5) + (6). (7). DF. Prop The following proposition is merely another form of #11641. MIIGALL bi ee Cistexcl: ace. Dee Maca amy Taste rd. fey sinsme J My. Peysmy xe. PeCls—> 1. Tory e Olstexel . Notes Pity = No Paty = NetProd’Tety = Net(« xp 9) = (Ne‘e)¥e Dem. + 47303. Db: Hp.d. Me Cll. C4 MMe Culy a) #11116. 3: Hp. 3:4, Bex. Ma=MB.2.a=8 @) +*1421, Dh: Hp. Diaee. DEL Ma (3) + (2) .(3). 473-24, 3b: Hp. dD. Mesm x (4) b.#7303. Dh: Hp.D:aec.>.DMana: [13-12] D:a, hex. q!DManDMB.>.qlangB. [#8411] D.a=f. [430:37.(3)] 2. Ma= MB: [37-63] DR, Se Me. qgiDRaDS.d.R=S 6) Mn b+). (4) «(5 #LIG-41 =~. #11313 #11619... Prop rrr150 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART UT #116'412'413 are lemmas for #116-414, #116412. rN CL1: RB, Ser. GgiDRaDS.dp5.-R=S8: Gary: U=aP ((qR,2).Rer.2=Re.P=2l Rl: D>. Ve(s\DX) H(A x 7) [Proof as in #116°4] 116-413. +: Hp *116-412.5. D6 = Uelfy $ “ [Proof as in #116401] w116414. +: Hp 116-412.9, Ue (DA) amam (y | A) (DX) smsm (y |“) [#116-412-413] #11642, bi ACL91: KR, SerA.qi DRaD 8.325. R=S:ArCuy: >.Drsm sm (7 J). (DEA)sm (A x7) - (eaDA) 8m (y exp) - Ne‘Prod‘D“A = TINe‘D*‘a = (Neo“y)Ne* [#116414/25 . 115-51 . 111-44. 41°43] 4116422, b:. MP Sell: wved.q!DMwa DM. Iy,,.w=0t wed. Dy. Mwel +1. OM w= ytd. D“M“Ssmsmy | “8 a Dem. ee F wr16-42 8 > i M“SC1l—1: BR, Se MS. q!D' Ra DS. 2p¢.R=8: MSC uy: >. DeeaSsmsm yf “MS (1) A himl421. Dk: Hp. D:wed.D. EL Mw: (2) [*33-43] D> 18C Ca: [#7315] D:(M3)sm 8 (3) beMOLIS. Dhe Hp. Diwed. dD. CMiwetty: [*37°61] Ds MMS Cary (4) F.(2).480°37. Ds. Hp. D:u,ve8.q! DEM wa DIM. Dy,o+ Mw = Mor [437-63] DB, SeMS. qt DRaVS.I,5-R=S (8) F(1).(4). (5).2: Hp. >. DEMS sm smy | MOS, [(8).#118-13} >. D«MeSemsm y | “82D. Prop #11643. bi. Mp del—i:uve §.q! DM wa DMV. Iy..w =v: wed.,.Mwel—1.AMwa=y: >. Prod‘D*.M*S sm sm (vy exp 8) . [Ne‘D“ M5 = (Ne‘y)No* Dem. b #11551 . 4116-422. b: Hp. >. Prod‘Dé«M*3 sm sm (y exp 8) q) be ¥116422 411452. 1: Hp. >. TINE D“M“d=T1Nety | 3 (2) ; be x1161425. DE. TINety | 8 = (NotyyNe* (3) F.(1).(2)-(3). 3+. Prop ‘The above proposition is used in *116°534'61.SECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 151 #11644. big tys(2). Mell. 0Me=V: w, ved.) (Mw) y a (M0) ys Duo WUE 2. DS Py MS sm sm y 5 "5. Prod‘D f (M8 sm sm (vy exp 8) % Dem. b 71-29 . 85°65 2D bs. Hp: (2). Ne=(M%)P yd. (2). Nelo. Nea (Q) +, «87-401. bi. Hp. Hp(1).3:w, 08. q! DW'wa DIN Y.Dy,y-w= (2) b.485°7. Dbs Hp.Hp(1).3:2ey.0,ve3. Nw=N.d.(Nw)e=(N)‘x. [@)] D.w=0 (3) b. (3). #1011-23-35.3+:. Hp. Hp(1).2:u,ve8. Nw=No.d.w=0: [#71:55°166] D:NPSel—1 (4) (1). (2). (4) #116422 . 115-51. +i Hp. Hp(1).>.D«NSsmsmy | 3. Prod’‘DN“Ssm sm(yexpd) (5) b.488:11.3+: Hp. Hp(1).2.DWe=D‘f Mee. [437353] >. DENS = Df MS (6) F.(5). (6). F. Prop #11645, b:.(2). Micel+ 1. O'Mie=V: ww, ve 8 «1 (Mw) ye (Mov). Dy, y= 02D. Prod’ D* Py I Ssm(yexpd) Dem. b #L16°182 . x115°142.. 87-29. > brHp.y=A.q!8.>.ProdD fo MS=A.yexpd=A (1 F #1151. 48815 . 116181 «> bi Hp.S8=A.>. Prod‘D “po MS= tA .yexpd =A e) b. (1) (2). 116-44. 9+. Prop The above proposition is used in #116676, We have now to prove the three formal laws of exponentiation, namely MY Xo pe = peter, BE XQV¥ = (Mw Xv), and (we = pre, Of these the first is an immediate consequence of the distributive law, while the second and third result from forms of the associative law of multiplication. #1165. f:Bny=A.>.(aexp A) x (aexpy)sma exp(B vy) Dem, +. #113191. riHp.gta.d.al “Boal “y=. [4114301] Ds cata] OB xeala | Myomest(al “Bua ty). [*11614.4118-13] > . (a exp 8) x (aexpy) smal “Bvaly). [437-22] Ds (aexp A) x (exp y) am esta (BV). [¥116-14] >. (aexpA) x (aexpy)smaex p(B vy) qa)152 OARDINAL ARITHMETIO [PART IIT } #116182. Fra=A.g! 8.2. acxpBoA. [4113-114] >. (aexp 8) x (wexpy)=A 2) b, #116182. #2456. Dhk:a=A.q!8.2.aexp(Buy=A (3) F.(2).(3). Dkra=A.q!8.>.(wexp8)x(aexpy)smaexp(Bvy) (4) Similarly bra=A.qly.2.(aexp§) x (aexpy)smaexp(Buy) (5) F.#116181.bra=A.B=A.y=A.>. (aexp A)x(aexpy)=UAxUA (8) F.4116181.3+: «B= A.y=A.D.aexp(Buy)=UA (7) fF. (6). (7). #113°611 . #73°43 > bra=A.B=A.y=A.>.(aexp A) x (aexpy)smaexp(Bv 7) (8) F. (1). (4). (5). (8). DF. Prop In the last line of the above proof, «78°43 is required because the two A’s involved have not been proved to be of the same type. They are in fact of the same type, but it is unnecessary to prove this, #1161. |. (aexpA) x (aexp y) sm aexp(8 +4) Dem. F. #11619. #11012. D+. (wexp@)sm(aexp | A,‘12). (aexpy)sm (aexp Ag | Uy). [4113-13] Db. (wexp A) x (aexpy)sm (wexp | AyMuB) x (aexp Ap | MeMy) [1101141165] Dt. (aexp@) x (aexpy)sm aexp( | AfU“Bu Ap U%) (1) fF. (1). (#11001). +. Prop HILG52. bay xyes peter Dem. F. #116:51 . «11022. F. (Nycta)Neo! xq (Nota) Ne'r = (Nyota) Nota teNety (yy F.(1).#1082. 94: py, 9, eNO. Dp’ xouraprre™ 2) F. #116205 . #113:204. 9 bipweNC. 3. pr xppt=Asprte™ (3) F. #116-205 . #113204. bin(v, ae NC). D.u" xeu7=A (4) F.#110°4. 4116-204. Db :n(, ee NC). DprA (6) Fb. (4). (5). DF iw(v, re NC). Dp! xu? = prrew (6) F. (2). (8). (6). D+. Prop The following propositions are lemmas for BE XQ v7 =(u Xqv)®. The principal previous propositions used in the proof are #115°6 and #116-48. The proof proceeds as follows.SECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 158 (wexpy) x Bexpy) is Prod‘a | “yx Prod‘p | “7. This, using #1156, % and putting ay 7 By in place of R and S of that proposition, is similar to ea B{(qe).zey-maalex BL 2, te. to es (qe). 2ey.m=Letax | 2B}. ; Now by #11865, putting R+= RR Dit, | 2ax | “B=(l2t(ax 8). We now apply #11643, taking (| 2)t as the M‘z of that proposition, or tather, taking (| 2)t[(ax 8). Thus we find exh (qe). ey. m=} 2%ax | 2B} 9m (ax B)expy. Hence our proposition follows. #116529. Rt=R|R Dit[el16] In #180, this notation will be introduced as a permanent definition. For the present, we only introduce it to avoid ( | || Cnv‘ | 2), which is awkward. #11653. Figqla.qif.2. (aexpy) x (Bexpy)sm es'f (ae). 267. p= ax | 2B} Dem. b.M11S104111, It. y CCl CUB Lal Ol yeClsrexel (1) F.wl1S'105. Dk: Hp.>.C) “tal, AL Pyelod (2) aL Ay (1). (2). wl156 ——sr «> brHp.>.(aexpy) x BexpysmecP(qz) .zeypaalexA le (8) +. (8). 438-2... Prop The hypothesis q!a.q1@ is not necessary in the above proposition; but the proof is simpler with the hypothesis, and we do not need the proposi- tion without the hypothesis. #11681. Fs. Ma R23 (coy. R=(L2)th(axA)} Dt zeysde- Me=(L2)th ax A). Mcell.Oie=ax ep Dem +. ¥74°772 . 455-12 #72184. Dt.) 2)t_el— qd) F.2183.3b:.Hp.zey.:RMe.=.R=(L2)t Px): [x30°3] D:Me=(L2)th (axa): (2) (1) .#43°122] D:Mzel31.0Mz=axp (3) F.(2). (8). F. Prop #116582. F: Hp #116531. q1!a.q18.2.Mel—+1.0M=y Dem. +.#116581.¥1421.47116.2+:Hp.2.Mel—+Cls (1) bo w116'581.5F:. Hp. z,wey. Mice Mw. dt (LattaxA=(Lw)th ax A): [w71°35] D:Re(axA).2.(LatR=(Lw) tk: [w119-101]D:wea.yeR.D(Latiysa=(Lutyds). [*113:123] d-YLaLeLa=ylulel~. [*55°202) Dizaw (2)154 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part ur .(2). Dk Hp.drzwey. Me=Mw.d.2=0 (3) F.W116531 41421043843. 3F:Hp.cey.d.2e0R (4) b.¥2138. 32. Hp.3:RMe.Dpe-eeyt [83-351] D:ORCy (5) F.(1)« (8). (4). (6). #71°55. DF. Prop #116098. b:. Hpw116531.3: D“M"y =f (qe)-2ey. m= | aax | 2B} 2,wey. A! DM em DIMW Dew 22 = 0 Dem. F. #116531. 3b: Hp. zey.d.DM2=D (42) th (ax A} [#87401] 4a tax B) [411365] =f etax Lee a) + .(1).#376. DF: Hp. >, DM y=2 (qe) zey- w=] 2hax | 248} (2) F.«l1319. Dhigi() eax | 2%R)n( | wax LwKe).>- Tibetan] wa. [55-232] D.z=w (3) F.(1).(2).(3). +. Prop #116534, }: Hp *116°532. 3. es‘D“ My sm (a x 8) expy Dem. F. #116°581582°533 . > bi Hp. D:Mel—liz,wey. gq! DMen DM ws Dew+2 zeysD,.Micel—1. Me [116-43] 2: Prod‘D‘Af"‘y sm (a x 8) exp y: [4115°12.430°37.48411] Ds enD My sm (a x 8) exp y+ DE. Prop #116535. Fi gqla.q!@.>.(aexpy) x (Bexpy)sm (ax B)expy [¥116-53-533'534) The hypothesis q!a. 11 is not necessary, as we shall now prove. #11654. +. (wexpy) x (Sexpy)sm (ax B)expy x Br Dem. b.#116182.2Fra=A.qly.2.aexpy=A. [#113114] >. (aexp y) x (Bexpy)=A (1) F#113°114, #116182. 2Fra=A.gly.d.(ax Adexpy=A (2) f.(1)-(2). Dra=A.gqly.>.(wexpy) x (6 expy)sm (a x A) exp y (3) Similarly FiB=A.gty. >. (aexpy) x (8 expy)sm (a x A)expy (4) Fb. #116181. DF: y= A.D. (aexpy)x(Bexpy)=UAX UA. [#113°611.#73-43] D.(aexpy) x (B expy)smu‘A (5) F.¥116181.3+:y=A.>.(ax B)oxpy=uA. {(5)] > -(aexpy) x (B expy)sm (ax B)expy (6) (3). (4). (6) .#116-535.3+. Prop In obtaining (5), we use #73'43 as well as 4118-611, because A’s of different types are involved.SECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 155, #ULE5E, bp xgut = (ux, 0)™ Dem. b . 116°54°222 . #113222. (NycfayNor'r x, (Niet) Ney = (Nyofa x, Nie“B) Se qa FA (1). #1082. Dkr pyweNO.D.pe XT = (yu X_»)" (2) b 116-205 . #118204. Dk: eve NiO. D. py? XgvT =A = (uXQr)™ (3) + 4116-205 . #113204. DF ra(y,veN,C). Dd. pw Xv =A (4) F .#113-204 . #116204. 2 bin (u,veN,C).D.(uxov)7=A (5) +. (4). (3) Dhiw(y, ve NO). D+ pw Xe v7=(u Xqv)™ (6) fF .(2).(8). (6). D+. Prop This completes the proof of the second of the formal laws of exponentiation, The following propositions are lemmas for the third of these laws, namely wrap, W166. Frgta.D.aexp(é x-7)stm Prod'Prodt(a 4 2 | My. ad 8 | “ye Clst arithm Dem. a F.¥113°105 . 48453 #118111. 3+: Hp.D.af “8 | “ye Clstexel (1) +. 40°38. Dh isla MBL Mya al eB | My @) [*113-111] Dh stal 1B | ye Clstexel (3) % b.().(8). #1162. DhrHp. Deaf 6B | ye Cls* arith (4) b #113141 . 4116-19. > F. No‘{a exp (8 x y)} = Ne“{aexp (7 x A)} [(411601.#113-02)) = Ne'Prod‘a | s°B | y (2) =NeProdis'a | 8 | y % [x115°35.(4)] = Ne‘Prod‘Prod‘a | 8 | “y (5) & PS F.(4).(5). DF. Prop #116601. F.|(Cnv! | z)el—o1 [#74774 . 472-184] #116602. F:. M= R2[2ey. R={|(Cnv‘ | 2)ef (aexpS)].2: zey.2.M2={|(Cavé | z)}ef (aexp A): UM =y Dem. +. #2133. birHp.Dizey.2:RMe.=.R={|(Cav' | 2)}ef (aexp8) a) F.(1).4803. 3b: Hp. Dtzey. >. Mes [|(Cav' ef (eexp8) (2) b 421-83 ..438181. +: Hp.>. 0M =y (3) fF. (2).(8). DF. Prop #116603. | :. Hp #116602. 3:zey-3.C'Me=aexp8 [#116-602 . 437-231 . #35°65]156 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr uo #116604. ts. Hp #116602. 3:zey.2.DMie= Prod‘a | «B 4? Dem. +. 437-401 . *116°602.> FrHp.cey.d.DM2 ={|(Cnv! | 2)}e“(a exp 8) [115+4.%116:601.44 901] = Prod“{ |(Cnv! | 2)}eMa | “8 [w113-125 J n507516] = Prodfa “| 68 [438-2] =Prodta | “A 2:3. Prop #116605, | :. Hp #116602. :zey.. Mizell Dem. F . 116601 . «72451. F.{|(Cnvé | z)}ef CMd*| (Cav' | z)e1—r1. [443-301] DF. {| (Cav! | 2jef (wexp@)el1 q) F. (1). #116602. DF. Prop #116606. Fs. Hp*116:602. qla.qgi@.2: Mel—1iz,wey.D'M2=DMw. 2,920 Dem. +. 4116602. #1421. 3: Hp. 3:2e0'M.3,. Et Me: [471-16] 2:Mel—Cls a) 148087. Dk: Hp. Diz,wey. Mic= Mw. >. DM =D Mw 2) + .¥116604. bi. Hp.d:2,wey.D'Me=DMw.>. Prod’a | @ | 2=Prod‘a | “2 fw. [*80°37] D. sProd’a | 8 | ex s'Prod’al “B fw. 5 [HILGLTLWLISL4L(1160L)] Dosa “8 Lesa “Bw. BP 6» PS [#113-1] D.BLzxa=Blwxa. [#113182] D.BLe-Blw. [¥113:105.Hp] D.2=w (3) F.(1). (2). (8). #71-55 «#116602. 3+. Prop #116607. | :, Hp#116602.qla.q!@.>: Mel 1. DEM My = Prodta | 8 | My 5 OS 2,wey. DMG = DIM w.,912= Ut zey.Dz-Mizel—y1.C‘M'z=aexp B [x116606604-605°603] ALGGL biggta.g!@.>. Prod’Prod“a 68 | ¢y sin (aexp 8) expy [#116-607-43] w116611. Fiqla.gq!@.>.aexp(8xy)sm(aexpA)expy [*1166-61]SECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 157 #11662. . aexp(@ x7) sm (wexp 8) exp Dem. F. 4116181. 4*119114.3+:8=A.D.acexp(@x yaa q) F. «116181. Dh: B=A.D.(aexp8)expy=(U'A) expy (2) + #1168325. DE. NeM{(etA) exp y} =1 (3) + .(1).(2).(3).#5222.%10031.F:8=A.D.aexp(8xy)sm(aexpB)expy (4) F .¥113107 #116182. 3b:a=A.qiPe Gly. D-aexp(Bxy=A (5) + #116182. Drira=A.q!Aogty.2.(aexpA)expy=A (6) F.(5).(6).Dk:a=A.gqi@.gqhy.2.aexp(2xy)sm(aexpA)expy (7) b #113114, #116181. t:y=A.D.aexp(Bxy)=UA.(aexph) expy=utA. [#73°43] D.aexp(Bxy)sm(aexpA)expy (8) F. (4). (7) (8). Dhna=A.v.B=AiviyeArd. aexp(8xy)sm(aexpA)expy (9) , (9).#116611. 3+, Prop #11663. 1. ?% 7 = (ur)™ Dem. F.#113-222. DF (Nyofa) Ne’. ety = (NyotayNetexn) [#116°222.(#116:04)] = Ne“{aexp (8 x y)} [x116-62) =Ne‘{(a exp 8) exp y} [x116-222] = [Nie'(a exp By}Ney [w116-222.(4116-08)] = {(Nyo‘a) eA] Neoty q) F.(1).#1082. Dh ip, weNC.d. pew = (pre @) F .#116-204-205 . Dhin(yveNiC).d.(w)P=A (3) f.#L13-205 .#116°204°205. Dk iw(yveN,C).D.wXraA (4) F.¥116-205. DhimveN,C.d.(wye=A (6) F.#118-205 #116204. Db aweN,C. 2. wired (6) F.(8)-(4)-(5)-(6). Erm yweNC).D.pre=(w" (7) FA (2)-(7)e DF. Prop This completes the proof of the third of the formal laws of exponentiation, 11664 F. (wr) =(u2)P [#11663 . #113-27] #116051. F: QeCls—> 1. ee Clstexel .D. esPa Qe sm Pa Q*s'e Dem. b.48453. 9b: Hp. >. Qu eClstexel « [85:43] D « ea’ Pat Qe 9m Pa's' Qe. [40°38] Dd. ca Ps Qe am Pal Qs'e: Dt. Prop 4116652. F: QeCls— 1. «eClstexcl . >. cafes“ Qi“ sm enQs'x [116-51 $158 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC {parr ur The following propositions are lemmas for #116'661, which is an extension of #11652. #116653. + : ee Clst exol.D.a,f “tee Cis arithm Dem. +. 4118105 .48453. 3b: Hp.qta.D.a, “ee Clstexcl qa) FexlIST11. — Dh.ad “otwe (lst excl. [40°38] Dhestal ee Olstexel (2) Fe#1B1I2113. Ita A.D: Bex Gi A. Dal “Bava: Ben. P=A.d.al“B=A (8) F.(8)DEnamA. Dial Me CUA vin: [2443561] Dipoeal “eghpac.Iipoea, [51:15] D.psa: (¥84-11] Dial “ee Cs excl @ F.(1).(4) DF tHp. Dad Me eClstexel (5) +. (2). (5). 4. Prop #116654. Fs ee Cls* excl . >. (Prod‘(aexp)'“s} sm {a exp (s‘x)} Dem. F .438:13 . (#11601). DF. Prod‘(aexp)“« = Prod‘Prod a | “x (y 3 F. (1). #116653 . #11534. 5 F . {Prod‘(aexp)c} sin (Prodtsfa | 4] (2) ; f. (2). #40°88 . (4116-01). DF. Prop #116655. F: ee Clstexcl . >. TINot(aexp) “c= (Nefa)Ne* [4116-654] This proposition is an extension of #116°5, ‘The hypothesis « ¢ Cls*excl is unnecessary in the above proposition, as we shall now prove. #116656. big !aexpAnaexpy.>.A=y¥ Dem. Fs aLIG11 . #5216. D bi. pe(aexpA)n(aexpy). Itye8..(qz).cea.alyepipCyxat [#113101] DiyeB.P.(qe).wea.a | yewral yeped-yey: [Syl] DiyeB.d. (qr). wea.clyen.yeys [#1035] Dyer @ Similarly ts. weaexpBnaexpy.d:yey-2-yeR (2) F.(1).(2). 2+. PropSECTION B) EXPONENTIATION 159 #116657. + .(aexp)eeCls*excl [4116656] #116658. F .aexp (eT 8)={|(Cnv! | A)}.“(a exp 8) Dem. F .#116'602'604. 437401. 3+. {| (Cavé | B)}e(a exp A) =a exp (8 | 8) [#85601] =aexp(e] 8)... Prop #116659, 7 =f [(qA).B exe. peaexpB.v=|(Cnv' | 8)“u}.>. Te (aexp) *e | ‘x Sim Th (a exp)“« Dem, b.x04. Db: Hp.>.d'P=s(a exp) « q@) £42133. 9b: Hp. DrvTu.oT yd. (GB, 7)» Byex-meaexpB.meaexpy. v=|(Cav‘ | Bu. =| (Cav! Ly) ue [4116-656] 2-(GB,7)-R=y-v=|(Cav' | A)“. =|(Cav' Ly) “pe [#13-195] Dw=0 @) F.42138.2bi.Hp.dialy.aTv.d. (GB. 7) + Biyex-peaexpB.veaexpy. w= |(Onv' | 6)n=| (Cav! Ly). [116-658] > .(GB,7)-Byyex-peaexpA.veaexpy. a@=|(Cnv'{ 8)“p=|(Cnv' bo. weaexp(e] A)nacxp(eT7)- [#116656] >. (HB, y)- By yew | (Cav! | 8) u=| (Cav! by). elB=ely- [¥85°601] D.(qA) «Be x.| (Cav! | B)u=| (Cav! | Ayr. [116°601.472-441] D.pav (3) +.(2).(3). Dk:Hp.d.Tell (#) Ff, #116658. +: Hp.:@ex.2. T(acxp8)=aexp(e] 8): [37-69] Ds Té(a exp) “e=(aexp) eT (6) F. (1). (4). (6). #1111. 94. Prop #11666, . Prod(a exp)‘ sm {a exp (3‘«)} Dem. F #116659. #115°51 . DF. Prod‘(a exp) eam Prod‘(a exp)““e ]“« qa F.#85-61 116654. D+. Prod‘(aexp)“e J “xsm {aexp(se]«)} (2) b. (1). (2). #1121. 3b. Prop ¥116-661. +. TINc'(aexp)e=(Nefa)@8 — [#116:66°657 . #115:12 . #112101] This proposition is an extension of #116°52.160 CARDINAL ARITHMETIO [part m1 ‘The following propositions are concerned in proving #11668, which is an extension of #11654, where the # and @ of that proposition are replaced by the members of a class x. «11667. brpaX ((qa).aew Raa “y}. Dine Clstexcl.D.peCistarithm Dem. 8208.2: Hp.r,wepqirnp.d. (Ga, 8).a Bee. %=a My w=AY My. girop. [#87-6] 2.(G4, 8,2,0).a, Beez, weyale=Blwraal My. % b p=By iy (m55-262.438°2]9.(qa, 2,1). dex. z.wey mal “yi poal My. b ; [#13172] D.rv=p qd) F487. 40°11 t:Hp.Enespegléaned. (Ga, 8,4,)-a Ben zwey E=ale.q=Blwiglian. (455°232.438-2]2.(q19,8,2).4enzey-Emalen=Bbegqtang (2) F.(2).48411.9 FrHp.weChtoxel .Enestp. qin. >. (912, 8,2).Enal zn=B} .an8. [#19:195172] D.b=n (3) + .(1). (8). DF. Prop #IGETL bio =f {(qe) ey. p= | oe} .D: Hp xl1667.d. 8p =s'o Dem. b.mdOLL. Dt. Hpwll667 9: Festp. =. (ga). cen. Foal iy. [438'3] [487-103] [4011] (Ga, 2).aew.zey.E=] 2a, s(q2).zeyeEed ah, sEesBl(qe).zey.pad oe}: Dt. Prop mou 4116672. +: Hp #116671. ¢Clstexel. Aven. oe Cs? oxel Dem. +.487103.b:Hp.wveo.qlwnved+ (az, w, a, 8). 2,wey.a, Bend za= lwp. pa heavalwe. [455-262] D.(qz,w,0).2,wey ven. L2a= wi. pa deav= lwo, [x118-105."98:2.Hp] >. (qz,a).w= | eave) ea. [13-172] D.w=v:Dt. PropSECTION B) EXPONENTIATION 161 #116673. | : Hp #116672. >. e,(exp 7) sm estea“o Dem. +. #88181 . (#11601). DF ex (exp 9) «= ea‘ (qa). cen. E= Prod’a 4“ [437-6] =eatProdR ((qa).aew X=a ly) (1) (1). #11538 . #11667 .> bs Hp. >. es((expy)*tesm eafs'h (qa) ace Kamal ty}. [116671] D. ea“(exp y) “x sm eai's'o« [485°44.4116-672] >. ea‘(exp y)*“x sm eaea“o 1 D+. Prop #116674. b:. M= A2{R=({ 2] Cav] 2) .D2 (2). M'ze1— 1. DM‘) eateem eat | oe Dem. 4803. Dr: Hp.d.M‘e=( | 2)||Cav( | 2. @M be w72184. #11114. 0b. | 2p ce( | 2M) Sw [11451] DEAL zl] Onv'( | z2)e} Peat € (eat | 2) 5H (ca‘e) (2) F.(1).(2).#7808. DF. Prop #116675, | :. Hp 4116674 .q sf. D2 gt (Mw) “ea‘e (M0) “exe. Dow =v Dem, + .#116-674. 3s. Hp. Dig! (Mw) eaten (Mv) eate D. atest | whe nest | one. [*8032] De Lwhe= | ve. [440'38] Di fuliste= | vse. [4113°105.*38:2) Dw D+. Prop #116676. | : Hp #116°672675 . >. Prod‘D“ f (ea‘«) My sm (ea‘e) exp y+ DP (cafe) My = exo Dem. : « b al16674°675 . w11645 “5. b:Hp.>. Prod‘D“ > (cafe) Mé'ry sm (es‘x) expy a F. #116674. Db: Hp. >. Df (cate) (My =P {(ge).zey. wa eat | oe} [*37-6.Hp] = aaa (2) F.(1).(2). 2. Prop #11668. bi ee Clstexcl .. ea‘(expy) «sm (es'e) exp y + TINe‘(exp yf“ = (IINe‘x) Se Dem. F.#115°12 , #84°55. 3. Prod’ea‘‘o sm eaen'o qd) F.(1) . 4116673676. > ti Hp. Aven. q tse. D. ea(exp y) «sm (eae) expy (2) R&W IT pu162 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part 1 b.*5B24. Whi Aven wgise.IeeaA- (#83°15.411633] D. es(expy)“e=UA. (eafe)expyel. [¥73-45] D. es(expy) ie 8m (eae) exp y (8) F.¥8311. #116182. 3b: Ace. GlysD.ese=A. Ae (oxpy) e+ [4116°182.483-11] D.(eafe)expy=A .es(expy)e=A (4) F.4116181. 3b: Aewsy= A.D. (csfe)expy=t (5) F.#116181.3+:Aeeey= A.D. (expy) esr. [483-41] D. es(expy)esm vA (6) b.(4).(5). (6). DF: A eu. D. es"(expy) a sm (ea‘) exp y (1) Fs (2).(B)« (7) + #1141. 4116-25. F. Prop The above proposition is an extension of #116°54°55. The following propositions are lemmas for Ne‘Cla = 2, The proposition and its proof are due to Cantor. #1167, FL NoM{(fA UUtV) f ahafa = 2Ne= Dem. be241 #1013. No(iA ueV) = 2 q@) bH11615.. Db. Net{(efA uetV) f a}afa= No“((uA u uV) exp a} [#116-25] (Nef(UsA u eV)}Ne® (a) = 28+. Prop In this and following propositions, the class 1‘A v «'V is introduced solely as a known class consisting of two terms. Any other class of two terms will serve equally well. fe e- #I16TL Fr Re (MA Ue) Palate. 2. RV sa— RA Dem. #11612. +: Hp.>.Rel—+Cls.DSRCUA vuV.d‘R=a (1) [487-271] D.a= RUA UV) eae € [#53302] =RAURV ) ee €& b.(1).#7118.D+:Hp.d.RAnRV=A (3) b. (2). (3). #2447. F. Prop MIIGT1L. Fs R,Se (A vUV) Palate. MASA. R=S Dem. Fewll671. Dh: Hp.d. RV = SV a) FQ) -#11612.9 Fs Hp. D:yeD‘R uD‘. 9,. Ry = Sey: [3348] 3:R=S:.D+. PropSECTION B] EXPONENTIATION 163 w116712. F:. T= PRURe (WA VeV) Palafa. w= BA]: < Re (UAV) talafa. dD. PR= RA: OT = (UAV eV) tala lem. F.W21-33.D bet Hp. De Re l(c we'V) Palate. D:uTR. =. p= RA: < [430°3] DP R=RA q) F. (1) #1421. Db Hp. 3: Re (UA VV) Falafa. DEIR, [433-43] D.ReaT (2) F.421-33. 433-181. Db: Hp. >. CTC {(tA Ve) P alata 8) F.(1).(2).(8). DF. Prop #116713. F: Hp#116712.3.7el—>1 Dem. F.116712. 41421. Hp. 3: ReGT.2.E!TR: [471-16] D:Rel—Ols (1) F.wLI6712711, Dk: Hp.d:RSeCT.TR=TS.2.R=8 (2) +.(1). (2). #7155. DE. Prop #116714, ts Hp #116712. pe Cla. R92 [yoA.wep.v.y=V .wea—p}.D. Re {(UAveV) Palstap= TR Dem. F.42133 43313. Dt. Hp. DiqeD'R.d.yevtAve'V @ } 42138 .433191. Dit Hp. DnweC‘ Rist (ay)! y=A.wep.viy=V.wea—pt [#10°42.413-1 ep.V.vea—pt @) [¥24-411.Hp] ea (3) F .#21°38. 4303. Dh: Hp. Divep. Dp R@=Aiwea—p. ds ReaV: [(2)ee1 421] e('R. 2, El Ra: [a71-16] 2:Re1>Cls @) F #2138. Di Hp.dnyHA.diq~Re-s,-wept [432181] 2: Ry=p ©) F.(1). (8). (4). #11612. DF: Hp. d. Re (Av eV) Fala’a 3) + .(5).(6).#116712. Dk: Hp.d.p= TR 7) F.(6).(7). DF. Prop #116715, }: Hp #116-712.3.D*T=Cla Dem. F.116714. 43343 .D+:Hp.>.Cl'ac De? aw +. #2133. 439°13. bi Hp.D:peD'7.. (qh). Re (CA vitV) Palate. p= RA. [33-151] D.(GR). Re (UA veV) Tals npCOR, [x80'14] DepCa (2) F.(1).(2).D. Prop 1l—2164 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC #11672. +. No‘Clfa= 2Ne'« b.#116-712-718-715 . Db. Clfasm {A vutV) ahaa F. (1). 116-7. DF. Prop 1168. +. BIM(p f 2) =sCl"(o x p) Dem. + #602. Db. Res Cla x p).=1 (Gd). ACoxp.R=sAt 4113-101] =: (QA): Ped. Dp. (qa,y)-cep.yeosPaaly: w4T11] =:(gA): Per. Dp. (qasy).wep-yeo-Paaly: uRo. #1056] D:uRv.uo-(qu,y)-cep.yer.u(ely)o: #5513] D:uRv. Dy vep.vect #35103] Di REpto b . #35103 .#113-101 > b:RGpto.r=P ((qa,y).2Ry.P=acly}.d.xCoxp be x4111 #13195. b:. Hp(2).2:u(r)o.=.(qa,y)aRy.ulwLy)v. #5513] uRv b.(2). (3). DFE RGpto.d.(qr)-ACoxp.R=sr F.(1).(4). DF. Prop #11681. F.8P Clo xp)elo Dem, b.a4113. Ib ia, BeCl(a x p).sa=sB.clyea.dialy Gite: 4111] Di(qP).PeB.clyGP: '¥113101.Hp] > :(qP, u,v). Pe8.Psulv.clyGulo: #55°13434] D:(qP,u,v).PeB-P=ulv.alysulo: HISI72Z13] IralyeR Fy BS. dba seco xp) Sa=#@.c)yeB.d.alyea F.(1).(2).#118101. bra, BeCl (a xp). &a= 88. 2.a=8 b. (8). #7155 472-163. +. Prop #11682, +. RI“p f.o)smCl(o x p) [116881] #11683, F.NoRI(p fc) = 2NXNoo — [4116'82-72 . #11825] #1169. b:Notfrap.d.Noi%e=% [411672. ¥63°66] #11691. b: Nottfaap.d.Netta= 2% [411683 464511] #11692. b: Nofta=p.D. Nota = 2%, Nota = 2". . ete, [#116°83 . 464-16 . *116°901] F k k #116901, b: Notas. d.Noa=2 — [K11672. #6365] F F [pana 11 ql) (aP).Per.uPo: Q) (2) (3) (4) Q) @) (3)#117. GREATER AND LESS Summary of #117. A cardinal y is said to be greater than another cardinal v when there is a class a which has » terms and has a part which has v terms, while there is no class 8 which has y terms and has a part which has w terms. The relation “greater than” is transitive and asymmetrical; and by the Schréder-Bernstein theorem, if is greater than or equal to v, and v is greater than or equal to #, then »=v, But we cannot prove that of any two cardinals one must be the greater, unless we assume the multiplicative axiom. The proof then follows from Zermelo’s theorem that on that assumption every class can be well-ordered, This subject will be dealt with at a later stage. The form of the definitions is so arranged as to allow of the inequality of two cardinals in different types. The relevant considerations are the same as for the definitions of addition, multiplication and exponentiation. Our definition of “p> v” is MITOL p>v.=.(gqa,8)-p=Nea.v=NeR. gi Clan NeB.ng!Cl@aNea Df We also define “4 > Ne‘a” as meaning “p > N,e‘a,” and “No‘a > v” as meaning “N,c‘a > »,” for the reasons explained in #110. It then easily follows that if a> v, p and y must be homogeneous cardinals (this is part of #11715); that if ~ and y are homogeneous cardinals, and yu > v, the same holds if we substitute sm“ and sm“ for one or both of » and v (*117-16); that #11718. +: Ne‘a>Ne'B and that #MITI4 bip>v.=. (ga, 8). p=Ncu.v=Netp. Nea > NoiB We cannot define “p>” as “p> v.v.p =v,” because “p= »” restricts » and y too much by requiring that they should be of the same type, and restricts them too little by not requiring that they should both be existent cardinals. To avoid both these inconveniences, we put #11705. pDv.sip>v.venveNC.p=smy Df The use of this definition is chiefly through the propositions #117108, + :. Ne‘a > Ne‘@.= : Nefa > Ne(B.v.Nea=NeR #11724. bi pv. =. (ga,8). p= Nota.v=Ne'B. NewS NeB 1 Cl'an Ne'B wg! CB a Ne‘a166 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr rr In *117-2, we repeat the Schréder-Bernstein theorem (73°88), which is required in most of the remaining propositions of this number. It leads at once to the propositions 11722. Fig! Clan NeB.=.Nea>NeB (which practically supersedes the definition of “>”) #117221, t: Ne‘a>Nof8.=.(gqp)-pCa.psme 4117-222. 8 Ca.D.NeaSNeB #11723, +: Ne‘a>Ne‘8.No‘@>Ne‘a.=.Ne‘a=Ne'B This last proposition may be called the Schréder-Bernstein theorem with as much propriety as #73°88; the two are scarcely different, If we now revert to the definition of »>v, or to 117-18, and apply #117-22, we see (w11726) that “Ne‘a>Ne‘R” may be conveniently regarded as asserting Ne‘a > Neg .~(Ne‘B > Ne‘a); in fact, the best ideas to work with are > and its converse <, which for practical purposes we regard as defined by 117-22, and from which we derive > and <. The relation > will be the product of > into the negation of its converse; this holds for and v (¥117:281) as well as for Ne‘a and Ne‘g. #117331 constitute an important use of *110°72, namely to prove that one existent cardinal is greater than another or equal to it when the first can be obtained by adding to the second (where what is added must be a cardinal). That is to say, we have #1173. +: Ne‘a>Ne'B.=.(qa).ceNO.Nea=NeB to M1781, bi pv.stpjveNCi(qa).ceNC porto ¥117-4—471 are concerned in proving that > and > are transitive, that > is asymmetrical (117-42), and allied propositions. Our next set of propositions is concerned with 0 and 1 and 2, We prove that a homogencous cardinal is whatever is greater than or equal to 0 (#117-501); that a homogeneous cardinal other than 0 is whatever is greater than 0 (#117°511); that a homogeneous cardinal other than 0 is whatever is greater than or equal to 1 (#117°531); and that a homogeneous cardinal other than 0 and 1 is whatever is greater than 1 (#117°55), and is whatever is greater than or equal to 2 (4117-551). We next prove a set of propositions concerning > which have no analogues for >, except when the cardinals concerned are finite. Thus e.g. we prove #117561. tip Dv. weNC.d.pt.aDv+,o If we substitute > for >, this no longer holds. Thus eg. put »=2, v=1, @=R, (cf. #123); then p>v, but ptoa=vt,e=a. Similar remarks apply to the analogous propositions (#117°571'581°591) on multiplication and exponentiation.SECTION B] GREATER AND LESS 167 We prove next that a sum is greater than or equal to either of its sum- mands (#117°6); that a product neither of whose factors vanishes is greater than or equal to either of its factors (#117°62); that, assuming p and » ate existent cardinals, then if they are neither 0 nor 1, their product is greater than or equal to their sum (#117-631), and if w is neither 0 nor 1, then BPD w Xev (#117652). The last important proposition in this number is Cantor's theorem #117661. F:weN.C.3.2 >, which follows immediately from #10272 and #11672. The propositions of this number are much used in the following section, on finite and infinite, #11701. p>v.=. (44,8). p=Neta.v=Ne%e. aiClanNeB.ngiCl@aNea Df #11702. p> Ne‘a.=. p> Nieto Df ¥*11708. Nefa>v.=.Nefa>v Df #11704. pcos. >p Df #11705. pDv.=:p>v.v.4,veNC.p=smy Df #117086. p vss. (qa8).poNotav=NeBs. ai Clan Ne@.vqiClBaNet [(*117-01)] #117101. bp > Ne‘B.=.p > Nets [(#117-02)] #117102, F:Ne‘a>v.s.Neta>v [(*117-03)] #117108, Fipp [(#117-04)} #117104. Fine >vivenveN,C.~=smy [(*117-05)] #117105. Fip Ne‘B.=.Neoka > No'B [#117-101-102] #117107. Fs Nea > NeB. =. Notas Neots Dem. + «4117104106. > Fi. Nofa > Ne‘ Noefa > Nc‘8.v.Ne‘a, Ne‘Be N.C. Nea =sm“*Ne‘B: Nyefa > Nyc‘8. v. Ne‘a, Ne‘Be N.C. Nefa=Ne‘B: Nyela> Ne'B.v.Ne‘a, NoBeNC.Ne‘a=Noeoe: [#108-21} Nela> NeB.v.NetBeN,C.Noa=NeB: [¥103-16] Nela> NeB.v.NoBeN,C.Neta=Ne'B: [#1032] Nicla > Nec'B.v. Noota= Neer [#103-4} Necfa> NooiB.v. Nota =sm"Neo'et [103-21.4#117-104 sefa > Neo'B :. Dk . Prop168 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART Or #117108, fs. Ne‘a p> Neff. =: No‘a > No‘B.v. Noa=Ne‘B [#117-107-106-104 . «103-16'4] #11711. br asma’. fem f’.: gq! Clan NeB Dem. F.#100321. DF: Hp. Dg! Cla a Nef + .#73:21. br Rel+l.D'Raa.GR=d .yCa.yeNe'B.>. Bey Cad ByeNe'p. 5+ Clta! n Note! gt Cla a Neg’ a) [60-2] >. 1 Cl'a’ a Noe (2) F. (2). 10-11-2335 . #731. brasma’.q! Clan Nog. d.q! Cla a No'B 8) reyes, Dhiasmal. gq! Cla’ a Ne‘B.>.q! Clan Nese (4) f.8).(4). DE aama’.Diq! Olan NoB.= «gq! Cla’ n Nets (6) .(1).(5). 2. Prop 1712. bipd>v.sipveNC: ye Bev. Dyae Gl Clfy a Ne. wy 1CVS a Noty Dem. b.l17111.5 kip > v.31 (qa,8)2 = Nola. v= NotB.gq! Clan Net. wg! ClBn Ne‘a: 6 we BE. Dye GI Cly A NoS. wg! Cla Novy: (qa 8): n=Neeta.y=NetB-aep-Rev.G! Clan Ne Be. ql n Nea: yee Beve Dy ae Gt Chey a Ned. vq! Ola Nety: [#1035] =: (qa, A)iw—Nota.v=NeB.aep.Revi yews Bev. Dye G1 Clfy aNoB. wg! Cl'S a Novy: [H103-12-2]=:p,veNCryep. Sev. Dy5-H!Cl'y a Ne. vqlClBnNoty:. DF. Prop [103-12] #117121. bi.p > v.=tpjveNC: ae pe De. (GB). Reve q! Clan NoB. wg! ClBn Nea Dem. F.a«ll7111.> bin p>v.=i(qa,8):p=Neoa.v= Nee. q!ClanNep. wg !ClBa Nea: 11 € We Dy (GB). Sev. Cy aNeS. wg! ClB a Nety [¥108:12.#10°55) = : (qa, @):p=—Noefa.v=NoiB.aep: ye wa Dy «(G18)- 8ev «Gq! Clhyn NeS. oq! Cl'3.n Noty StpveNCiyep.r,.(qd). Sev. qi Cyn Nes. ~q! CIS a Nety :. DF. Prop The above proof is given shortly because it proceeds on the same lines as #11712. In applying *10-55, the ga of that proposition is replaced by ae p, [¥103-12-2]SECTION B] GREATER AND LESS 169 and the We is replaced by (GB). Bev. gq! Clan NefB. wg ClBn Nova, «11713, b: No‘a > No'g.=.q! Clan NeB. wg! CiB a Ne‘a Dem, F. «117-106. > Fi. Ne‘a > NefB.=:Nyc‘a> No'B: [*103-2.411712] S:ye Nota. deNccB.2y,s+ A ICly a NeS.~ gq! Cl8n Noty: [*100°31.«117-11] Sry eNiefa.deNciB-D,,3+ G1 Clan NetB.w gq! ClBn Neva: [#1023] Srq!Neta.g! Note. 2. q! Clan NetB. wg tClKB a Ne‘a: [¥108-13] =1q!Clan NeB. wg 1ClB a Ne‘a:. +. Prop WTA bip dv. =. (92,8). p=Nea.v= Neg. Ne‘a > Ne'B [1171-13] ITI. Fip dv. s.pveNC.gtsClpasmy. og fC nsmp Dem. +. #1034. «1171.3 Fig >v.=:(9qa,8)-p=Noa.v=NoeS.q!Clansmy. wg Cle nsm“p: =tpveNC:(qa,8).aep. Bev. q!Clansm. wg! Cle asm “ps [w117-11] =tp,veN,C:(qa,8).aen- Bev. qi Clansm“y: Bev. Dye vg !ClBasmp: mveNC:(qa).aen.g!Clfan amy: (G8). Ber. Gt Ol asm“pe [404.4602] Sry,veNC.qtsClpasm%. wg ts'Clyn sm“pi. Dk. Prop The advantage of this proposition is that it expresses “» >” in terms of w and v alone, without the auxiliary a and 8 of the definition. #11716. bie wveNC.d:p>0.5.sm"p>v.=. p> smy.s.am"p>smy (#11714. *103-4] #1172. Frasma’.@smf'. 8 Ca.a’CB.>.asm@ [#7388] This proposition (which is the Schrider-Bernstein theorem) is fundamental in the theory of greater and less. #11721, big! Clan NeB. gq! CB a Neta. 3. Ne‘a= Nee [#117-2. #100321] #lIT211, bq Clan NeoB.g!Cl*Bn Nefa.=.Ne‘a=Ne‘B Dem. +, #1003 .#60°34. DF : Ne‘a= Ne"8.3.ae Clan Ne‘B. Be Cl n Ne‘a (1) b.(1).#117-21.3 +. Prop [#103226] I [#103'13.410°51]170 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr 11 #11722, iq! Clan NeB.=.Ne‘a D> Neo‘B Dem. bewlI718. Dk: Hp. vq! Cl'BnNefa.=.Neta>NeB (1) #117911. F:Hp.q!Ol@nNeta.=.Nota=Ne8 (2) F.(1)«(2) «117-108. F . Prop #117221. bi No‘aD>NeB.=.(qp)-pCa.psmB [¥117-22. 460-2. *1001] #117222, bs @Ca.d. Near NoB [#117221] #11723, +: Nofad Ne‘B. Nef > No‘a.=.Ne‘a=No‘Q [*117-211-22] #11724, bi pDv.s.(qa,p).n=Neta.v= Net. Neta>Ne'B Dem. F#117-10414. 94: pv. =: (qa, 6). w= Nota. v=Nyot8. Ne‘a > Netg.v. (9%, B)-p=Nefa.v=Ne'8.p=sm"v: [#103-4.%13°193] (aa, 8). p= Nota.» =Nye'B. Ne‘a > Nesg.v. (Ga, 8). p= Nola. v=NetB. Neta= Nee: [#10816] =1(G1a 8). p=Noeta.v=Nc'B. Neta > Net@.v. (Ga, B)- p= Nela.v=Noe@.Nefa=NotB: [#11-41.9117-108] (Ga, B). p= Noota.v=Ne'B. Noa > Notes. DF. Prop #117241. bp. s.(gqa,8)-p=Nota.v=Ne8. gq! Cltan Nets [w117-24-22] w117242. bie pveNC. Dippy. s.(gqa,8).aep. Bev. gi Clan Nee [#117-241 . #10326] wl17-243, bv. = i(qa, B)im=Nola.v=Ne'B: (ap). p CaepsmB [¥117-24221] #117244. Fi.p,veN.C. dip Dv.s.sm“p>v.=.pDsm“y sm“p Ssmy [117/24 . #1034] ve NC. sm“p = sm“y M1725, tipo. bps Dem. bwLL7-24.. hip Dov dp. W = (Ga, 8,7, 8) «w= Nocta = Nery .v = NyotB= Nyc. Nefa > Nef. Ne‘ > Nety. {#117-107] =. (qa, By, 8). p= Nita = Nyety.v=NciB= Nod. Necla > NelB . Neo > Nety. Il [¥13-193] =. (a, B,7,8). p= Nota=Niety.v =Ne'B = Nos. Noofa > Nyc'B. Nooi@ > Nic'a. [¥117107-23] =. (qa, B,y,8)- w= Necta=Nety v= et : Neta=Ne'B. [w11-45.#1032] =. (qa, 8). p=Noota.v=No@.p,veNC!Nea=No's. [#1034] (Ga, 8). p= Neola. v=NeB.pveNC.sm“p=smy . [114541032] =. u,veN,C.sm“p=sm“y: 3+. PropSECTION B] GREATER AND LESS 171 « Nefa > Ne“8. Ne‘a+ NoB #11726. +: Ne‘a> Nets Dem. +. #11713. #1312. Transp. : Ne‘a > Ne‘8.D.No‘a+NotB: [#117108] Dk: Nefa > Net@.d.No‘apNotB.NeatNeB (1) F . #117108. #56. DF: Nea Ne‘g. No‘a+Ne‘B.D.Ne‘a>Ne‘g (2) +. (1). (2). +. Prop #11727. Fi Ne‘a< Ne‘B. =. Nefa< Ne‘B. Ne‘a+ Ne‘p [#117°26-103'105] #11728, |: Nofa > Ne‘B.=. Nota > No‘ .~(Ne‘B > Ne‘a) [#1172213] #117281, bp >v.=.p>v.n0@ Sp) [w117-14-28-24] #11729. bi Nea< Nei .=. Nea Ne'f «(Note py) (v.D. pv Db. Prop ¥11743, FipDy.c(ua).2.0@ a) [xl174. Transp] w1IT44, bev a .(y ew). D.0 (ur) [¥117-4. Transp] 11745, bipdv.v>c..~>e Dem. b.¥L17281. Db: Hp.d.pdv.v>0.0(e D2). [w117-4°44) DpSe.n(w Sp). [117281] D.p>a:2.Prop #11746. bip>vevSa.3.p>e@ [Proof as in #11745] *11747, bip>v.v>@.d.p>a [#117-45:104] MIT4TL bipcviv0 Dem. F . #603 .#100°3. DF. gq! Clan NefA. [¥117-22] Dh.Nofa>Ne‘A. [#117-107.*101-1] 3+. Niefa 20 q@) F.(1).#1032. D+. Prop w1ITBOL biweN,C.=. 20 [a117-5-104] ¥11751. Fi weN.C-10.3.4>0 Dem. bh. #10115. Db: Hp. dD. pam“ q@) b. (1). #1175-104. +. Prop #1ITS1L. A eN.C—v0.=.p>0 [¥l17-5115-42] #11752. big lé.2.NeED>1 Dem. b.#512.Dh: Hp. 2. (qa). ack. : [117-222] >. (qa). No'E > Nett'a. [#1012] D.Ne‘€>1:3+. PropSECTION B] GREATER AND LESS 173 #11753. FryeNC-v0.3.~>1 Dem. F.#101-16.#1032.h:Hp.>. (qa). Nefa=p. gta. [#11752] D.(qa). Noefa=n.Neae1. [#117107] D.¢DB1:5+. Prop #117531, bi peN,C-00.5. p31 Dem. Fb .«117-104, Dkippl.d.peN,C q) F.#117-51,*101-22.3+.1>0. (4117-45) DkipDl.d.p>0. [x117-42] D.pt0 2) F. (1). (2).#11753. DF. Prop #11754, binlyp.s Dem. F.4117-241 101-2 . #5222. =O.vep=l Finl Dp (qa, uw). p=Nyeta. qt Nofan Clitfa: [¥60:362] =Nofargq!NotantA.v. gt Notaneiter [#5131] =Noeta: Ae Nofa.v.t@e Ne‘a: (#10117-29] (qa, we) p= Nyofa: Nea = Ne‘A .v. Nofa = Neue: px103-16] (qa, x). w= Noearw=NeA.v.p=Nete: [¥101-1-2] ga). p=Nea:p=O.vepel: [4103-2551 =0.V.p=12 36. Prop #11755. bry >l.s.peN,C-10-01 b.¥117-281.3hip>1. [411758154] [51-15] #117551. bs. weN.C—10—-e1l 52 (qa): n= Niefa:(qa,y)- yea. wtyr=.p D2 pel.n(1 Bp). weNC-0.p40.p$1. sweNC—e0—v1: DF. Prop Dem. f.#1082.Db:.weN,C—v0-Ul.e: (4a) +p »Niofa+0.Nofatl: [101-14] (qa). p=Nota.gia.Noetatl: (#108-26] (ga). p=Nota.giacavelt [452-41] (qa): p= Nectar (qe,y)-eyea.oey: q@ [54-26.451-2] =: (Ga): w= Noa: (qa, y). eulty Caweurye?: [#13195] (qa): w= Nota: (qa,y,8)-B=Uaevi'y.BCa.Reds [54101] (qa): p= Nota: (yA). 8 Ca.Be2: (w117-241) ped (2) .(1).(2). 34. Prop174 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr or #11756. bs Nofa > Ne‘8. 3. Nefa+, Ne‘y > Ne‘B +, Ne‘y Dem. F. «11012. #117221, 5 br Hp. d.(q8).8C) Ay“ta. dsm] ASR. [#110°11.#73°71-(411001)] D. (gS). Bu Aa | ify Coty. Su A, Mey sm (8 +4). [4117-221] >. Neat) SNe(B+y)+ [#1103] D.No‘a +, No“y > No'8 +, Ne“y: DF. Prop WITEEL. FipDv.ceNC.d.ptpeDvteo [#11756] ‘The proof of *117°561 follows from #*117°56 in the same way as the proof of #117-31 follows from *117:3. In the remainder of this number we shall omit proofs of this kind. #11787. +: Ne‘a > Ne‘B.D. Ne‘a x, Nety > Ne‘@ x, Nety Dem. bewB72. DhipCadiyhpCy| a. [40°161.%113°1] DipxyCaxy (1) F. #11313. DF:psm@.>.pxysmP xy (2) F.(1).(2). DEpCa.psmP.d.pxyCaxy.pxysmAxy. [117-221] D.Nef(ax 7) > Ne(8 x y) @) b .(3).117°221. 3+. Prop WITETL bepDv.weNC.d.px,eDvx,o [11757] #11758, +: No‘a > No‘g . D. (No‘a)Ne'y > (Ne‘ayrer Dem. + 43548282. DhipCa.d.phyGaty- [*80°15] D-ot ys'y Ct y)a‘y a) FL1G15:19. Db zpsmA.d.(o P y)a‘ysm (8 fT y)a"y (2) F. (1). (2). 117-221 > tipCa.psmA.>.NoM(at y)aky > Ne(B t y)aty« [#1161525] -D. (Nefa)Ne'v > (Ne‘gyNe'r (3) F. (3). #117221... Prop #17581. bipDveeNC.2.p7 Dv [#11758] The two following propositions are lemmas for «17°59. #117882. big ty.8Ca.ceyexp(a—f).2+(va)MyexpA)el—l. (vo) (vy exp 8) Cyexpa Dem. b.#116188 3+: pe(yexpA).ceyexp(a—f).>.pCAxy.gC(a—B)xy. [#113-19.424-21] DipncaA a b.(1).#24481. bi: Hp. D:.p,p' e(yexp8)«Dipvo=pva.s.pap't. [471-58] Di. (Vo)l (yexpA)el ol Q)SECTION B] GREATER AND LESS 175 be #113191 ski Hp. Diy f “Bay a-B)=Ai 3 3 [¥11514.(411601)] Dip e(yexp8).2.puaeProd'{y | “Buy | “(a—A)}. [37-22."24-411] D.puce(yexpa): [437-61] D:(uc)(yexp A) Cyexpa (3) £.(2).(3). DF. Prop 4117583, : 8Ca.q!y.D.(qr).7 Cyexpa.rsm (yexp A) Dem. Fb. #116171. >: Hp.>.q!yexp(a—A) a) b.(1) #117582. #73°15. Dt. Prop #11759, Fs Nea NofB. qty. >. (Nety)¥e D> (Nety)Ne# Dem. f.4117-221.b:.Hp.3:(qp).pCa.psmB:qty: [117-583] D:(ap.7).pCa.psmA.7rC yexpa.rsm (yexpp): [x116-19] D:(qr).7 Cyexpa.rsm(yexpA): [x117-221] 2: Ne“(y exp a) > Ne“(y exp A) qa F.(1).#11625.34. Prop The hypothesis is essential in the above proposition, for 0°=1 while 0'=0, so that 0° > 0% ¥117501, bipdv.eNC-10.3.0%>o0" [¥11759] ¥117592, bra=1.at0.0+1.9.5=0 Dem. f.#116203.h:.Hp.3:4,deN,C: [11755153] Diad2:540.3.8D1: [¥117-581°591) D:840.0.0 D2, [#116°321.4117-244] Dae. [117551] Dial ay F. (1). Transp. +. Prop ‘The above proposition is used in ¥120'58. #lIT6. bip,veN\C-3.pt+.y>p-ptevey Dem. bewl175615.Db:Hp.d.ptv eet mtye0ty (1) b.(1)-¥1106 .#117-244. 9+. Prop WUITEL Fiv>w.D.ptoy>p [117-645] 11762, Fi wjveNO-00.D.p x.y pe wXer ey Dem. b.#LL757158. Db: Hp. Dd. xoyP2ux%lepxyevB1 xy (1) F. (1) .#118-621 . 117-244. DF. Prop176 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (part mr #11763. bia, 8~ve0U1.3. Nema x, Ne‘B D> Ne‘a+, Ne“e Dem. b.¥524, Transp. 2: Hp.d.(q2,0',y,y')-ma'ea.yy'eB.ota yty (1) F.wl1S101. Dh: Hp.cwea.yy eB-atayty.p=l yas o=al “(B-ty) vue’ by.d.pucCBxa (2) b.455°15. Db: Hp(2).3: Rep. 2x. GR= vy: Sea | “(B-Uy).Dg.TSeB—v'y: Hee! | yauty' [¥51-23] D:Bep.Seo-Ixg.REAS: [¥24°37 #3037] Dipno=A (3) b. «7361-611. Db: Hp(2).d.psma.a] “(B—ty)am(8—t'y) (4) F.#55-202, Db: Hp(2).d.a Lyrex| “(B-t'y) (5) +. (4).(5).#73-71. Db: Hp(2).2.psma.csmB (6) +. (8).(6)- #11013. Dt: Hp(2).D.puceNe(a+ A) (7) F.(2).(7).#117-221.3 +: Hp(2).3.Ne(8 x a) > No‘(a+A) (8) F.(1). (8). #113°141-25 #1103. DF. Prop #1176381. Fi p,veN,C-10-01.3. 4x,» eetev [#11763] The two following propositions are lemmas for #11764. 4117-632. Fs eClstexcl. e~e0 Ul. p,ce¢Prod‘e.pna=A. T=? ((qa,f).% Bex.atB.ceB.p=(p—a—A)u(ona)ula}. 3.2el1a1.D‘TC Prode. T= Dem. F.#115-11145.3+:. Hp.a,Bex.at8.21p—a—Be Prod“(e—ta—ep): [w115-11-145] Ds (p—a— A) u (a made Prod(«— 1’): [¥115-145] DiweB.d.(p—a—f)u(ona)utiwe Prod'x (1) F.(1).42133. 9 Di Hp. wTe.D. pe Prod‘x (2) +.4524. Transp. Dh: Hp.d:Bee.ceh.d.(qa).aex.atf. [w21-38.433+131] D.ceOT (3) f.421'83..438181.9F:. Hp. DiveM'T. >. (8). Bex. ceB @) F.(8)+(4). Db: Hp.d.07=s'« (5) F.42133. 413172, 0b Hp.:pTe.vTe.d.p=v (6) b.42133.418171.9 hr. Hp.D:pTe.pTe'.d. (a, 0',B,2’).a,dex.B,Aex.abh.a +p’. (p—a— A) u(ena)uiie=(p—a'—S)a(ana) usta’. [424-48.Hp] >. ua = ua! (7) F. (2).(5).(6).(7). DF. Prop #117633, Fr. we Clstexel eve 0 ul :(qp,0).p,o¢Prod‘e.pno=Ar>. T1Ne‘n > ENote b¥117-632. 3+: Hp... (qty) «1 C Prod‘ .ysm ste [117-221] D.Ne‘Prod‘« > No‘s‘e (1) +. (1). #11512. %112-15.5F. Prop Dem.SECTION B] GREATER AND LESS 1T #11764, br. 6 Clstexel : (qp,c).p,oe Prod‘e.pno=A:>. T1Ne‘e > ENe‘e Dem. F.#112°321 . #11421. ree 1.2. TINefe = ENete @ be a1142.4#1193. Dkr ee0.D.TINe'e=1.ENe%e=0. [w117'51] 2. TNo'x > ENo‘« (2) F. (1). (2).#117-638. DF. Prop LITOBL. Fs ave0¥l.d. (Nota)? > Ne‘a x, No‘p Dem. b .«52'4, Transp . DE: Hp.>.(qzy).a,yea.ady (Q) +. 4116152 . #5523202. Db:2,yea.cty.2.0) “By | “Be(aexps). al“Anyl“B=A (2) be #113111. Dheal “Be Clstexel (3) 5 F. (1) + (2). (8). #11764. #113-1-141-25 . #11625. (116-01). +. Prop 117-652. F:weN,C-10—tl.veN,.C.3. mu" Byxyv [x117°651] #11766. |. Ne‘Cla > Ne‘a Dem. b. #10272. DF .w(qA).-BCa.Bsm Cla qa) F.#1006.#6061. Dh. ead Cla. uasma (2) F.(1).(2).#11713..3 4. Prop #117661. F:weNC.3.2 >p [¥117-66 . #11672] The above proposition is important. (See, however, the Introduction to the second edition.) #11767, bre Clst oxel «of ! Prod'x. 3. Nofs‘x > Ne‘ Dem. b.x115-1611. 3+: ee Clstexel pe Prod‘. >. psme. pCs'e. [w117-22] >. Ne‘s'« D Note: DF. Prop #11768, 1: R,Seeate. RASHA.T= PA {pex.P=Rf—Upu st ep} >. Pela. DP Cea'e OL=« Dem. b #2183 413172. 9+:.Hp.3:P2p.Q7p.d-P=Q Q b.#23-631. Dt: Hp.pex.d.(Mp)AS=Sf up: [¥13-17] DtiHp.pcen. Mp =To.d.Sfp=Sputo. [35°65] Ditpeuc. [51-23] D.p=o (2) F.(1).(2)- DtiHp.>.Telol (3) + 42133 .438181. 9+: Hp.2.0'T=« (4) F. #8036. Db: Hp.>.D'TCeate (5) + .(8).(4).(5). DE. Prop #117681. | (QR,S). RSeeae. RAS=A.D.Ne‘este>Nete [#1176822] R&W IL 12178 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part m1 4117682. bie Cr. gq! ea (N—K). Dd. Nofesh B Nofea'x Dem. +. #8065. Db: Hp. ds Reese. Seea(X— 4). Ds Ro Seegr Q) #8014. Dh: Recah. Sees(X—e).2-GRaMS=A, [33°33] D.RAS=A, [425-4] >.(RvS)+S=R (2) f.(2)-#13171. 34: Q Rees. Sees(X—x). QuS=RvS.3.Q=R (3) b. (1). (8). Dt Hp. Seea(X—x).D.(US)f cafe el ol. (w S)eae Cea. [117-22] D.No‘eath B Ne‘ea'e: Dt. Prop #117688, te CX. gq Lea(A—H) 2 (GR, 8). R,Seeae. RAS=A:>. Ne‘es‘X>Ne‘e [#117681'682] ¥117684, bie Cr. gles: (GR, 8). RB, Seeae.RAS=Ar>. Nofea > Ne‘x [4117-683 . ¥8822] The above proposition is used in #120°765.GENERAL NOTE ON CARDINAL CORRELATORS The correlators established at various stages throughout Section B present, certain analogies to each other, and they or others closely resembling them will be found to be the correlators required in relation-arithmetic (Part IV). We shall therefore here collect together the most important propositions hitherto proved on correlators. When we have to deal with correlators of two different functions of a single class, as eg. eae and Prod‘, the correlator is usually D or é or |D, with a suitable limitation on the converse domain. Sometimes it is ¢|D or e|D. Thus for example the class ¢] ‘“e, by means of which ¥‘« is defined (x11), has double similarity with « if « ¢ Cls? excl (#11214); in this case, the double correlator is t|D with its converse domain limited, i¢. tie Clstexcl. «tj DP Se ex 3m sm (e [“e), In the ease of Prod‘« and ea‘«, the correlator is D, i.e. FixeClstexcl. >. Df ea‘« e(Prod‘«) Siti (eq‘«). In the case of ea‘s‘« and ea‘ea“‘x, the correlator is §| D, ie. bs xeClstexcl .D.3|/D pf cafes" ¢ (ca‘s*e) Simi (eafesx). $|D also correlates ea‘e with ea‘e]“« (#8561) and Pafa with es!P [Ma (85°58), and Pa‘s‘« with ea‘Pa“‘« (#85°27-42) if « e Cls* excl. The correlator of (a f 8)s‘8 with (a exp 8) is § (#116131). Another kind of correlator arises where we are given a correlator of « and d, and we wish to construct a correlator for some associated classes W‘x and W*,, or where we are given correlators of a with y and of 6 with 5, and we wish to construct a correlator of #28 with 98, where 2 is some double descriptive function in the sense of #38. In this case, the correlator will usually be of the form R[|.S (with ‘a limited converse domain), Sometimes £ and S will be identical; sometimes $ will be Re. Such correlators always depend upon «0561, F:E! Rw. Et Sty..(RiS)(ely)=(R) 1 Sy) together with the propositions #7477 seg. giving cases in which (R|| S)P 2 is a one-one relation. It follows from *55°61 that if R and S are correlators whose converse domains include the domain and converse domain respectively of a relation P, then (R\|S8)‘P will be a relation holding between Rta and Sy whenever P holds between @ and y, Examples of such correlators as R||S are ¥112158, Fs Tee TEMA. D «(TI Te)p ste [de (Te) Bai stm (e TA) 12—2180 CARDINAL ARITHMETIO [parT ¥118127. Fs RE yeatmiy. SpdeAams.>. (RIS)P Oxy) e(a | 8) sm sm (y } «) #11365. b. | eax | 2B =( | 2 || Cnv' | 2)“(a x 8) MI40L. bi TP sXe eam HA. D «(TI Le) ca" €( este) aM (ead) #116192. F: RE yeasty. SP SeAsms.>. (RSDP Gx y) ¢(aexp 8) am aT (y exp 8). (RSP Cy expd) e(#exp 85m (y exp 6) An exceptionally simple correlator is given by #115502. b: TP s‘\ ee sm amr. D. Th s‘Prod‘ e (Prox) sii sii (Prod‘) Another exceptionally simple case is #7363. +:Seasmp.Tha,ThBel—al.avacday.d. T| S| Pe( Ta) sm (TB) By means of the above correlators, most correlators that are required can be calculated. Thus it will be seen that *116192 in the above list is an immediate consequence of #113'127 and #115'502, since aexp B= Prod‘a 4“8 and s‘Prod‘y 4% =Sxy. In order to develop the subject, it is almost always necessary, not merely to prove that two classes are similar, but actually to construct a correlator of the two classes. This applies equally to relation-arithmetic, in which analogous correlators are used to prove ordinal similarity.SECTION OC FINITE AND INFINITE Summary of Section C. The distinction of finite and infinite is not required, as appears from Section B, for the definition of the arithmetical operations or for the proof of their formal laws, There are, however, many important respects in which finite cardinals and classes differ respectively from infinite cardinals and classes, and these differences must now be investigated. There are two different ways in which we may define the finite and the infinite, and these two ways cannot (so far as is known at present) be shown to be equivalent except by assuming the multiplicative axiom. As there seems no good reason for regarding one of these ways as giving more exactly than the other what is usually meant by the words “finite” and “infinite,” we shall, to avoid confusion, give other names than these to each of the two ways of dividing classes and cardinals. The division effected by the first method of definition we shall call the division into inductive and non-inductive ; that effected by the second method we shall call the division into non-reflewive and reflexive. The division into inductive and non-inductive, which is treated in *120, is defined as follows. An inductive cardinal is one which can be reached from 0 by successive additions of 1; that is, an inductive cardinal is one which has to 0 the relation (+1), where (by #38°02)-+,1 is the relation of @+,1 to a,and the subscript asterisk has the meaning defined in #90. Hence we put NCinduct =@ {a (+146) Dé By applying the definition of #90, this gives Fi:aeNC induct.=s.£em.Dp-EtolemrOewiraep, ‘This proposition may be regarded as stating that an inductive cardinal is one which obeys mathematical induction starting from 0, ée. it is one which possesses every property possessed by 0 and by the numbers obtained by adding 1 to numbers possessing the property. In elementary mathematics, it is customary to regard mathematical induction, as applied to the series of natural numbers, as a principle rather than a definition, but according to182 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (parr or the above procedure it becomes a definition rather than a principle. This procedure is unavoidable as soon as it is perceived that there are cardinals which do not obey mathematical induction starting from 0, (This only holds on the assumption that the total number of objects in any one type is not one of the inductive cardinals. This assumption, in a slightly different form, is introduced below as the “axiom of infinity.”) Thus for example 0+ 1, and E+€4,1.5.£4,1484,2. Hence if a is any inductive cardinal, atat,1. But we know that N,, the first of Cantor’s transfinite cardinals*, satisfies &,=N.+,1. Thus mathematical induction starting from 0 cannot be validly applied to prove properties of Ny. It follows that the inductive cardinals as above defined are only some among cardinals; nor does it appear that there is any way of defining them except as those that obey mathematical induction starting from 0. It follows that mathematical induction is not a principle, to be either proved or assumed as an axiom, but is merely a characteristic defining a certain class of cardinals, namely the class of inductive cardinals. By a syllogism in Barbara, it is evident that 0 is an inductive cardinal; hence by the definition 1 is an inductive cardinal, and hence 2, 3, ... are inductive cardinals. Thus any given cardinal in the series of natural numbers can be shown to be an inductive cardinal. The usual elementary properties of inductive cardinals, such as the uniqueness of subtraction and division, are easily proved by mathematical induction. We define an inductive class as a class the number of whose terms is an inductive cardinal. More simply, we put Clsinduct = s‘NC induct Df. It is then easily shown that an inductive class is one which can be reached from A by successive ‘additions of single members. That is, if we put M=HElqy).f=aer'y), then Cis induct = Mg‘A. Thus we have kit peCls induct Newey Vly epi hept ry -pew. We might equally well have begun by defining inductive classes, and pro- ceeded to define inductive cardinals as the cardinals of inductive classes; in that case, we should have used the above relation M to define inductive classes. Some of the properties which we expect inductive cardinals to possess, such for example as a+a+,1, can only be proved by assuming that no inductive cardinal is null, ie. that aeNCinduct.2..q te ‘This amounts to the assumption that, in any fixed type, a class can be found * For the definition of No, ef. 4123-01 and p. 186 of this summary.SECTION C] FINITE AND INFINITE 183 having any assigned inductive number of terms, If this were false, there would have to be some definite member of the series of natural numbers which gave the total number of objects of the type in question. Thus suppose there were exactly 7 individuals in the universe, and no more, where n is an inductive cardinal, We should then have 2” classes, 2" classes of classes, aud so on. In that case, in the type of individuals we should have n+,1= A, n+,2=A, etc. Hence we should have N+_1=(n +¢ 1) +1, ete. In the type of classes, we should get similar results for 2", and so on. It is plain (though not demonstrable except in each particular case) that if the assumption ae NC induct... 9! a fails in any one type, it fails in any other type in the same hierarchy, and if it holds in any one, it holds in any other; for if n be the total number of individuals, then if n is an inductive cardinal, the total number of any other type is an inductive cardinal, while if n is not an inductive cardinal, no more is the total number of any other type. Hence the assumption aeNC induct... q!4 is either true in any type or false in any type in one hierarchy. We shall call it the “axiom of infinity,” putting Infinax.=:aeNCinduct.>..q!a Df This assumption, like the multiplicative axiom, will be adduced as a hypothesis whenever it is relevant. It seems plain that there is nothing in logic to ne- cessitate its truth or falsehood, and that it can only be legitimately believed or disbelieved on empirical grounds, When we wish to use a typically definite form of the axiom, we shall employ the definition Infin ax (e).=1aeNOinduct.3..q!a(c) Df, which asserts that, if a is any inductive cardinal, there are at least a terms of the same type as 2. It is important to observe that, although the axiom of infinity cannot (so far as appears) be proved a priori, we can prove that any given inductive cardinal exists in a sufficiently high type. For if the total number of individuals be n, the numbers of objects in succeeding types are 2”, 2", etc., and these numbers grow beyond any assigned inductive cardinal. Owing, however, to the fact that we cannot add together an infinite number of classes whose types increase without limit, we cannot hence show that there is a type in which every inductive cardinal exists, though we can show of every inductive cardinal that there is a type in which it exists. Je. if a is any inductive cardinal, there must be a type for « such that g!a(q) is true; but there need not be a type for # such that if a is any inductive cardinal, q ! 4 (2) is true. ‘The axiom of infinity suffices to prove the existence, in appropriate types, of Ny, 2%, 2*°, 88, Ny, ...#. It does not suffice, so far as we know, to prove * For the definitions of N,, Ny, ete., see +265.184 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [PART UI the existence of &, or any Aleph with a greater suffix than @, because the existences of N,, N,, ... are proved in successively rising types, and no meaning can be found for a type whose order is infinite. The other definition of finite and infinite is of less importance in practice than the definition by induction. It is dealt with in #124 According to this definition, we call a class reflewive when it contains a proper part similar to itself, ie. we put Clsrefl = @ {(qR).Rel1+1.DR=a.GRCa.GR+a} Di, or, what comes to the same thing, Clsrefl =4 {(qR). Rel 1.@/RCD‘R. gq! BR.a=D‘R} Dt We call a cardinal reflexive when it is the homogeneous cardinal of a reflexive class, iz. we put NCrefi = N,c“Clsrefl Df. It is easy to show that NCrefl =@{qta-a=at,l}. We find that inductive classes and cardinals are non-reflexive, and reflexive classes and cardinals are non-inductive. We find also that reflexive cardinals are those that are equal to or greater than N,, while inductive cardinals are those that are less than N,. By assuming the multiplicative axiom, we can show that every cardinal is equal to, greater than, or less than Xj, whence it follows that every cardinal is either reflexive or inductive, thus identifying the two definitions of finite and infinite. But so long as we refrain from assuming either the multiplicative axiom or some special axiom ad hoo, it remains possible (so far as is known at present) that there may be cardinals neither greater than, nor equal to, nor less than &,. Such cardinals, if they exist, are neither inductive nor reflexive: they are infinite if we define infinity by the negation of induction, but finite if we define infinity by reflexiveness. It is possible that farther investigation may either prove or disprove the existence of such cardinals; for the present, their existence must remain an open question, except for those who regard the multiplicative axiom as a self-evident truth. In %121 we shall consider indervals in a discrete series; ie. in a series generated by a one-one relation between consecutive terms. If P be the generating relation of such a series, and « and y be two members of the series, of which y is the later, the terms which lie between « and y are the terms 2 for which we have OP yo + 2P py where Py. has the meaning defined in #91. Henge we put s P@-y=Psan Boy Df, where “P(e—y)” means “the P-interval between a and y.” We want alsoSECTION C] FINITE AND INFINITE 185. symbols for the interval together with one or both of its end-points. For these we put « 2 P(wry)=P,fonPyy Dh sof Per y)=Pyxo Profy Df, 2 P(ery) = Patan Pty Di. Thus, for example, if « and y be inductive cardinals, and P be the relation of nto n-+,l, and «Cls) u(Cls 1), and generally we shall have the further hypothesis P,,@J. We can then prove that the interval between « and y is always an inductive class (it will be null unless ePyy); this proposition is useful in its application to the number-series and to progressions generally. When P ¢(1—>Cls) v (Cis 1). Py. GJ, the class of such relations as P, (where v is an inductive cardinal) is identical with Potid‘P, the class of powers of P (cf, ¥91 seq.). This identification (which does not hold in general without the above hypothesis) leads to many useful propositions. In #91 seq., we treated powers of a relation without the use of numbers, 7.e. without defining the vth power of P. When the powers of P are the class of such relations as P,, we can of course take P, as the vth power of P, The general definition of the vth power of P (where » is an inductive cardinal) will be given later, in #301; we shall denote it by P’, thereby including the notation P* already defined. * These symbols are suggested by those given in Peano’s Formulaire, Vol. 1. p. 116. (Algedre, § 46.)186 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC (PART Ir In #122 we shall deal with progressions, i.e. with series of the type of the series of natural numbers. In this number, we shall deal with such series as generated by one-one relations; they will be dealt with at a later stage (263) as generated by transitive relations. We define a progression as a one-one relation whose domain is the posterity of its first term, i. Prog = (11) n R(D'R= RyBR) DE. According to this definition, there must be a first term BR; (*R will be eee i RERyBR, ie. By BR, which is contained in Ry BR, ia in DER; since GR CDSR, every term of the field of R has a successor, so that there is no — end to the series; since (*R = D‘R = Ry‘B‘R, every term of the series can be reached from the beginning by successive steps. These characteristics suffice to define progressions. In *123 we proceed to the definition and discussion of &,, the smallest of reflexive cardinals. This is the cardinal number of any class whose terms can be arranged in a progression ; hence it is the class of domains of progressions, ie, we may put N,=D"Prog Df. With this definition, remembering that A is a cardinal, we can prove that &, is a cardinal; but to prove that &, is an eaistent cardinal, we need the axiom of infinity. The existence-theorem for &, is then derived from the inductive cardinals, which, if no one of them is null, form a progression when arranged in order of magnitude. It should be observed that this existence-theorem is for a higher type than that for which the axiom of infinity is assumed. In order to get an existence-theorem for the same type, we need the multiplicative axiom as well. After a number on reflexive classes and cardinals (#124) and a number on the axiom of infinity (#125), the Section ends with a number (#126) on “typically indefinite inductive cardinals.” The constant inductive cardinals are the typically ambiguous symbols 0, 1, 2, ...; thus we want to define the class of inductive cardinals in such a way that a variable member of the class shall be typically ambiguous. This is not possible without a sacrifice of rigour, but in #126 it is shown how to minimize the sacrifice of rigour, and how to obviate the resulting logical dangers. A variable whose values are typically ambiguous is said to be “ typically indefinite.” A proof that all inductive cardinals exist has often been derived from 12057 (below). But according to the doctrine of types, this proof is invalid, since “w +,1” in #12057 is necessarily of higher type than “4.”*118. ARITHMETICAL SUBSTITUTION AND UNIFORM FORMAL NUMBERS Summary of #118. A difficulty arises respecting substitution in arithmetic. For if w is a formal number and its occurrence in fu is arithmetical, then by HIT p is always to be taken in an existential type. Hence we can only substitute a real variable £ for w under the hypothesis q!&, and we can only substitute another formal number o for p provided that the equation z=<, which justifies the substitution, is arithmetical, ie. provided that in this equation the type of w is such that q! p. The result is that the application of #2018 is apt to lead to fallacies owing to the different meanings which a formal number may possess in ditferent occurrences. Hitherto we have considered each case in detail, eg. note on *110°61, and proof of #110'56. ‘The condition for the safe application of *20'18 is given in #11801, namely M1801 bigip.u=o.Difu.s.fo [2018] This question is more fully discussed in the prefatory statement of this volume. The first reference to #118°01 is in #120222. Another way of evading the difficulty is to work with formal numbers which, together with all their components, are of the same type. This leads to the consideration of Uniform Formal Numbers, which with the exception of #11801 occupies the rest of the number. ‘The dominant type of a formal number as used in any context is the type of the formal number itself in that context, and the subordinate types of the formal number are the dominant types of its component formal numbers. When the dominant types of some of the formal numbers are not expressly indicated by an explicit notation (cf, #65), the rules according to which the dominant types thus left ambiguous are to be related, so far as they are related, including the rules governing the relation of subordinate types, if left ambiguous, to dominant types, are given by conventions I'T, IIT, and AT of the prefatory statement in this volume. We have now to consider an important special case which arises when types are explicitly indicated by the use of #65°01-03. A formal number, whose subordinate types are the same as its dominant type, is called uniform; and if some of its subordinate types are the same as its dominant type, it is called partially uniform. A formal number can only be partially uniform, or at least so designated as to be necessarily partially uniform, when the dominant type and those subordinate types identical with it are expressly indicated. by188 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [parr ir ¥65°01-03. For otherwise the conventions IT, IIT, and perhaps also AT, apply; and these do not secure uniformity, and may perhaps in some contexts de inconsistent with it. Common sense in its consideration of arithmetic habitually disregards the possibility of a formal number representing A. In other words, it always applies conventions IIT and AT. But also, owing to its disregard of types, it assumes that the formal numbers are all uniform. The assumption which is really essential to this common sense reasoning, so far as the form of its arithmetical conclusions are concerned, is the assumption that none of the numerical symbols represent A. This assumption is secured here, when no types are expressly indicated, by IIT and AT. We have now to consider the effect on arithmetical operations of the other assumption, that the formal numbers are uniform, or partially uniform. There is no difficulty arising from any change of convention for symbolism, since, as stated above, partial or complete uniformity is secured by express indication of type. Accordingly conventions I'T, IIT continue, as always, to apply when the types of formal numbers are left ambiguous. Convention AT will not be applied either in *118 or *119 or *120: in 118 the fact is entirely unimportant since the dominant types of equational occurrences are always indicated, so that no case arises when it could apply. Apart from its intrinsic interest and its bearing on substitution, the arithmetic of uniform formal numbers is necessary for *120, where the fundamental arithmetical properties of inductive numbers are investigated. The propositions of this number are proved by the use of the results of #117. The basis of the reasoning is ¥11813. bray. digtsmgey.d.qlomep In *118'2'3-4 the meaning of the symbolism for dominant types is stated, namely #11820 F.(u+or)e= 7 (qa, 8)-p=Nicfa.v =Nycf8.7 sme (at 8)} #1183. .(u xXer)= 9 (Ha, B)- p= Neca. v =Nec'B. msm; (ax 8)} ¥1184. 0 F. (u")=9 ((Ga, 8)- p= Neca. v= Nic’B «7 sm; (a exp 8)} The important propositions which are finally reached for addition are #11823. bi p,veNC.D.(utor)e= (sing p+, sing), #118-24. biveNC.D.(utqv)e= (ute smyv)e #118241. bse NC.d.(u+,n)e= (meu +o0)¢ H118-25. Fu tev tema ((Mterhe te ole= (ately teat The important propositions for multiplication are #11833. ,v NC = U0. (uw Xen); = (aig x4 51mg) #11834, ENC. 40.3. (u xo r)p=(u X_ 8mm v)¢SECTION ©] ARITHMETICAL SUBSTITUTION 189 #118341. bs peNC.vt0.3.(u xqv)e= (sep Xo) #11835. Fira $0.2.(uxev xe ae= [lu Xo Pe Xe THe #118351. Fs 40.3. (u xeu xo )e= [u Xo” Xo s)he The important propositions for exponentiation are #11843. Fr pveNO- 00. pel. D. (wy = {(sme “pyre #11844. beveNC.wt0.¢+1.3.(u)= (Wee #118441, bs weNC. 040.2. (u?)e= [(sme“u)}e #11845. bp $O0. ub 16D. (ueXer yea {uememely #118451. bio $0.3. (wr?) =[{(u")s} 7 ]e #11846. br pt0.p$1. 3. (uh) (uteri, #118461. b.wt”) = (ure Xe (ue with two analogous propositions #118'462-463, ¥11847, bro $0.3. (ue xer)"}e= [lu Xo) #118471 b.wt 0.740.V.0=0.v.0(u,r,06eNC): >. (4 Xe) }e = [lube Xe (Vee with two analogous propositions *118-472°473. It is thus seen that, apart from some exceptional cases connected with 0 and 1, in all arithmetical operations uniform, or partially uniform, formal numbers can replace those constructed in obedience to convention IIT. M1801 Figtvepoo.Difu.s.fo [42018] ‘As far as the symbolism is concerned, this proposition with the omission of gj! from the hypothesis is a transcript of #2018. But if or o (not ex- cluding both) is a formal number, q! is required in case the occurrence of u in fu is arithmetical. In fact this proposition embodies the three funda- mental propositions of the Principle of Arithmetical Substitution arrived at in the Prefatory Explanations on Types. Its necessity arises from the con- vention IIT which is explained there. w11811. Fr gt Ne(6)\8.aCB.D.q!Ne(Eya Dem. +.#10031.3+:.Hp.d: ve Nc(é){B.D.ysm; 8. [¥73-1] D.(qk). Rel (Q)1-y=D'R.B= OR. [42255] >. (QR). Rel (E> 1-aC GR. Ra= ha. [7312] > .(qR). R“asma- [x10031] D.q!Nc(é‘a: Dk. Prop190 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC PART TT #11812. Fs. No@ FimveNC.d.(uteute t= (ute rete oe @ Fe #1104. Dkin(yveNC).d.pwtey=A-(uteyyaA. [#1104] Dd. (ter teae= (lu tere toa}: (2) F.(1).(2). Db Ga teu tem) = {(u tore te mle (3) Similarly Fu (uty tym)e={ute(v +e mele (4) F. (8). (4). Fs Prop #1183. b(n xqv)e=F {(Ga, B)- w= Neca.» =Noc'B. sig (ax 8)} [(*65°01-03) . #113-2] #118301. bs 1 (u xqv)+D. stg (yu XQv) = (u Xqv)¢ [Proof as in *118-201] #11881. Fig (uxereev $0. Dd. q Esme yp Dem. F.slO115-12. Dhip=0.d.q temp (1) b .#113-208, #1183. 3+: Hp. $0. .u,veNO-10. [x117-62] Diwxevep- [«118:13°301.(1IT)] D.qlems pe Q) F. (1). (2). « Prop HLIGSIL big Mu xer)eewtO. Dag t sme [118-31 . #11327] 411832. bi.veNC. p40. 3: q! (um xorg. S- GQ! (um Xosme"v)e Dem. F.¥113-203.D Fg! (uXgr)ee D+ pe NC Q) b.¥113-203.Db: gq! (uxosmyv)p.D. we NC 2) F. #113-203 . #118'311.> be Hp.Dig'(uXer)peDealae gt smey. [103-43] Di qism pn tip. Gq ismev. {(L)¥113-26.4108-43] Ds gf 1 (w xgsme“7)e (3) F #113208 . 4103-43. Fr Hp. Digt(wxesmer)e. D. qi sm“nn be. g tse. [(2)#113-26.*103-43] DG (uXor)e (4) F.(8).(4). DF. Prop #11838. bi u,v eNC—00.D.(u xq) = (sig Xq sing") [Proof as in #118-23, using #118'31-311 . #113:203-26] #11834. Five NC. $0.D. (yw xqv)p= (ue Xo simer)e Dem. Fb. 4118-311 . *113°203-26. #10343. > Frat (ua xqulee m0 - D+ (M Xer)e= (um Xo sme r)e Qa) F.¥118'32.96 2 Hp vg! (u Xero Dee (M Xe sme) « [¥24°51] Dux v)e= (u Xo 8mm"), @ F.(1).(2). Db. Prop192 CARDINAL ARITHMETIC [part ur 118341, bs eNC. v0. D. (yu Xpre = (sinew x, r)p [#11834 113-27] #11835. Fro $0. D.(u xg xX, o)= (ur Xo re Xo BE {Proof similar to *118-25, using *118°341°301 . #113-203:23] HUIBS5L Fs pt0.D.(uxgv %po)e= le Xo(v Xqm)elp [KLIS . #11327] 4118962. Fs pO. a £0. D. {ue Xo Xe wee = {(u Xer)e Xe w]e [¥118'35°351] #1184 b.(u")e= 4 (ga, 8). w= Neca «v= Noc'B «4 sme (a exp 8)} [(*65:01-08) . #1162] #118401. beg! ur. D.smy“ur=(u"), [Proof as in #118-201] #118402. Fre gyveNC.pt0.ptl. Dig t(uee Deg Muxere Dem. b.x1082. Dk. Hp.d:(qa,8).p=Neta.v=NeBeave0uls [¥117-651} >: (qa, 8)-p=Noa.r=Nete. (Nyeta)No® > Nycfa x, Nic’B: [x118-19°301-401.(IVT)] Df (we De GM (u Xqu)e+ DF. Prop sUG4L big (uot 0.D. q tomy ; Dem. b . «118-0231. DtiHp.wt1.pt0.>.q tem (1) b.¥101-1215-241-28. DF paO.vepalidigtsmé: (2) F.(1).(2).F. Prop wIG411 Fig! (we w$OwtL.Degtsmey [4118-402-311] #11842, bieveNC.ptO.mh1.D:q (wee =e Th (une”)e [Proof as in #118'32, using #116-203-26 . #118°411] 118-421. beepeNC.v$0. Dig Mure = a! (ome yy le [Proof as in #11832, using *116-203-26 . *118-41] 118-43. Fs p,veNO- 60. wf 1. Do (u)y= {(smmeu)me | [Proof as in #118-23, using #118°41-411 . #116-203-26] #11844, FiveNC. uO. p41. > «(ue = (u™)e [Proof as in *118:34, using #116'203-26 . «118:411-42] ¥118-441. bs peNC.v $0.3. (u')e= {(omep)"}e [Proof as in #118'34, using #116-203°26 . #118-41-421} H11G45, bet. $1. D (ur oyg = [yiromrg)e Dem. F.#113-23 . 4118-44301. (IIT). Fr Hp.v, 3 eN,C.D.(wi*+*)p= {uxewi]e a +. #113203. Dh :~(@,7eNC).D.vx,o=A. [#116203] D.Wt)= (ume (8) F.(1).(2). 3+. PropSECTION C} UNIFORM FORMAL NUMBERS 193 #118451. bs $0.3. (w%*) = [[(w Dem. F .¥11663. Dh: Hp.peNC.d.(u**):= ("he [1 16-23.4118-441-401.(IIT)] =k q) b #116:204. 3b: pre NC. 3. (u%*)e = E(u") (2) k.(1).(2). 3. Prop #11846, beh Ow $1. D.(Wrteme= (ured [Proof as in #118-45, using #118'44-201 . #116°208 . #110-4-42] W118 461. F (ue = [ure Xo (um Dele Dem. be HLI6S2. Db wHO.D. (urt)e= (ur Xe [#11635-23.411833401L(ET)] = (ure xe (ule qQ) +. 110-4. *118'208 . «116-203... t~v(v, oe NC) Dd. (u?*s™)_ = {(w')e Xo (Mu) (2) «¥116°311 . «113-601. #110°62.3 ry, we NC — 0. w= 0.3. (ur*e™e= [(u')e Xo (uh (8) «116-311-301 . #110°6 . #113601 . 3 rveN,C—10.9=0.4=0.3.(u'te?)e= {(u")e Xo(u™ ee (4) Similarly to eN,C—U'0.y=0.~=0.3.(W™ = (we xo(ur ele (5) +. #116°301 . ¥113°621.> bev= 0.0 =0. 4 =0. 9. (uit )e= {(u)e Xo (Hele (6) F.(1).(2).(8)-(4)- (5)- (6). DF. Prop 118-462. F. (wets )e= {u" xy (u*)ele [Proof as in #118-461, using #118°34] 118-463. 1. (w'*)p= [we Xe w]e [Proof as in #118461, using #118°341] #11847, Fi $0. 3. {(uxor)"e=[(( Xo) [Proof as in #118-45, using #118:441] wILS4TL bi. $0.040.V.0=0.v.0(u,0, 2 ¢NC)1 2+ {(H Xo v)™}e= [(U7)e Xo (™ es wrt Dem. F #11655. Dh: w$0.v 40.9. {(u Xen) e= (u™ Xo rhe (wits: 35:23.¥118'33'401.(IIT)] = {(u?): xo (> )ele (1) + #110°4 . 4113-208 . #116203. i tv (uv, @ ENC). Ds ((w Xo)" e= (U7) Xo Yel (2) +, #116°301 .*113°621.3 bry, veNC. =O. {(u xer)@}e= (Hw) Xo He oO) #.(1).(2).(8). DF. Prop #118472. 2. p+0.v.0=0.v.0(u,v,7 NC) 2 D+ {(u Xo r)*}e= {ut Xo(v™)ehe [Proof as in #118-471, using #118-34] 4118-473. bz. y40.V, 0=0.V.~(u,n,7€ NC) td. {(u Xor)}e=[(U™EXov™ [Proof as in #118-471, using *118:341] R&WI 13#119. SUBTRACTION Summary of ¥119. The treatment of subtraction follows the same general lines as that of addition, and is simplified by the results in #110. A difficulty arises from the fact that subtraction (in any ordinary sense of the term) is not always possible; and also from the fact that the result, when possible, is not always a cardinal number. We put ¥11901. y—,v =P {NeE+,v=y-q!NeE +.) Df Thus when subtraction (in the ordinary sense of the term) is not possible, yee. The question of existential adjustment of types is dealt with by IT of the prefatory statement combined with the following definitions: 11902. Nefa—,v=Nyefa—» Df *11903, y-,Ne‘B=y-,Ne'e Df We then proceed to deduce the elementary properties derivable from these definitions, W191 beg ty—v-D.y,veNC #11912, tr £eNota—,NeB.s.asmé+B W11914. br ey—yv. Dd. Net Cy—y» #11925, bry. Deg! (y—ev) 9 toy #11926. bigly—yv-2.yev The next group of propositions is concerned with some simple results of subtraction. #11932. bi (yt.v)—.veN.C.3.sm‘“y=(y+,r) #11934. ry—,veN\C.>. (yar) toy =sm"“y #11935. biy—veN\C.d.a+oy= (ator) +o(¥ 9) Associative laws are then considered. #11944. bi pt (v—po)C (ptr) #11945. Fs (utov)—poe NC. gq! {uto(v—oo)} 2 Mte(v 9B) = (Her) — > The question of types is then dealt with: #11952, Fs 5m,,(u—,0)y = (u—a0)s.9 D'smns,ySECTION C] SUBTRACTION 195 A difficulty arises from the fact that if 7, and 7, are two complete types whose members are classes, we cannot prove that, either r,;=smr, or m=smr,, We put #11954 SM(8,y).=:t8=Dom,,.v.ty=D'sm,, Df Then we obtain #119541. + SM (3,7). (uz v)ye NC (up »)se NC... sim, y(H 9 ?)y = (U9?) Finally we show that any existential adjustment of types will suffice for the components: ¥1I96L FrweN,C.qtemey.>.p—,»=sme“p—r 11962, Five N.C. qt sme“y.D.u—.v =p —psmgv Also #119-25°26 are now extended to #11964. Freq temp. Din Dv.s.ql (ur) The only applications of the propositions of this number are in connection with Inductive Cardinals (cf. #120). #11901, y—,v =F (NeE+,0=y- qt NeE+,r} Df Here the suffix to the sign of subtraction is introduced to show that we are concerned with cardinal subtraction. It will be found that y—,» is not an NC except under hypotheses for y and ». #11902, Ne‘a-jy=Nefa-» Df #11908, y-,Ne‘@=y-,No8 DF #11904, F.No‘a—,Ne(B=Nyc‘a—,NicA [#119°02-03] Note that the occurrence of a formal number in the place of y or v in ‘y~ov is an arithmetic occurrence, and accordingly II'T applies to it. #1191. Fi €ey—, Nef€-+ov=y-QINeE+» [(#11901)] #119101, Fs &e Ne‘a—,v. =. Ne“E+,9= Nicfa [(#119:02) . #108°13] #119102. bs Fey—,Ne‘B.=. Ne‘E +, Ne‘B=y.q! NoE+,Ne“B [(119°03) . #110'3) #119108. F : Fe Ne‘a—, Nog. =. Ne‘é +, Ne‘B = Necta [#119°04 . «110°3 . #103°13] #11911, bi gly—y.D-y,ve NC [x110-442. #10334] #11912, +: €eNo‘a-,Ne‘g.=.asm£+h F-11908. 3 F: Ee Ne‘a—, Net@.=. Not +,No“B=Nyeta. [*1103] ~Ne(E+ B)=Nicla. [#100°35.#103-13] =.asm £48: Prop Thus Ne‘a—, Ne‘ is an NC when £(asm £+ @) is an NO. 13—2