Copyright © 2012, The Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM)

Reservoir Sedimentology (SP40), 1987

GEOLOGY IN ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

W J EBANKS JR
ARCO Oil and Gas Company Inc PRC Gl12 2300 West Plana Parkway Plana Texas 75075

ABSTRACT G ologists have an role

to play in the management of oil and gas reservoirs and
importa nt especially in the implementation
of enhanc d 011 recovery E Q R Cooperative work by engineers and geologists is needed to maximize the ultimate recovery
projects
of produCIng fields bec use many of t e proble s that arise in Iheir development are related to reservoir heterogeneity mineralogy

or
etrophyslcs JeologlsIs should e Invol e In all a pecIs of an E Q R project from selection of an appropriate process for a
partIcular reserVOir through reservOir deSCrIption and sImulatIOn of performance to avoidancc or solution of problems during the
installation operation and evaluation of the project

Among the larger scaled geological factors that affect reservoir performance are the distribution and altitude of the reservoir rocks
and e closing les s ermeable str the arrangement of facies within the reservoir interval its layering or stratification prcsence of
ta
shale brea s wIthIn the re servOlr Interval natural fractures and the influence of a
hydrodynamic pressurc gradient on the movement
of flUids WIthIn the reservOir Smaller scaled features also are of
great importance Thcse include the texture and mineralogy of the
reservoir rock the types and arrangement of clays and the geometry of the pore system

Perhaps the most unique contribution a geologist can make to understanding Ihe production performance of a reservoir or of individual
injection or production wells in an E Q R project is his ability to recognize and predict the distribution of different rock types
through the application of conceptual models of facies distribution and an understanding of diagenetic modification of those patterns
of rock facies

INTRODUCTION failed to perform expected have done so for reasons that

as

are related geological problems than to engineering

more to
The subdiscipline specialty of production geology
or
In fact it has been said that our inability to de
sometimes referred exploitation geology is the ap
to as problems
scribe reservoir rocks in sufficiently quantitative terms to
plication of geological studies to problems of the devel
opment of an oil and gas field following its discovery and predict the patterns of fluid flow in them is potentially the
confirmation Typically geologists who work in this ca Achilles heel of E O R operations Geffen 1976 It was
the engineering community who recognized the need to in
pacity interact frequently with petroleum reservoir engi
neers and clude geology in the planning and execution of E O R
petrophysicists in performing more detailed kinds
of studies of reservoir rocks than are needed for the explo projects and they used the term synergism to describe
the close interaction of geologists and engineers in this area
ration process Increasingly geologists are being included
in task groups within companies or as consultants to do Traditionally geologists and engineers have been educated
detailed descriptions of oil reservoirs as an important step differently and have worked separately as a consequence
in better reservoir management and especially in imple their approaches to problems have developed differently
The geologist thinks in terms of continuously varying char
menting enhanced oil recovery E O R projects
Enhanced oil recovery includes several very expensive acteristics such as portrayed by an isopach map of an oil
reservoir the engineer thinks in terms of discretely
and difficult and so very risky processes Table I which varying
when applied to an oil reservoir are expected to result in elements of a geometric array of data such as the elements
the production of more oil than would have been produced of a digital mode of a portion of the reservoir Fig I It
is encouraging to see that in recent years there have been
by more conventional primary and secondary methods When
applied after waterflooding or some other secondary recov purposeful attempts to bring together these separate disci
ery process enhanced recovery may be referred to as ter plines
In fact however most of these E O R pro An enhanced oil recovery field test should be a well con
tiary recovery
would work better if earlier in the life trolledexperiment analogous to any carefully designed f1uid
cesses even
applied
of a field There is actually more variety than the simple displacement experiment performed in a laboratory In the
E O R test however the test apparatus and even the lab
classification in Table I would suggest because there are
variations required for most of the processes in order that oratory are located in a remote subsurface environment and
the be monitored Unfor
they may be tailored to specific reservoir conditions experiment can only indirectly
The purpose of this paper is to increase the awareness of tunately in an E O R project millions of dollars can be

the reader of the important contribution geologists can make spent before it is obvious that the experiment is faulty and
should be terminated For this reason a great deal of effort
to the success of E O R projects and to encourage coop
eration and communication between geologists production should be spent in learning all that we can about the E O R
test that is the reservoir rock before expen
geologists and sedimentologists and engineers This will apparatus
be accomplished by describing the role geologists play in sive and technically difficult oil displacement experiments
in the subsurface
engineering geology teams and discussing some examples
are
attempted
Since it will be team of engineers who de
of the application of geology to engineering problems and a
ultimately
and the E O R the burden will be
the oil recovery process signs applies processes
on the
geologists to provide geologic information in a form
GEOLOGY ENGINEERING COOPERATION
that can be used by the engineers in their reservoir simu
Case studies and the collective experience of oil industry lation studies On the other hand an appreciation of the
have shown that most E O R
personnel projects that have types of geologic variability that may be encountered in

Copyright @ 1987 The Society or Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists

2 W J EBANKS JR

TABLE I CLASSIFICATION OF ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY essential to assure that the geological model is valid Jar
PROCESSES ACCORDING TO TYPE OF RESERVOIR ENERGY OR
dine and others 1977
FLUID INJECTED
As a result of their training geologists are well suited to
ThennaJ Chemical Miscible interpreting the subtle variations in microscopic and mac
Steam Injection Surfactant Polymer CO Injection roscopic properties of rocks This insight has three main
areas of application in enhanced oil recovery
In Situ Combustion Flooding Hydrocarbon Injection process se
Polymer Flooding N Injection lection reservoir simulation and problem avoidance or
Alkaline Flooding
solution

Process selection
natural reservoirs and how this may affect the movement

of subsurface fluids should encourage engineers to look to One of the most common
applications of geologic data
that to reservoirs in some to classes
geologists for assistance in specific cases There have been pertains specific or cases

barriers to
open communications between the two disci
of reservoirs is in the process by which it is
screening
plines in the past Some engineers have been naive con determined which E O R process is most suited to a par
the natural ticular reservoir This matching of reservoirs and E O R
cerning complexity of sedimentary facies and
the effects of diagenesis on the rocks Geologists com processes should be done early in order to facilitate plan
monly are reluctant to assign numbers to variable rock ning and to determine the logistical and financial feasibility
of the E O R project that is planned
properties on the cell by cell scale necessary for mathe
matical portrayal of the reservoir Further there is a com descriptors of the rocks and of the fluids Table 2
Basic
mon reluctance on the
part of some geologists to change an
are used routinely in this planning National Petroleum
earlier interpretation or map when new data in the form of Council 1976 Sometimes the screening of a reservoir is
carried out in two an initial stage in which basic
engineering tests rather than geologic observations are re stages
ceived Geologists who have been involved in reservoir de physical and chemical properties are considered and a more

detailed stage in which reservoir facies variability of po

scription with engineers understand the dynamic nature of
geologic interpretations and their counsel is worth noting rosity and permeability presence of fracturing and other
factors are considered In the end if screening criteria in
To adequately define these reservoir heterogeneities re
than one E O R
quires joint geological and engineering studies McCaleb dicate that more
process may be appro
1978 Throughout his work the geologist requires assis priate for a particular reservoir the process which will
tance and
guidance from the engineer Harris 1975 probably yield the most oil is the one which is chosen un
there must be a constant feedback between the reservoir less there are overriding economic factors that affect the
choice A potential danger in this screening procedure can
engineer the petrophysical engineer and the geologist in
arise if insufficient weight is given to potential problems
formulating the ultimate model of the reservoir and of course
in monitoring the actual performance of the project Diehl that would result from reservoir rock composition or facies
1976 Continued monitoring of operating performance is changes within the project area Unfortunately in the early
planning phase of operations insufficient geologic data may
be available to make judgments concerning these factors
especially if the field was first developed hurriedly and with
little attention given to documenting reservoir geology
COMPUTER
SIMULA TION Reservoir simulation

Thorough reservoir description leads to accurate reser

voir simulation This application in two areas

in turn has

of engineering practice history matching of reservoir per

formance and predictive modeling of future fluid produc
tion History matching of previous fluid production is com
monly performed with numerical simulation models of a
reservoir to verify the accuracy of petrophysical parame

TABLE 2 FACTORS USED IN SCREENING OF RESERVOIRS TO

DETERMINE MOST APPLICABLE PROCESS OF ENHANCED
OIL RECOVERY
ISOPACH
MAP Rock llcscriptors Fluid Descriptors

Lithology OilGravity
Thickness WaterSalinity
Depth Temperature
Porosity Oil Saturation
Permeability Oil Viscosity
Transmissibility Gas Oil Ratio
FIG I Diagram of a
project symbolizing
small enhanced recovery
Environment of Deposition Drive Mechanism
the differences in the way an oil reservoir is visualized by geologists and
Heterogeneity
engineers who respectively attempt to represent it by maps and by nu Fracturing
merical simulation
 GEOLOGY ENHANCED 3

ters pressure gradients and other variables in the equations in which the continuity of porous intervals was much less
of fluid flow Predictive modeling is used to forecast future than originally assumed Fig 3 Incorporation of the re
reservoir performance under certain operating conditions and vised concept into the engineering design greatly improved
to
develop economic forecasts by which projects can be project performance Ghauri and others 1974 A similar
compared and assigned priorities experience has been cited in management of the West Sem
Reservoir description can never account for all of the inole San Andres Unit West Texas Barrett and others 1977
variability of nature Consequently another opportunity for Harpole 1979
engineer geologist interaction exists in the effort to model In a geological engineering study of the Loudon field
a reservoir
accurately No purely geological model which which produces oil from the Mississippian Weiler sand
in central Harris 1975 has described the
may be as much as 90 conceptual is as good as a com stone Illinois
bination engineering geological model which contains a dependence of the geologist on the engineer for information
substantial amount of factual information That is ageo used to develop geologically based mathematical model
a

logical model of reservoir quality is improved by consid of a reservoir The

geological facies recognized must be
eration also of data from pressure tests production history assigned petrophysical characteristics based on core anal
and 2 The feedback in flow
petrophysical analyses Fig ysis and questions about continuity of reservoir rocks or
of information between geologists and
engineers in this type the presence of barriers to flow of fluids can best be an

of situation is bound to result in

precise less am
a more swered by the results of interwell pressure testing
biguous model of reservoir performance than would have Problem avoidance or solution
been
possible by either discipline acting singly
In Wasson Field which produces oil from the San Andres
Planning for the avoidance of problems usually in the
dolomite in West Texas economic and technologic limi form of formation damage begins for the engineer geolo
tations and logistical problems caused a delay in imple gist team before a well is drilled A geologist s knowledge
mentation of tieldwide waterflooding until the 1960s When of rock composition and his ability to infer patterns of
waterflood performance did not attain expected rates of oil changing composition from the results of previous drilling
recovery reservoir geology studies were initiated that led ideally suit him to advising in these areas Much of the
to a much more
complicated concept of reservoir layering
RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY
Denver Unit Wasson Field in West Texas
INTERPLA Y
San Andres Dolomite
GEOLOGY ENGINEERING

on
u tho rn
ogy trans or
fu d gin

Rese
Olr
qUailty test
et
PI 4
tac
pSs
t
Well
Stll1 logging
S S
a
cote o
c
Structure
o
c
ot
fl
Zonation
COntinUity

RESERVOIR
SIMULATION L ter G
olnglc Concept

FIG 2 Interplay of
geologic and engineering data in a reservoir sim FIG 3 Reservoir heterogeneity that was diagnosed from experience
ulation Information the
on
geological and engineering aspects of an oil gained from the operation of a waterflood Ghauri and others 1974
reservoir is used to produce a less ambiguous model of the reservoir s New insights concerning the complexity of a reservoir may in some cases
behavior than could be done using
only one or the other type of data be useful in designing a later enhanced oil recovery project
4 W J EBANKS JR

engineering practice in the design of drilling fluids well Reservoir distribution

treatment and
completion methods and design of fluids for
injection and improved recovery of oil is based on hard
Attitude shape and continuity of porous rock in the
or

subsurface important qualities of reservoir rock which

are
won trial and e or experience in a particular producing
formation The rIse In acceptance by industry of well treat
we co
monly quantify through the use of maps of structure
ent that are
d thlck ess of selected rock units These shape qual
tailor made for particular projects is in
dicatIve of the recognition of the
ItIes
proVide Information about the limits of the reservoir
variability of rock com and about its boundary conditions
position and its importance to the well completion process A structural trap whether formed by folds or faults in
CompletJ n procedures that minimize formation damage are
the rocks or by both has a very different character than
of great I because balancing volumes and pres
portance does a st atigraphic t ap The height ofthe oil column type
sures of Injected fluids among the wells in a
pattern in order of depletIOn mechanIsm the area over which any bottom
to effect maximum areal sweep of the reservoir is a neces
water drive is effective the nature of the discontinuities
for efficient operation of any E O R process
sity within the reservoir of the seal around the
If in formation is
and the integrity
drilling a
potentially productive ex
these two
to fluids that react with
disturb the minerals pres trap may be different for types of traps Exum
posed or
and Harms 1968 and these factors may influence plans
ent the rocks may become
incapable of producing the oil for in fill fluid injection patterns and levels of
and gas they contain or of accepting injection fluids The drilling
of fluid pressure application in an E O R project In some cases
probleI sensitivity especially among clay min there
erals IS well known Hewitt 1963 Almon and Davies
are
significant differences in these factors even within
a reservoir in the same field Harms 1966 McCaleb and
1978 1981
Iron bearing minerals also are sensitive to non
native especially acidic fluids introduced to a formation Wayhan 1969
after drilling Smith and others 1969 Maps of reservoir shape may be used in combination with
Fortunately in lab
oratory experiments that closely simulate an E O R fluid
analyses of cores and logs to draw other maps of reservoir
displacement process the mineralogy of test cores should capacity and transmissibility Combinations of factors such
net sandstone average
experience the same unfavorable reactions to injected fluids
as the product of porosity and hy
rocarbon saturation or the product of average permeabil
that occur in the subsurface Measures can then be taken
to avoid these reactions or to allow for their effects in eval Ity and thIckness divided by fluid viscosity can be con
toured as a means of quantifying reservoir
uating the E O R process properties Harris
1975 If a geologist prepares these maps he or she should
Another task of the engineer in which there is a need for
b influenced by patterns of geometry dictated by the en
proper geol g ic
input is the estimation of remaining re vIronment of deposition of the reservoir rock Preferred di
coverab le OII In place before initiation of an E O R proj
rections of reservoir elongation and thickening often can be
ect which bears
heavIly on the economic attractiveness of inferred on the basis of a knowledge of the environment s
the roje t Commonly these estima es are based on pro
of epositio n These judgmental factors must be recognized
ductIOn hIstory and calculations of original oil in place sup
as interpretive and be
kept flexible to be changed if ad
plemented by well tests and specialized logging of wells in ditional information necessitates it
the project area Failure to recognize the distribution as
Maps of reservoir geometry are essential to describe the
wel 1 s the a ount of oil remaining may lead to unduly
tlmlstlc stlmates of
reservoir adequately for simulation but they are only as
op expected oil recovery If facies anal
YSIS establishes that most of the remaining oil is located in
good as the data on which they are based that is wide
a portion of the reservoir or in a type of spread samples only inches in diameter separated by hundreds
pore system that or thousands of feet of interwell distance It is in this in
cannot be reached
by an anticipated E O R process failure terwell where the
of the project to perform as expected is assured Basan and
area
geologist may be able to improve on
blind extrapolation of rock information Use of a tech
others 1978
nique of mapping known as facies biased contouring is
a powerful tool for extending interpretations of reservoir
GEOLOGICAL FACTORS

In order to hasize the of ways in which ge continuity and quality into undrilled areas from points of
em
variety
nearby control Swanson 1979
olog lsts can contrIbut to the successful planning and ex
ecutIOn of enhanced 011 recovery projects the remainder of
Facies changes
this discussion consists of examples of geological factors
that affect performance that is the production of fluids Some of the most advances which have been
significant
from a reservoir Where possible case studies are cited to made in the study of sedimentary rocks in recent years have
provide the reader with more in depth discussion than is been in improving our understanding of the internal vari
given here ability of types of rock bodies which were formed under
Geology of oil reservoirs should be addressed at two lev different conditions Fig 4 Through studies of modem
els or scales First the distribution of the rocks that form sand bodies we have learned much about the general dif
the trap reservoir and non reservoir rocks should be iden ferences in texture composition and internal structure of
tified and mapped Second the three dimensional vari for instance a sand deposited in an alluvial valley and on

ations in the properties of these rocks should be determined formed as a barrier island on the margin of the sea
Pryor
and portrayed numerically as average values and as ranges 1973 LeBlanc 1977 Sneider and others 1978 Further
of values studies of this type especially on ancient counterparts of
 GEOLOGY ENHANCED 5

SANDSTONE NET SAND ISOPACH

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENT
CLASSIFICATION

Continental Coastal Marine

Alluvial Estuarine Inner Shelf
Fluvial Deltaic Outer Shelf
Lacustrine Barrier Bar Island Marine
Deep
Eolian Intertidal
Chenier

FIG 4 Simplified classification of environments of clastic sediment

deposition Recognition of these sedimentary environments will allow

geologic models of reservoir characteristics to be applied to rocks in the

subsurface Prediction of the behavior of fluids between wells that pen
etrate different of the reservoir may on of rock
parts depend prcdictions
quality based on these models

the modem sands suggest that natural variability even within

each genetic class of sandstone is great This variability

of course lessens the value of ideal models for prediction
of sand quality distribution however these ideal models 660
still allow generalizations which can assist an engineer in C I 10 Fl
interpreting apparently anomalous test data in design of a
FIG 5 Paleogeologic map of environments of sandstone deposition
pattern of injection and production wells to maximize re Elk City field Oklahoma adapted from Sneider and others 1977 The
covery of oil or in other applications pertaining to E O R thicknesses of oil sandstones and of the field that
bearing areas produce
operations from sandstones with different grain sizes and textures and different sed
Sneider and others 1977 have described in some detail imentary structures are in part inherenI to the sedimentary environment

a of part of Elk
study City field Oklahoma which pro in which they were deposited
duces oil and gas from Pennsylvanian sandstones and con
glomerates The study made in preparation for a water
In combined studies of
flood of the field facilitated mapping the distribution of engineering geological reser

voirs it usually is the

geologist s task to
determine the min
porous and non porous rocks and predicting response of
imum number of types of reservoir rock that must be de
various wells to waterflooding By correlating the texture
lineated in order to describe accurately the reservoir s
of the sandstones with their petrophysical properties and
behavior in transmitting fluids As in the study of the Elk
well log signature vertical sequences of genetically distinct
rock types were recognized and mapped What was earlier
considered to be one producing sandstone actually consists FLOOD PLAIN
of four different types of sandstone each with its own set
of characteristics Fig 5 Understanding of the sequence
of events leading to the formation of such a complex res
ervoir with several major producing zones separated from
another
one by impermeable layers is extremely valuable
as a guide in the design of a supplemental
recovery project
and it is a contribution that is uniquely geological
On a smaller scale a similar problem of understanding
the reaction to an E O R process of various wells
uneven

in small five spot pattern is easier if it is known that they

a

penetrate rocks representing a complex delta plain environ

ment
perhaps with an original distribution of subenviron
ments such shown in 6 Pusch and others 1976
as
Figure
Jordan and Tillman 1982 and this volume It would be

expected that flow along the more permeable channel com

plex would be favored by reservoir fluids over flow across
j PRODUCTION WELL
this trend into less permeable types of sediments Design
3 3 E INJECTION WELL
of injection production patterns where this
type of addi 3 0 08SERVATION WELL

tional information is considered will greatly improve the

chances of dealing successfully with reservoir heterogene FIG 6 Hypothelical five spot E O R project area superimposed on
facies pallern of a common reservoir type The distributary channel sand
ity Optimization of well spacing and the choices of pattern facies would be
for injection and production wells are much more soundly
stone expected to have good reservoir properties The
levees would have low porosity and permeabilities and the bay would
based when patterns of areal variability of the reservoir rock include abundant shale The effects of this facies distribution arc dis
are considered cussed in the text
6 W J EBANKS JR

City field cited above the starting point for this task is usu this stratified reservoir could cause a loss of control of mo
ally a detailed reservoir description and facies analysis bility of injected chemicals Because of the tendency of fluids
This task of rock typing in carbonate reservoirs is usu to avoid the zone of lower permeability there would be

ally more complicated than it is in sandstones because of very low vertical sweep efficiency within the reservoir Be
the complexity and frequent variations in the fabric of car cause the chemicals injected would not contact all of the

bonate rocks It is necessary to recognize not only the rocks residual oil in the sandstone estimates of recoverable oil
that had similar origins but also the rocks in which various would be greatly inflated and the economic
viability of the
fluids are expected to behave similarly project would be in
question
Langston and Chin 1968 have described the complex The degree of interbedding of permeable and non perme
distribution of 13 lithofacies in a geologic study of sub able beds in a producing formation is of great interest to
surface Rainbow Reef oil pools in northern Alberta Fig engineers who attempt to predict the performance of res
7A Combining this knowledge of lithofacies with mea ervoirs Randomly distributed discontinuous shale barriers
surements of the capillary properties of the rocks and their within a reservoir sandstone mayor may not affect oil re
relative permeability to various fluids the authors were able covery depending on their dimensions Richardson and oth
to group various lithofacies such that
only five reservoir ers 1977showed with computer models that in a reservoir
facies were necessary to describe the pool quantitatively Fig that undergoes vertical drainage the presence of discontin
7B Geologic considerations provide an accurate method uous horizontal shale barriers of 240 ft 73 m width results

of determining fluid flow so that genetic rock units may in the recovery of 5 7 less oil than would be recovered

be translated into fluid flow units for reservoir simulation from the same reservoir if barriers of only 60 ft 18 m

Similar use of geologic reservoir models and an under width and 8 13 less oil than if no barriers
were present
standing of a complex diagenetic history of the carbonate to vertical flow were
present This effect is attributed to
reservoir rocks enabled Roehl 1967 to characterize the retardation of vertical drainage and capillary entrapment of
Ordovician Stony Mountain and Silurian Interlake supra the oil above the shale barriers These authors note cor

tidal to subtidal units in fields along the Cabin Creek An rectly that far more attention has been paid the continuity
to

ticline of the Williston Basin A combination of

lithologic of sandstones than to the shale partings and beds that occur
and petrophysical parameters is necessary to recognize sig between and within them
has recorded the number and
nificantly different types of rocks in these complexly strat Zeito 1965 apparent lat
ified reservoirs More recently study of the Red River For eral dimensions of shale breaks within several sandstone
mation which occurs beneath the Stony Mountain in this outcrop sections The frequency of occurrence of shales in
same area using techniques similar to those of Roehl has a vertical interval is variable within the classes of environ

led to recognition ofsimilar sequences of cyclic carbonates ments studied butcontinuity of shales increases system
in this unit Ruzyla and Friedman 1981 Reservoir per atically from distributary channels to deltaic to marine
formance during efforts at enhanced recovery in these res sandstones Weber 1980 has expanded on the work of Zeito

ervoirs will require understanding of the complex interstrat and added observations on the small shale lenses and tex

ification of producing and non producing intervals tural within

changes channel fill sandstones He
distributary
provides a prototype model for anisotropy of horizontal and
Stratification vertical permeability distribution in a festoon crossbedded
Stratification of reservoirs is a
problem with which en sandstone
gineers have learned to deal on a statistical basis with lim Pryor and Fulton 1978 devised continuity indices to de
ited success input of
geologic insight may enhance the un scribe the varying discontinuity of sandstones in different
derstanding of this characteristic of reservoirs For instance parts of a Holocene deltaic complex They noted that the
an idealized model of the vertical sequence of types of sed number of interbed impermeable boundaries increases up

iment deposited by a meandering stream affords us a means ward in fluvial point bar sand bodies but it decreases up
of understanding at least one kind of stratification sequence ward in distributary mouth bar sands Distributary mouth

8 The various bar fluvial marine sands also more continuous lat
Fig layers within the sequence affect the are

flow of fluids according to their characteristics In a point than fluvial bar sands and both of these types
erally point
bar sandstone reservoir the combination of a ripple bed of sand bodies are more continuous than prodelta sands
ded silty very fine grained sandstone overlying a cross Shale breaks as barriers to vertical flow can have an

bedded coarser grained sandstone will result in retardation the

of enhanced recovery pro
important bearing on success

of flow higher in the bed and deflection of flow in the di cesses in which oil is displaced by gas coning of water

rection of dip of the lower trough crossbeds Fig 9 Hewitt into the bottoms of producing wells is important or grav
and Morgan 1965 Weber 1980 ity drainage isimportant mechanism of oil production
an

This geometry and textural variation could complicate at Where shale breaks coalesce laterally they may be im
tempts to fireflood this reservoir by causing uneven ad portant in any fluid displacement process Enhanced oil re
vance of the combustion front and possibly causing the front covery projects with their close well spacing and with good
to move into the water at the base of the reservoir an effect lithologic control from logs and cores should offer nearly
that is opposite to the usual of hot combustion
tendency ideal conditions in which to study further this problem of
gases to rise and propagate between wells at the top of the sandstone shale interbedding and to improve on sedimen
reservoir In a chemical flood the permeability contrast of tologic models of subsurface reservoirs
 GEOLOGY ENHANCED 7

GENETIC UNITS FACIES

NW SE
12 28
2 28
2 32 7 32 10 32 12 33
A 6 32

800 FT

Rainbow Reef

Keg River Formation

200 M
600
Muskeg
Evaporites

400

100

Middle Devonian
N W Alberta 200

13
13

12
12
0
Lower Keg River MBR
1000 3000 5000 FT

I I
0 500 1000 1500 M

FLOW UNITS

SE
B NW 12 28
2 28
6 32 2 32 7 32 10 32 12 33

Rainbow Reef
800 FT
Keg River Formation

Member 200 M
600
Muskeg
Evaporites

400

100

Middle Devonian
N W Alberta 200

0
Lower Keg River MBR 3000
1000 5000 FT

I I
0 500 1000 1500 M

FIG 7 ASedimentary facies of a pinnacle reef in the Rainbow Member of the Keg River Formation northern Alberta Thirteen facies are
identified Modified from
Langston and Chin 1968 B Facies of the same Rainbow Reef as in A showing the extent of units in which the flow
of fluids would be
expected to be similar Facies outlined in A have been grouped here on the basis of both facies and flow characteristics to
reduce the complexity for numerical simulation
8 W J EBANKS JR

POINT BAR
MODEL ROCK STRUCTURE PERMEABILITY

siltstone very horizontal

very low
fine grained laminae ripple
muddy sandstone bedded

silty fine grained ripple bedded low to moderate

sandstone poorly parallel bedded
sorted

finemedium
cross bedded moderate to high
grained sandstone
well sorted
medium coarse massive or low to moderate
grained sandstone cross bedded
and conglomerate
poor moderate sorting
FIG 8 Point bar geologic model showing the sequence of rock textures and structures in a reservoir consisting of a single point bar deposit
The influence of stratification on the horizontal permeability of the rock is also indicated the potential effects of diagenesis are disregarded

Hydrodynamics the subsurface hydrologic regime If a pressure gradient of

sufficient magnitude is present and a condition of hydro
A factor that is sometimes ignored during the planning dynamic flow of the formation water exists then there may

stages of an E O R project but which should enter into be deflection of the intended flow of injected chemicals
a

the design of the fluid injection pattern is the condition of which would drastically alter the apparent efficiency of areal

BEDDING EFFECT

A Rippled Retard Flow

Beds

Horiz Perm
I Crossbeds Deflect Flow

J
Q

Rippled Beds
O W

Cross Beds
Stratified Reservoi r
FIG 9 A Diagram showing the effects of sedimentary structures and textures on the flow of fluids in a
point bar sandstone reservoir The
crossbedded unit is coarser grained and is inferred to have better reservoir properties than the overlying rippled unit B Uneven advance of an
fluid in the reservoir is shown Permeability variations resulting from differences in reservoir quality are the major cause of flow patterns
injecIed
of this type
 GEOLOGY ENHANCED 9

sweep of a project Strange and Talash 1976 Widmyer FRACTURING

and others 1978 No Burbank Field
Depending on the gradient in a particular
situation it may be impossible to oppose the natural flow
where this is the case only a small fraction of the chem
icals intended to enter the interwell between
area
injection
0

and A res 0 0
production wells may actually do so Fig 10
ervoir fluid drift of as little as 29 6 ft 9 m per year 0 0304 Tracer

foot pressure noted af Production

psi per gradient was as adversely
areal sweep at El Dorado field Kansas Zetik and
fecting as
percent 01 amount injected

Tucker 1979
probably There have been many instances
10
where the phenomenon was not recognized even though it
may have caused unexpected even disappointing results y X 2 10

2
in E O R projects At the very least a project wide initial I

pressure gradient should be considered as a possible expla Production Well

nation for anomalous interwell flow of fluids and pref 0 Injection Well

erably this factor should be investigated before injection is

FIG I I Diagram of the production of tracers among the wells in an
begun when perturbations of the pressure field are at a E Q R project area Preferential flow of fluids bearing tracers toward
minImum
certain wells suggests alignment of fractures in the quadrant between those
wells and a nearby injection well Several different radioactive tracers are
Fracturing used in the various injection wells to enable this inIerpretation to be made
Modified from Trantham and others 1979
Fractures in a reservoir rock can have a strong but un

effect the of E O R
predictable on
performance an
project
unless data are available that show the directional effects of the reservoir and result in early breakthrough of fluids
of fracture orientation In some cases histories of well per in certain pairs greatly affecting areal sweep ef
of wells
formance during waterflooding are available and may be
ficiency Knowledge of geologic conditions in an area could
used to determine fracture orientation in an area where an lead to anticipation of fracture orientation This would help
enhanced recovery project is planned In other cases where in interpreting data from interwell testing and may even
problems in
controlling flow of fluid have developed after lead to avoiding problems through proper placement of pat
initiation of aproject injection of chemical tracers or pres terns of
injection production wells or the use of gelled di
sure transient testing may be employed to deduce the
pat verting agents to reduce fracture permeability in some wells
terns of fracture
alignment within a project area Fig II Fractures may actually be beneficial where they provide
Trantham and others 1979 more balanced fluid injection rates in areas of a field where

The paths of high permeability that fractures provide re injectivity is low Artificial hydraulic fracturing is some
duce the ability of injected chemicals to contact some parts times used to develop more balanced fluid injection al
this is in an area with
though a
risky procedure closely spaced
wells as in many E O R projects
INJECTION WITH HYDRODYNAMIC
FIELD PRESENT Textural properties
In addition to the scale factors such facies
large as
changes
reservoir stratification and frac
hydrodynamic gradients
a number of small scale features also affect the flow
turing
of fluids in rocks Even more fundamental than the small
scale features are the effects which microscopic anisotro

pies of the rock pore structure have on fluids and gases

Table 3
Only limited experimental data are available but grain
size of detrital sediments is known affect parameters such
to

1000 JS
as porosity and permeability Graton and Fraser 1935
Fraser 1935 Krumbein and Monk 1942 Pettijohn and
others 1973 Permeability decreases with decreasing grain

TABLE 3 FACTOR CONTROLLING PORE GEOMETRY AND SURFACE

AREA IN POROUS ROCK
900
1lnjection
t Well bs
Production Well 1 Original Diagenetic

gOO psi Fluid Isobars Grain size Grain alteration

Grain sorting Grain dissolution
FIG JQ of Grain packing Pressure solution
Diagram hypothetical pattern of injection and produc
a

tion wells in a reservoir in which an existing hydrodynamic gradient would Grain shape Grain overgrowths
be fluid drift and Intergranular matrix Cements
expected to cause uneven sweep of the interwell areas
Clay laminae Authigenic clays
by injected fluids
10 W J EBANKS JR

size in artificially packed aggregates of spheres Larger pore 1 0

444 md
connections in uniformly coarser sands result in higher per kair
kro
fine grained
meability than is found in fine sand Porosity should remain
unaffected by changes in grain size in moderately well sorted Z
0
08 ka 488 md
sediments but as a result ofthe tendency toward poor sort
medIum graIned
in sands porosity is often highest in the more U
ing coarse
C
fine grained sands e g Sneider and other 1977 Increase a
I
in sorting correlates with increase in porosity and increase
06
in penneability in artificially packed aggregates Pryor 1973
has shown that some of these relationships between texture
iii
and porosity penneability apply to natural sand deposits and c
III
some do not Moreover there are differences in style of IE
a 04
packing between sands deposited as river bars and those III
A
fonning beaches and dunes These differences result in cor
lii
responding differences in the relationships of texture to po
rosity penneability among these classes of sand bodies C 02
These generalizations from studies of unconsolidated I
III
sediments may be nullified completely by the effects ofdia a

genesis especially cementation In the end careful study

of the reservoir rocks of each project is necessary to estab 00
00 02 0 4 06 08 1 0
lish the parameters that control rock fabric and the flow of
fluids through the rock WATER SATURATION

Pore geometry FIG 12 Relative permeability oil

and water of two samples of
to

sandstone from the same reservoir the

samples are known to have nearly
Relative penneability of a reservoir rock to different fluids identical absolute permeability to air The variability between the samples

that pass through it during the life of an enhanced recovery indicates that other factors such as grain size shown here sorting pack
project is a very important parameter for predicting fluid ing and surface area have considerable effect on the relative permeabil
recoveries at various ity Modified from Morgan and Gordon 1970
points in time and for judging the ef
ficiency of
displacement of oil from the reservoir Morgan
and Gordon 1970 have noted the importance of the pore
pore systems is not undertaken attempts at fluid injection
geometry of rocks in detennining their relative penneability and enhanced oil recovery in carbonates will be on shaky
characteristics In situations where wettability and the his foundations and almost surely will depend largely on luck
tory of changes in saturation of the rocks are the same for success
rocks with different pore geometries may be expected to
Bindley field western Kansas which produces oil from
In
have different relative penneabilities Fig 12 Because of a Mississippian dolomite reservoir primary facies include
the large number of variables affecting the pore geometry porous rocks with two entirely different types of pore sys
and surface area in rocks it is not sufficient in choosing tems Ebanks and others 1977 Predictions of values of
samples for measurement of relative penneability to be penneability from measurements of porosity Fig 14 are
guided by only one characteristic for instance absolute per not
good in this example because of the wide range of
meability to air Texture amount and type of cements and permeabilities which may correspond to very small ranges
interstitial clays angularity and packing of the grains and of porosity One of the keys to understanding the distri
size distribution of pores should also be considered as part
of the rock typing process and as an indication of what
PORE GEOMETRIES
samples are representative of the reservoir
Carbonate reservoirs are noted for the complexity of their
pore networks The range of shapes and sizes of carbonate
particles with some even being hollow the variability of
cementation patterns and the susceptibility of carbonate rocks
to modification early and late in their history result in rock
fabrics which are quite different from those commonly found
in quartz rich clastic rocks such sandstones 13
as
Fig
Compare for instance the pore structure of the sandstone
Sandstone Biomicrite
consisting of rounded quartz grains and small amounts of
Fractured
interstitial clay with the carbonate composed of angular
of fossil The dolomite has a
crystals fragments complex
bimodal pore size distribution with pore throats that are more
like slots than tubes Wardlaw 1976 Another example of
Leached Dolomite
compound pore structure in carbonates occurs in carbonate
mudstones with scattered hollow fossil particles and FIG 13 Schematic differences in microscopic pore geometry in rocks
throughgoing fractures Fig 13 If study of these types of of different compositions
 GEOLOGY ENHANCED II

OASIS 1 DEUTSCH
NE SE 33 21S 24W

Hodgeman Co Kansas

K g WATER

100 100 10 1 20 0 I I 100 20

21TJ b
IJ
L
FACIES UNITS
O IL o

Dol Ie
1
IS
1oa
Anln A
g T
K 3 3 il 0
Ita 2 0 me

41
142
q

10
J
wi
MISSISSIPPIAN
DOLOMITES 1
i
c BIOdley FIeld
lIol
a Kansas
lit
lIol
A

e
RESERVOIR QUALITY PROFILE
o

0 FIG IS Vertical sequence of carbonate facies in Bindley field Kan

0
sas
plotted to show their different reservoir rock properties and their re
lation to accumulation of oil The bryozoan dolomite has small vuggy
I
I pores in a medium crystalline dolomite matrix whereas the spicule do
I lomite has very small spicule molds in a more dense dolomite matrix
I Ebanks and others 1977

also the kinds of pores in the rock Fig 16 Following

diagenetic changes such as these a higher percentage of
I
I the pores will be isolated from adjacent pores or connected
by smaller pore throats overall pore sizes will be reduced
01 and the tortuosity of the pore system will be increased Be
0 10 20 30 0 SO sides these geometrical changes rocks in which authigenic
POROSITY to Y clays are formed will experience enormous increases in in
ternal surface area and the creation of Mi
FIG 14 Plot of
microporosity
log permeability to air versus porosity in Mississip
pian dolomites from Bindley field Kansas Significant differences in the croporosity may in turn cause large increases in apparent
different carbonate water saturation Pittman 1979
range of values of these parameters occur in the two

reservoir facies
Large surface area is detrimental to the effectiveness of
surfactant andpolymer solutions in enhanced recovery pro
cesses because the tendency of these chemicals to adsorb
bution of different pore systems is the recognItIOn of the
on rock surfaces and to be lost from circulation depends
differences in the primary facies Fig 15 The bryozoan
dolomite facies comprises relatively coarsely crystalline
subhedral dolomite with a well connected network of vuggy EFFECTS OF DIAGENESIS ON
RESERVOIR SANDSTONE
pores These pores result from enlargement of molds left
from the dissolution of fragments of fenestrate bryozoans
In contrast the
spicule dolomite facies consists of isolated
molds of sponge spicules in a matrix of finely crystalline
anhedral dolomite Although both facies are oil stained in
cores and they have the same average porosity only the
bryozoan dolomite is sufficiently permeable to produce oil
In an enhanced recovery project little if any recoverable
oil reserves should be assigned to the spicule dolomite fa

cies
Sandstones which may be less susceptible to drastic
modification after deposition than are carbonates com

monly show
diagenetic effects such
overgrowth as cemen

tation precipitation of chemical cement partial dissolution FIG 16 Reduction in porosity in sandstones as a result of cemen
of grains and alteration of particles to clay These diage tation and growth ofauthigenic minerals in the pores Not only the amount
netic changes may seriously affect not only the amount but but also the size and arrangement of pores are affected by diagenesis
12 W J EBANKS JR

partly on surface area of the pore system to which they are

ROTLIEGENDES SANDSTONE
exposed Kalpakci and others 1981 Microporosity so small
that it can be resolved insamples of rock only at high mag North Sea
nifications with scanning electron microscope is also im
a

Clay Mineral Cements

portant in evaluation of formations from wireline logs and
from the results of formation tests because of the tendency
of water in these small pores to be immobile Kieke and
Hartman 1974 Whether in sandstone or carbonate rocks
water in water wet micropores is held more tightly by cap
illary forces than is the water in larger intergranular or vuggy 1000
As a result water saturation of the rocks as cal
pores
culated from wireline of
logs or analysis cores seems

anomalously high and may not indicate the capability of the

rocks to produce oil with little or no water The types and
distribution of diagenetically altered reservoir rocks cannot

be ahead of In E O R
always predicted drilling project
however where the density of well control is usually 100

i
areas

great and where cores are

usually available geologists should CZl
be able to relate patterns of alteration of rock fabric to other gt
E o CZl
more predictable features of the rock and to improve the
ability of engineers to model the reservoir successfully
Permeability and porosity of the Rotliegendes Sandstone
in the North Sea province varies with both location and
composition of the diagenetic mineral assemblage Stalder
J
II
II 10
J
1973 Correlations of these two
parameters and conse w

quently the
ability to predict rock permeability from log I
a
derived values of porosity depend on whether or not one w
considers the dominant clay mineral present Fig 17 Ka A

olinite cemented sandstones are more permeable than are 0

illite cemented sandstones with the same porosity Whether 0
the origin of this characteristic is related to primary facies

Robinson 1981 or to diagenetic history Almon 1981 is

in dispute Nevertheless geologists have been able to relate
these parameters to aspects of the rock sequence that can
be mapped and have been able to predict trends in reservoir
that relate to reservoir
quality performance
Interstitial clay 0 1
The of in of o 8 16 24
importance clays affecting theperformance
reservoir rocks is well established Clays can affect reser
voir in least four ways
POROSITY
performance adversely at Table 4
Since almost all sandstones contain some clay these clay FIG 17 Sandstones of the Rotliegendes Formation in the North Sea
be considered in which discrete families of properties relating to the types of authigenic
related factors must Carbonate rocks in
clay cement are evident Adapted from Stalder 1973
contrast rarely contain much clay except as distinct beds
or laminae of shale

The role of clays in formation damage during or after

cur in rock pore networks Neasham 1977 has classified
drilling was mentioned earlier One of the beneficial effects the effects that clays with
R
differing morphologies have on
of clays in E O processes in sandstones is the effect they the flow of fluids in pore systems and Hower 1974 and
in promoting the deposition of coke to
evidently have sus
Almon and Davies 1978 have described the influence of
tain combustion in fire flooding projects Different clays clays on various aspects of hydrocarbon production and well
have quite different characteristics Swelling clays such as It is worth emphasizing again the enormous
stimulation
smectite or degraded illite tend to reduce rock permeability
increases in surface area that rock pore systems experience
when contacted by fresh water kaolinite is notorious for
becoming dislodged and moving about within rock pore
systems to lodge in small passages thereby reducing per TABLE 4 SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF PROBLEMS CAUSED
BY CLAYS IN RESERVOIRS
meability illite creates more tortuous paths through pore
systems by bridging gaps between grains and chlorite is a
Swelling or slaking clay
source of iron in water of formations that have been
pore Movement of fines in pores
treated by acids during post drilling stimulation Pittman Increased surface area of pores
Reactions with Ouids in rock
and Thomas 1978 have described the ways that clays oc
 GEOLOGY ENHANCED 13

when the sites of of

they are growth authigenic clays and AND 1981 Formation damage and the
crystal chem
the detrimental effect this can have on the efficiency of istry of clays ill Longstaffe F J ed Clays and the Resource Ge
chemical floods and ologist Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Handbook
on
log analysis 7 May 1981
v
p 81 103
BARRET D D HARPOLE K J AND ZAAZA M W 1977 Reservoir
SUMMARY
data pays off West Seminole San Andres Unit Gaines
County Texas
Because of the economic risk inherent in an enhanced oil Society of Petroleum Engineers SPE Paper 6738 S2nd Annual Meet
E O R evaluation of reservoir for ing p I S
recovery project a
BASAN P B MCCALEB 1 A AND BUXTON T S 1978
for E O R and as of Important
suitability a means
predicting its per geological factors affecting the Sloss field micellar pilot project So
formance begin with an accurate
must
description of the ciety of Petroleum Engineers SPE Paper 7047 Fifth Symposium on
reservoir description if it is to address all of the fac
This Improved Methods for Oil Recovery p 111 114
tors that are important to the success of a DIEHL A L 1976 Is there a role for the geologist in enhanced rc
project should
be the result of a combined geological and engineering study covery Proceedings Petroleum Society of Canadian Institute of Min
ing Paper No 762S p 1 6
with continuing feedback between the two disciplines to ar
EBANKS W J Jr EUWER R M AND ZELLER D E N 1977 Mis
rive at the least ambiguous portrayal of the reservoir as is combination
sissippian trap Bindley field Hodgeman County Kansas

possible Good reservoir description has also been recog American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin v 61 p 309
330
nized as important to maximizing ultimate recovery of oil
EXUM F A HARMS J C 1968 of marine bar with
and gas in some of the largest fields discovered in recent
AND Comparison
valley fill stratigraphic traps westcrn Nebraska American Association
years Prudhoe Bay Wadman and others 1978 and Jay of Petroleum Gcologists Bulletin v Sf p 18SI 1868
Shirer and others 1978 fields well before the time when FRASER H J 1935
Experimental study of the porosity and permeability
of clastic sediments Journal of Geology v 43
they will be candidates for E O R processes part I p 910 1010
GEFFEN T M 1976 Methods for recovering more oil from known fields
Geologists should be involved in selection of a suitable
ill Gary J H and Golden J 0 eds Research on Petroleum Nat
E O R process for a particular reservoir in the accurate
ural Gas and Oil Shale the University s Role Workshop Colorado
simulation of performance of the reservoir and in
avoiding School of Mines Golden CO p 27 36
in
problems implementing an E O R process or helping to GHAURI W K OSBORNE A F AND MAGNUSON W L 1974 Chang
solve problems that develop during its operation Variations ing concepts in carbonate waterflooding West Texas Denver Unit

Project an illustrative example Journal of Petroleum Technology

in composition and quality ofreservoir rocks and the effects
p S9S 606
they will have on the distribution of fluids within them are GRATON Lc AND FRASER H J 1935 Systematic packing of sphercs
best interpreted and predicted from
geologic data with
particular relation to porosity and permeability Journal of Geol
Many geologic factors contribute to the behavior of an 43 part I 78S 909
v
ogy p
HARMS 1c 1966Stratigraphic traps in a valley fill western Nebraska
E O R project Large scale features such as the
arrange American Association of Petroleum
ment of facies Geologists Bulletin v SO p 2119
layering or stratification the number and 2149

arrangement of shale breaks natural fractures and hy HARPOLE K J 1979

Improved reservoir characterization a
key to fu

drodynamic pressure gradients can have a marked influ ture reservoir management for thc West Seminole San Andres Unit
Society of Petroleum Engineers SPE 8274 S4th Annual
ence on the movement of fluids within
Smaller
a reservoir Paper meet

ing p 1 8
scale features such size and and
grain as
sorting types HARRIS D G 1975 The role of
geology in reservoir simulation studies
arrangements of clays geometry of pores effects of dia Journal of Petroleum Technology p 62S 632
genesis and composition of the reservoir rock affect fluid HEWIIT C H 1963 Analytical techniques for recognizing water sen
rock interactions and sitive reservoir rocks Journal of Petroleum Technology p 813 818
efficiency of displacement of one fluid
AND MORGAN J T 1965 The Fry ill situ combustion test
by another on a microscopic level
reservoir characteristics Journal of Petroleum Technology v 17
Finally an understanding of trends in rock composition p 337 3S3
and variability enable a geologist to recognize rock types HOWER W F 1974 Influence of clays on the production of hydrocar
that differ significantly from each other and which should bons Society of Petroleum Engineers SPE Paper 478S Symposium
Formation Control
be the basis for subdividing a reservoir sequence for nu on Damage p 16S I72
JARDINE D ANDREWS D P WISHART 1 W AND YOUNG J W 1977
merical simulation This same understanding also enables
Distribution and continuity of carbonate reservoirs Journal of Petro
a geologist to interpolate between wells the nature of changes leum 873 88S
Technology p
in the rocks and so to guide a reservoir engineer in mod JORDAN D W AND TILLMAN R W 1982 Reservoir
description
eling the performance of an E O R project through the choice in Van Horn L E ed EI Dorado Micellar
Polymer Demonstra
tionProject Seventh Annual
of suitable constraints on the variables he is Report September 1980 August 1981
modeling A U S
Department of Energy DOE ET 13070 79 p SS 73 and Ap
geologist in order to be effective in this role must be will pendix F
ing to express his or her descriptions of the reservoir rock KALPAKCI B KLAUS E E DUDA J L AND NAGARAJAN R 1981
in numerical form that is useful to the engineer counterpart Permeability modification of porous media by surfactant solutions So
ciety of Petroleum Engineers SPE Paper 9930 Regional Mecting
Bakersfield CA p 483 491
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14 W J EBANKS JR

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comparison with ancient res WADMAN D H LAMPRECHT D AND

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