Chemistry exam Notes

Module 1
Inquiry Question 1

Explore homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures through practical investigations:

Using separation techniques based on physical properties

Calculating percentage composition by weight of component elements and/or compounds

total mass – beaker mass = mass of sand/salt mixture

Mass of sand = Total mass of sand, filter paper and watch glass - mass of filter paper – mass of watch glass

Final mass – mass of evaporating basin = total mass of salt

Mass of salt x 100

Total mass of sand/salt mixture

Classify the elements based on their properties and position in the periodic table through their:

Group Metals Semi-metals Non-metals

Appearance Shiny / lustrous Both dull non-lustrous

Electrical Conductivity yes Depends on element no

Thermal Conductivity yes Depends on element no

Malleability and ductility yes Depends on element no

Density High Depends on element low

Boiling Point high Depends on element low

Hardness Hard Depends on element soft

Strength Strong Depends on element Weak

Examples Tin Depends on element Sulfur

Physical properties

• melting point • density • hardness

• boiling point • electrical conductivity • thermal conductivity

Chemical properties

• Flammability (the ability to catch on fire)
• Toxicity (the ability to be poisonous)
• Radioactivity (giving off ionizing radiation)
• Heat of combustion (amount of heat released
when the substance is completely burned)
• Reactivity with water (what happens when a
substance reacts with water)
• Reactivity with acids (what happens when a
substance reacts with an acid)
• Oxidation (the combination of a substance
with oxygen)
• Corrosion (a corrosive substance that will
destroy or irreversibly damage another
surface)

Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through: using nomenclature, valency and
chemical formulae (including Lewis dot diagrams)

Type of Properties
bonding
Ionic - Transfer electrons

- Between metal and non-metal

- Bonding consists of electrostatic

attraction between the positive and
negative ions formed.

Covalent
Molecular
Covalent
network

•demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the observable trends in the physical and chemical

properties of elements in periods and groups in the periodic table, including but not limited to: state of

matter at room temperature

Inquiry Question 2

investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including but not limited to:

ionic networks

• Involves the outright transfer of electrons from one atom to another.

• The chemical formula is actually the empirical formula of the compound
• Contain anions and cations in a lattice structure.
• Are usually brittle because distorting the crystal brings like charges together and they repel one another.
• When dissolved in water it sometimes conducts electricity as its ions are dissociated from one another
• Can conduct electricity when molten.
• Have electrostatic forces between the atoms.
• If it has a conductivity of 10−29 megohm−1 and a boiling point 2110°C it is typically a certain substance.

covalent networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)

• Involves an infinite network of covalent bonds.

• Silicon dioxide, SiO2 , (or glass) is an example of this substance.
 • Graphite and diamond are examples of these substances.

covalent molecular

• H2 O, NH3 and CH4 are examples of this substance.

• Have intermolecular forces such as dispersion forces, dipole–dipole forces and hydrogen bonds.
• Typically have low melting points.
• If it has a conductivity of 10−25 megohm−1 and a boiling point 98°C it is typically a certain substance
• H3 PO4 is a type of this type of substance.

metallic structure

• When hammered, this does not shatter but is distorted.

• Contain cations with a sea of delocalised electrons.
• Are malleable and ductile.
• Are usually soft when they are a solid.
• Typically have high electrical and thermal conductivity and lustre.
• Are usually in lattice solids at room temperature.

investigate elements that possess the physical property of allotropy ICT

Allotropy, the existence of a chemical element in two Oxygen (O2 and O3)
or more forms.
Fullerenes
The structure may differ in the arrangement of atoms
Fullerene
in crystalline solids or in the occurrence of molecules
that contain different numbers of atoms.

Allotropes of carbon include graphite and diamond

Diamond

NANOTUBE
Graphite

Graphene

Other Elements with Allotropy

Phosphorous (white, red, black)

Sulfur (rhombic, monoclinic, plastic)

investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through:

using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot diagrams) (ACSCH029)

Name these ionic substances:

𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2
Name these covalent substances:

𝐶𝑂2
NH3

CO

SO3

HI

Rules to Lewis Dot

1. Write the chemical symbol

2. Draw the valence electrons as dots around the edge of the symbol

3. Ensure your dots are arranged in a square and there is a maximum of 2 electrons on each side

examining the spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of polarity with respect to their
constituent elements’ positions on the periodic table

Polarity

• Covalent bonds can be either:

• A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are shared equally between two atoms.

• A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction for the electrons than the other atom.

A bond is nonpolar if the bonded atoms

have equal electronegativities. If the
electronegativities of the bonded atoms
are not equal, however, the bond
is polarized toward the more
electronegative atom.
Investigate the role of electronegativity in determining ionic or covalent nature of bonds between atoms

Determining bonds

• An ionic bond will form if the difference in electronegativity is equal or greater than 1.8.
• A polar covalent bond will form if the difference in electronegativity of two atoms is between 0.5 and 1.7.
This means the electrons are shared unevenly.
• A pure covalent bond will form if the difference in electronegativity is less than 0.4. This means the electrons
are shared evenly.
• Note: These numbers are not strict. It is a sliding scale between 0 and greater than 1.8. The lower the
number the more pure the covalent bond. The higher the number the more ionic the bond.

modelling the shapes of molecular substances (ACSCH056, ACSCH057)

Shapes of Molecules

• Molecules have different shapes due to the position of the electron pairs.
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model provides a simple method to predict the shapes of
simple covalent molecules or polyatomic ions
• Electron pairs tend to place themselves as far apart as possible in space so as to have minimum repulsive
interactions between them.

Molecule Diagram Ammonia

Water

Methane
Boron
Trifluride

Carbon
dioxide

explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular and intramolecular bonds and the
strength of the forces associated with each, in order to explain the:

physical properties of elements

physical properties of compounds (ACSCH020, ACSCH055, ACSCH058)

Dispersion forces

These forces exist from:

- the formation of temporary “dipoles” in the electron cloud *Dipoles- creating of separate charges

- the positive/negative interaction between the nucleus of one atom and the electrons of another atom.

• Nonpolar have only dispersion forces

• Dispersion forces are present between all atoms/molecules. They are the weakest intermolecular force.

• As the molecular size increases, the size of the dispersion force increases.

Carbon atoms in graphite are covalently bonded to each other, but the sheets are held together by weaker
dispersion forces which allows them to slip.

Dipole- Dipole

• An electrostatic attractive force between polar molecules.

• Like magnets

• Seen in polar covalent molecules such as HCl

 • Dipole means “2 ends” and often exists in molecules that have:

- Atoms with a large difference in electronegativity

- an uneven distribution of atoms

- Unbonded electron pairs

Dispersion force

• When two or more such molecules come together, they arrange themselves to maximize the attractive forces
(negative near positive) and minimize the repulsive forces (like charges).

• The strength of the force depends on the polarity of the molecule.

Hydrogen Bond

• The H-bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between

the hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond and an
electronegative O, N, or F atom.

• IT IS NOT A BOND.

Relative to a covalent bond Set at 100

Hydrogen Bond 10

Dipole-Dipole forces plus dispersion forces 1 to 3

Dispersion forces alone 0.1 to 1

Inquiry Question 3

demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the observable trends in the physical and chemical
properties of elements in periods and groups in the periodic table, including but not limited to

- state of matter at room temperature

- electronic configurations and atomic radii

- first ionisation energy and electronegativity

- reactivity with water

Trend Definition Cause Across a period (Lto Down a group
R) (top to
bottom)

electrical The measure of The number of electron shells in an Increases going Decreases
conductivity the tendency of an atom as well as a nuclear shell right going down
atom to attract a
bonding of
electrons

ionisation Energy required to Attraction is stronger with larger Increases decreases

energy remove electrons nucleus (more energy required to
from the valence remove electrons - across periods),
shell and weaker with more electron
shells (less energy required - down
groups).

atomic radius Atomic radius Shielding - Inner electrons repel Increases left to Increases
refers to the outer electrons. The more electron right going down
distance from the shells an atom has, the more
centre of the repulsion there is and so the larger
nucleus to the the atomic radius.
furthest possible
Nuclear Charge - Attractive force
boundary of the
acting on
electron cloud, a
electrons by protons in nucleus. The
measure of the
more protons, the stronger the
size of an atom.
attractive force, counteracting
shielding.

Electron shells - Quantum mechanics

cause atomic radius
to increase as principal and
azimuthal quantum numbers
increase.

melting point The melting point The force of attraction between the Increases in groups increases
is the temperature molecules affects the melting point 1 to 4
at which a material of a compound. Stronger
Decreases as the
changes from a intermolecular interactions result in
lattice changes from
solid to a liquid. higher melting points. Ionic
metallic to covalent
compounds usually have high
This refers to the network and then
melting points because the
amount of energy covalent molecular
electrostatic forces holding the ions
required to break a
(ion-ion interaction) are much
bond(s) to change
stronger.
the solid phase of a
substance to a
liquid.

boiling point Physical property high intramolecular forces and tight boiling points are
describing the physical structures i.e. lattice low on both sides of
 temperature at structure. A higher temperature is the periodic table
which a liquid needed to break these forces and and meet in the
changes to a turn the liquid into a gas. middle at higher
vapour boiling points.

These are transition

metals, which are
bonded in metallic
bonds and have
high intramolecular
forces and a stable
lattice structure.

electronegativity Electronegativity is This occurs due to a greater charge Increases as the Decreases as
a measure of how on the nucleus, causing the electron metallic character the metallic
strongly atoms bonding pairs to be very attracted to decreases, due to character
attract bonding atoms placed further right on the the core change increases,
electrons to periodic table. increasing making due to
themselves. the valence valance
This caused by an increased amount
electrons more electrons
of shielding, or screening, by the
attracted to the being less
innermost electrons. As you move
nucleus. attracted to
down the table more electrons are
the nucleus
added between the nucleus and the
the further
bonding pair, causing the effective
away they
nuclear charge to be less.
get.

reactivity Tendency of a The number of electrons in the Metals decreases Metal-

substance to outermost shell of an atom increases
undergo chemical determines its reactivity.
rxn, either by itself Non-metals-
or with other increases Non- metal-
materials, and to
release energy decreas

Review

When metals react with water either hydroxides or oxides are formed with hydrogen gas.

• Sodium + Water → Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen

• Iron + Steam → Iron Oxide + Hydrogen

Reactivity of Elements with Water

Metals react with water and produce either a hydroxide or oxide and hydrogen gas.

Sodium + Water → Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen - 2Na + 2H2O à 2NaOH + H2

Iron + Steam → Iron Oxide + Hydrogen -2Fe + 3H2O à Fe2O3 + 3H2

Non-metals don't usually react with water but the non-metal oxides do react with water and they produce acids.

Reactivity of metals with water

 Metals Rxn with water

Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr Lithium Floats on water giving off hydrogen gas

Sodium

Gets more Potassium- Gives of a flame

reactive the more
Rubidium
we go down the
group Caesium- Explodes breaking beaker

Francium- Less reactive than caesium since electrons are closer to nucleus

Mg, Ca Magnesium- react slowly with water, releases steam, magnesium hydroxide
produced, solution will turn purple

Calcium-

Al, Zn, Fe React with steam to form metal oxides ions and release hydrogen gas

Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, No rxn

Au

Inquiry Question 4

investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by examining:

– their position in the periodic table

– the distribution of electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom

– representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number (nucleon number)
model the atom’s discrete energy levels, including electronic configuration and spdf notation
Atomic Structure
The nucleus contains more than 99.95% of the mass
of the atom, but its diameter is less than one ten-
thousandth of the diameter of the whole atom.
The Bohr atomic model has now been replaced by a
more modern model that more accurately depicts the
our understanding of atoms.
This model is called the cloud model
Electrons do not move in fixed orbits like depicted in
the Bohrs model.
Rather they move so that their distance from the
nucleus varies greatly; at one instant an electron may
be close to the nucleus, the next far away from it.
Because electrons are so small and because the
volume available to them to move around in is so
huge, they are able to move about haphazardly
without ever colliding.
We use the term ‘electron cloud’ to describe the
regions where electrons are found.
An electron configuration is a shorthand description
of how electrons are arranged around the nucleus of
an atom in subshells.
Electron configurations are important because they
help us predict chemical behaviour since the driving
force for all chemical rxns is the ‘desire’ of atoms to
obtain a stable electron configuration.
1. Hydrogen 1
 2. Oxygen- 2,6 1. Oxygen 2,6 1s2 2s2 2p4

3. Chlorine 2,8,7 2. Phosphorus 2, 8, 5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

4. Calcium 2,8,8,2 3. Boron 2, 3 1s2 2s2 2p1

5. Carbon 2,4 4. Zinc 2, 8, 18, 2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

Quantum mechanics 5. Argon 2,8, 8 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Bohr viewed electrons as tiny, hard particles that

revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits.
Atoms cannot have the following electron
Schrodinger viewed electrons as having wave like configurations:
properties. In his model, the electrons occupy a three-
Suggest the correct condensed electron configuration
dimensional space around the nucleus known as an
orbital. A.(1, 3) 2, 2 b) (2, 7, 4) 2,8,3 c) (2, 9, 2) 2,8,3
d) (2, 18, 8, 2) 2, 8, 18,2
Quantum Mechanical view of the atom
e)(2, 8, 14, 1) 2,8,16 f) (2, 8, 20, 4) 2,8,18,6 g) (3,
By assuming that electrons have wave-like properties,
8, 8, 2) 2,8,11
Schrodinger determined:
(h) (2, 8, 8, 4) 2, 8,12
There are major energy levels in an atom (called
shells) Valence Electrons and position in the periodic table
These shells contain separate energy levels of similar • The electrons in the highest energy level
energy, called subshells, which he labelled s, p, d and (outermost shell) are called valence electrons.
f.
• Elements in the same group have the same
Each subshell can only hold a certain amount of number of valence electrons.
electrons 2(n2 ).
• All transition elements have two valence electrons,
Each subshell is made up of smaller components though their chemical reactivity often involves
known as orbitals. electrons in the next lower energy level. This
means that their valency is not easily predictable
Each of these energy levels (shells) can accommodate
from the periodic table, although many of them
only a certain maximum number of electrons.
have a valence of two, such as Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn.
The maximum number of electrons in each shell is
Orbitals and sub levels
determined by the formula: 2(n2)
• The simple description of electron
configuration presented based on Bohr’s
Energy Level (Shell Maximum number of theory does not explain why an energy level
represented by ‘n’) electrons in the shell is semi-filled with eight electrons, followed
by two electrons going into the next energy
1 2 level before the original level is completely
filled. Similarly, there is no explanation for
2 8 the extreme stability of the noble gas
configurations – outer level semi-filled to
3 18 eight electrons.
• It turns out that the different energy levels
4 32 for electrons correspond to sets of different
shapes and sizes for the volumes of space
5 50 surrounding the nucleus of an atom through
which one or two electrons randomly move.
etc etc
These volumes are called orbitals.
 A note about conventions

• 4s and 3D have similar energy levels

• Electrons usually fill the 4s level first

than 3d

• Some half fill 4s and fully fil 3d

• 3d 4s - show valence electron 4s 3d -

show filling electrons

Benefits Limitations

Sp2 3D model Doesn't show the Element Electron Detailed Electron

unhybridized version Configuration configuration

Shows the E- only exist in the Sulfur 2, 8, 6 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
orbitals probability cloud 3p4

Demonstrates Do they rotate? Model Potassium 2,8,8,1 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
the orientation doesn't show 3p6, 4s1

Can't see energy levels Chromium 2,8,13, 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2,
and if orbitals are filled 3p6, 4s1, 3d5
therefore can't
distinguish elements Zinc 2,8,18,2 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2
3p6, 4s2, 3d10

Bromine 2,8,18,7 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,

Chromium and Copper Exceptions 3p6, 4s2, 3d 10,
• The electronic configuration for most 4p5
elements follow the rules previously
mentioned. Zirconium 2,8,18,10,2 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
3p6, 4s2, 3d 10,
• There are 2 main exceptions: 4p6, 5s2, 4d2
chromium and copper
Antimony 2,8,18,18,5 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
• Chemists calculate that there is little
3p6, 4s2, 3d 10,
difference in energy between the 3d
4p6, 5s2, 4d10
and 4s orbitals and partially filling
each 3d orbital (Cr) or completely xenon 2,8,18,18,8 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
filling each 3d orbital (Cu) results in a 3p6, 4s2, 3d 10,
more stable configuration. 4p6, 5s2, 4d10,
• Much more stable to have 1/2 full 4s
with dull 3d Barium 2,8,18,18,8,2 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
3p6, 4s2, 3d 10,
4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6
6s2

(ACSCH017, ACSCH018, ACSCH020, ACSCH022)

calculate the relative atomic mass from isotopic composition (ACSCH024)

investigate the properties of unstable isotopes using natural and human-made radioisotopes as

examples, including but not limited to:

– types of radiation

– types of balanced nuclear rxns

Recall: Half- life

• We measure the stability of a radioisotope by their

half-life.

• The half-life of a radioisotope is the time required

for half the atoms in a given sample to undergo
radioactive decay.

• Half-lives vary greatly from a matter of days e.g.

sodium-24 and billions of years e.g. uranium-238

Radioactive Decay

Radioactive isotopes emit particles

from their nucleus as they decay. This can be one step or
multiple steps before stability is gained

Alpha Beta Gamma Penetrating weak moderate strong

power
Symbol α Β γ
Ionising ability High Med nothing
4 0
Nature of 2 He -1e No
Radiation energy speed 15000 16000 Speed of
km/s km/s light
 mass 4 0 0 Charge +2 -1 0

Stopped by… paper Bricks lead

Transuranic Elements

• Uranium (atomic number 92) is the largest naturally

occurring element.

• Artificial elements (man made) with atomic

numbers greater than 92 are called transuranic
elements.

• Transuranic elements with atomic numbers 93 to 95

(neptunium, plutonium, and americium) are produced
in nuclear reactors by bombarding natural
elements with neutrons produced from in nuclear
fission rxns.

• Transuranic elements with atomic numbers

above 95 are produced by accelerating a relatively
small nucleus in a charged particle accelerator to
combine with a heavy nucleus.

Writing Nuclear Equations

• Rules:

1. DECAY is a product – always on the right

2. BOMBARDMENT is a reactant – always on the

left

3. All mass numbers on the left equals mass

numbers on the right

4. All charge numbers on the left equals charge numbers on the right

5. Remember that proton number determines identity

 •

Types of Decay]

Type Diagram
of
Decay

4
Alpha 2He Uranium -238
undergoes alpha
decay as shown
below

0
Beta -1e Carbon – 14
undergoes beta
decay

Alpha Decay

Alpha decay is represented by a 42He

Uranium -238 undergoes alpha decay as shown below

investigate energy levels in atoms and ions through:

– collecting primary data from a flame test using different ionic solutions of metals (ACSCH019)

– examining spectral evidence for the Bohr model and introducing the Schrödinger model

Expected Results

As the electron falls, it emits energy exactly equal to

the energy difference between the two energy levels.
The excited hydrogen electron has 4 different energy
pathways so there is 4 spectral lines.

Bohr’s Model
’
The Bohr theory was that electrons move around the
Why do we see a particular colour? nucleus in fixed orbits. When they absorb energy they
When atoms are heated, electrons get “excited” – move in orbits of a larger radius, and if they emit
move up to higher energy levels. After a short time, energy they fall back to the smaller orbit.
electrons fall back to the “ground state” - normal Bohr incorporated Planck’s
level. As they do this, the excess energy is released as quantum theory by proposing
light, either visible or ultraviolet or infrared. that the electrons could only
have discrete energies.

Bohr’s model explained the

spectrum of the hydrogen
atom but could not be used to quantitatively interpret
more complex spectra.

Schrodinger’s Model

Schrodinger treated the electron in the hydrogen

atom as a wave instead of a particle.
Emission spectra and the Shell Model The Schrodinger equation was successfully used to
interpret the emission spectra of atoms with many
When the excited electron returns to it’s ground
electrons (where Bohr’s theory had failed).
state, it can return in a number of ways. An excited
electron in the 4th shell may return to the 1st shell in
one jump or several.
Module 2
Inquiry Question 1

conduct practical investigations to observe and measure the quantitative relationships of chemical rxns, including
but not limited to:

• masses of solids and/or liquids in chemical rxns

• volumes of gases in chemical rxns (ACSCH046) 🖳

Aim: To observe mass changes in chemical rxns.

Prediction: The overall mass of the rxn components will (increase / decrease / not) change at the end of the rxn.

Safety: The most significant safety hazard in this investigation is:

Write a statement as to how this risk is controlled.

Equipment:

• 2M Hydrochloric - Calcium carbonate powder

• Electronic Balance - Measuring Cylinder

• Conical Flask - Balloon

• Funnel

Method:

• Measure the mass of the empty balloon and the empty conical flask. Record in the table below.

• Add 25mL of HCl to the conical flask. Measure the mass of the flask and acid and record.

• Stretch the neck of the balloon over a funnel, and add 5g of CaCO3 . Measure the mass of the balloon and the
CaCO3 and record.

• Stretch the neck of the balloon over the neck of the conical flask but DO NOT tip the balloon contents into the flask
yet. Measure the mass and record.

Keeping the system sealed, upend the balloon so the CaCO3 falls into the conical flask.

• Once the rxn has stopped, measure the mass again and record.

• Carefully remove the balloon and discard, and measure the mass of the flask and solution and
record.

Results:

Mass (g)

flask 111.2

flask and acid 134.1

25ml of acid (by calculation) 134.1-111.2=22.9

empty balloon 1.8

 CaCO3 and balloon 6.9

CaCO3 (by calculation) 5.1

Initial CaCO3, HCl, flask and balloon 141

Final CaCO3, HCl, flask and balloon 140.4

flask and solution 138.3

Product - solution (by calculation) 138.3-111.2=27.1

Product - gas (by calculation) 140.4-138.3=2.1-1.8=

0.3

Calculations:

Conclusion:

The overall mass of the rxn components (increased / decreased / did not) change at the end of the rxn.

Discussion:

1. Write a balanced chemical equation to represent this rxn.

CaCO3 + 2HCl --> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

2. Discuss the validity, accuracy, and reliability of this practical.

Validity

The experiment can be considered valid since all the appropriate controls were kept the same. These include the
volume of the acid as well as the mass of the calcium carbonate.

Accuracy

Reliability

The experiment's reliability is not determined accurately since the experiment was only done once. Also

relate stoichiometry to the law of conservation of mass in chemical rxns by investigating:

• balancing chemical equations (ACSCH039)

Law of conservation of energy

Total mass of reactants = total mass of the products

What is Stoichiometry

The calculation of amount (mass, moles, particles) of a substance in a chemical rxn.

• Coined by Jeremias Richter in 1792

• Comes from the Greek word ‘stoicheion’ meaning ‘any first thing, from which others in a series take their rise’

• Enables us to predict yields of products and whether a reactant is limiting or in excess.

• More on stoichiometry will be covered in the next topic.

solving problems regarding mass changes in chemical rxns (ACSCH046) 🖳

Rules of significant figures:

1. Any non-zero digits are significant

2. Any interior (sandwiched) zeros are significant

3. Any zeros before non-zeros are not significant

4. a) Any zeros after non-zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant

b) Any zeros after non-zeros in a number with a decimal point are significant

Calculations with Significant Figures

Multiplication/Division

Result can have no more sig figs than the value with the least sig figs.

2.00 (3sf) x 3.5 (2sf) = 7 à 7.0 (2sf)

Addition/Subtraction

Result is only as precise as the least precise measurement (least dp)

1.26 (3sf) + 102.3 (4sf) = 103.56 à 103.6

Calculations with multiple steps

Only round when you reach your FINAL answer!

A note on Scientific Notation

A number is written in scientific notation when a number between 1 and 10 is multiplied by a power of 10.

Sometimes you can use scientific notation to indicate the precision of a value

Question

Calculate the mass of the product formed (NaI) when 46.0g of Na reacts
with 253.8g of solid I2.

2Na (s) + I2 (s) -->2 NaI (s)

C6h1206 (s) --> 2(ch3ch2oh(l) + 2co2(g)

1.800 =

Ethanol 920.763

Carbon dioxide= 1800-920.763=879.237

879 (3sf)

m methane+ moxygen = mcarbon dioxide + mwater

Methane = 0.656x12.2=8.0032g

Oxygen= 1.31x24.4=31.964g

Water= 18.0g

Co2= 22.0g

m sodium+ m iodine = m sodium iodide

M sodium = 34.5

M iodine =

34.5 + 380.7=415.2

34.5 +450=484.5

484.5 - 415.2=69.3g

The mass of sodium in excess is 69.3g

Inquiry Question 2

conduct a practical investigation to demonstrate and calculate the molar mass (mass of one mole) of:

o an element

o a compound

Prac Discussion
Component Result Compare your experimental value to the accepted
Initial mass of the Lighter 21.19 theoretical value?

Final mass of the Lighter 21.03 • Our value was very close being 58.12-
57.14=0.98 off the
Mass of Butane (g) 21.19-21.03=0.16
Is there a difference? Why / Why not?

Volume of butane (L) 0.07 • Yes there is but it is only by a small amount.
This could be because there is still water in
Temp. of water 15 the lighter therefore affecting the mass of the
(Beginning) water or that some of the water escaped from
Calculations to determine the Molar Mass of Butane the measuring cylinder. It could also be
because some of the air escaped into the
• For gases the following formula can be used
measuring cylinder which in turn can affect
to determine moles of butane:
the volume of the butane .
volume of gas in L
Number of moles = Is your value reliable?
Volume of one mole in L/mol
Our value can be considered reliable since it is close to
• At 25˚C and 100kPa molar volume for all gases
the accepted value but there are some factors that
in 24.79L/mol
affected the result. The constant temperature for our
Therefore: experiment was 15 degrees but we used the molar
0.07
volume for 25 degrees when calculating our results.
• Number of moles = Also the mass of the butane and the volume of the
24.79 L/mol
butane has a notable difference which is to be
0.07/ 24.79=0.0028
expected.
• Mass of Butane= Initial mass of lighter – final
Were your measurements accurate?
mass of lighter = 0.16
mass Our measurements can be considered accurate since
Number of moles = we rounded to two significant figures. Also
Molar Mass
• Rearrange the equation and solve How could you improve this process?
mass This process can be improved by many things which
• Molar mass = number of moles
can include repeating the experiment more than
= 0.16 / 0.0028=57.1429 = 57 once. This will increase the reliability of the data since
it is a very difficult experiment to perform.

conduct an investigation to determine that chemicals react in simple whole number ratios by moles

Substance Mass (g) Molar Mass Number of moles 10

grams
Table sugar (C12H22O11) 10 10/0.0292141=342.3004645 0.0292141

342.30

Water 10 10/0.5549390=18.0199986 0.5549390

18.02

Aluminium foil 10 10/0.3706449=26.9800016 0.3706449

26.98

Table salt (NaCl) 10 10/0.1803742=55.4403013 0.1803752

55.44

Bicarbonate of soda 10 10/0.1190335=84.0099636 0.1190335

(NaHCO3)
84.01

Explore the concept of the mole and relate this to Avogadro’s constant to describe, calculate and manipulate
masses, chemical amounts and numbers of particles in:

o moles of elements and compounds n=mMM (n = chemical amount in moles, m = mass in

grams, MM = molar mass in gmol−1)

What is a mole?

• 1 dozen= 12

• 1 baker’s dozen= 13

• 1 ream of paper= 500 sheets

• 1 mole = 6.023 X 1023 particles

What is a mole?

• When measuring the mass of an atom, a special unit was created (amu).

• There was also a need for a unit for a collection of atoms, as the numbers of atoms in samples were
incredibly large. This unit is the Mole

• A mole is defined as the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of 12C

• This number was accurately determined to be 6.022 x 1023 C atoms (from mass spectrometry)

Avogardo's constant

- the number of atoms or molecules in one mole of a substance.

Calculating moles
 o percentage composition calculations and empirical formulae

Two ways of looking at a mole

Why do we need moles?

o limiting reagent rxns

Limiting Reactants

Limiting reactant – the reactant that is consumed first and

therefore limits the amounts of products that can be
formed.

Determine which reactant is limiting to calculate correctly

the amounts of products that will be formed.

The other reactants are in excess (ie in excess)

•Hydrogen and nitrogen will react to form ammonia N2 (g) + 3H2(g) à2NH3
(g)

The hydrogen is used up before the nitrogen (INXS). Hydrogen is the limiting
reagent in this rxn.
Inquiry Question 3

manipulate variables and solve problems to calculate concentration, mass or volume using:

–dilutions (number of moles before dilution = number of moles of sample after dilution)

Dilutions

• Many comercially available products come in the form of

concentrated solutions.

• Examples include pesticides, fertilisers, acids.

• A major reason for using concentrates is to save on transportation

costs.

• The process of adding more solvent to a solution is known as

dilution.

If a 25 mL of solution is diluted to 100

mL with water, the number of solute
particles stay the same but the
concentration of solute decreases.

• Dilution is achieved by measuring

out a volume of the original solution and
adding water to make the new volume.

• This will also dilute a solution from

one concentration to a lower one.\

• The volume to dilute the solution to

is calculated from the fact that the
amount of solute in the diluted solution
is the same as was in the volume of the
original solution.

• Therefore we can use the following equation.

Concentration = number of moles/ volume

conduct an investigation to make a standard solution and perform a dilution

Standard Solution

• A standard solution is one that has been made by dissolving an accurate mass of reactant into a known volume
of water.

• This means that the concentration of the standard solution is accurate.

• Therefore, it can be used to work out the concentration of another solution that it reacts with.

• Volumetric flasks of various sizes are used to prepare standard solutions.

Prac

- Cordial is 5g/100mL therefore 5% glucose ○ C6H12O6

- Calculate mass of glucose in 1L
○ 180.156
* 50g
- Then calculate:
- Calculate moles in glucose 1L
 ○ g of glucose ○ Moles of glucose

§ 6 grams § 0.033

○ % of glucose ○ Molarity of glucose

§ 20% § 0.2

Inquiry Question 4

Conduct investigations and solve problems to determine the relationship between the Ideal Gas Law and:

- Gay-Lussac’s Law (Temperature)

- Boyle’s Law

- Charles’ Law
- Avogadro’s Law

During all these situations (changing volume, pressure, temperature), what is happening to the number of particles?

What if temperature and pressure were kept constant?

Module 3
IQ1

Physical change- Change in property (Boiling water) can be reversed

Chemical change - breaking bonds and reforming (electrolysis) can't be reversed

Food

Detoxifying Poisons

• Indigenous Australians have long utilised a range of chemical processes to remove

• Macrozamia seeds are highly toxic so to make them edible the Dharawal would pound them, place them in running
water for up to two weeks to wash away the toxin and then pound them again to make flour, which was then baked
into flat cakes.

Moreton Bay Chestnuts

• Roast the nuts in a camp oven for four hours( heat is decomposing the toxins)

• Grind it up(increases the SA)

• Making the carbohydrate digestible

• Toxins still needed to be removed by leeching in the river for twelve hours ( toxins are water soluble)

• They contain a toxic water soluble alkaloid (castanospermine)

Mystery of poisoned expedition

• Beriberi which is a disease caused by dietary deficiency of thiamine (Vitamin B)

• Endogenous co substrate- A substrate that comes from the body

Reaction Pracs

Synthesis

A + B -> C
Decomposition

C -> A + B

Combustion

Fuel + excess oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

Fuel + limited oxygen -> carbon monoxide + water

Fuel + limited oxygen -> carbon + water

Precipitation

Soluble salt + Soluble salt -> insoluble salt + soluble salt

Acid Base

Acid + base -> salt + water

Acid Carbonate

Acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide

IQ2

• sodium kept in oil to prevent reaction with air

• Lithium

• Floats on water giving off hydrogen gas

• Describe how the reactivity order of group 1 metals relates to their position in group 1.

• The lower on the table the more reactive the metals will be with the exception to francium. Lithium is the
least reactive of the group while Caesium is the most reactive of the group.

Prac- Group II (Alkaline Earth Metals) Calcium and Water

Chemical equation

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l)-> Ca(OH)2(aq)+h2(g)

How can you confirm that this is a reaction between an active metal and water?

It will release hydrogen gas which can be tested by using a flame to see if it makes a pop sound.

Prac- Magnesium and Water

Method: Place a cleaned strip of magnesium in a test tube of tap water, and another in freshly boiled water.

• Hot was supposed to react quicker than tap water

• Mg(s) + 2H2O-> Mg(OH)2+H2

Oxidation and REduction

• OIL RIG
• OXIDATION IS LOSS, REDUCTION IS GAIN
• Acid and base reactions are the swapping of protons, and redox rxn are the transfers of one or more electrons
from one atom to another.

• Rule 1: an element on its own will always have an oxidation state of 0

• Rule 2 : an ion has an oxidation number = to its charge

• Rule 3: oxygen has an oxidation state of -2, except for O2 or hydrogen peroxide

• Rule 4: hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1

• Rule 5: fluorine has an oxidation number of -1

• In a neutral compound all oxidation numbers will = 0

• All oxidation states in a polyatomic ion will = the charge

• Oxidation states of most other elements/atoms will change depending on what is bonded to (so you will need to
calculate this from the rules)

• Most rxns are redox

• Photosynthesis, respiration and combustion

• There is no oxidation without reduction

• The halogens are generally -1 oxidation states, unless bonded to fluoride or oxygen

• Because they are strong oxidisers

• All the oxidation states in a compound = 0

• Oxidation states, sign before number

• Charge (ion) its number than sign

• When something is reduced is gained electrons and the oxidation number goes down (reduced)

• If something is being oxidised loses electrons, so the oxidation number goes up

• The oxidation number for monatomic ions = charge
Galvanic Cells

• Redox reaffctions involve the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another

Electricity can be simply described as the movement of electrons

• WE can use redox reactions to generate electricity by arranging for the oxidation and reduction half
equations to occur at different locations, and by providing a wire for the electrons to flow through

• These galvanic ( voltaic/ electrochemical ) cells allows a spontaneous redox reaction to take place in such a
way that electricity is produced

Components of a galvanic cell

• A galvanic cell consist of two half cells containing an electrode in an electrolyte solution.

• Oxidation takes place in one half cell, reduction in the other.

• A wire connects the two electrodes to allow the electrons produced to flow from one to the other (an
electric current).

AN OX, RED CAT

Anode Oxidation Reduction cathode

Example of a galvanic cell

• A strip of copper metal is suspended in a beaker of copper nitrate solution.

• A strip of zinc metal is suspended in a beaker of zinc nitrate solution.

• The two solutions are connected by a U–tube filled with a solution containing a conducting substance e.g.
potassium nitrate.
How Galvainc Cell works

• Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit.

• To maintain electrical neutrality in the two cell compartments ions move through the salt bridge.

• If a voltmeter is now connected across the pieces of metal it generates a voltage (potential difference) of
1.10V. This will be discussed next lesson.

Voltage and EMF

Voltage and EMF

Voltage delivered by a galvanic cell is not constant, but depends upon the amount of current being drawn.
To compare the voltages of cells we need to standardize the conditions under which they are measured. This is
known as the EMF.

The electromotive force or EMF of a galvanic cell is the potential difference (voltage) across the electrodes of the cell
when a negligibly small current is being drawn. It is the maximum voltage that the cell can deliver.

Standard Hydrogen Electrode

For reference purposes we tabulate voltages of electrodes relative to one particular electrode.

This chosen reference electrode is the standard hydrogen electrode.

This consists of a piece of platinum metal immersed in a 1.0 mol L-1 solution of hydrogen ions (usually HCl) through
which hydrogen gas is bubbled at a pressure of 100 kPa.

Platinum is used as it is a good electrical conductor but so inert it will not take part in the reaction.

The half reaction associated with this electrode is:

2H+(aq) + 2e- H2 (g)

Measuring standard electrode potentials

Electrode potentials are measured relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.

The other electrodes are connected up to the standard hydrogen electrode, via a salt bridge, and the EMF is
measured.

When testing the EMF we need to maintain a set of standard conditions

These conditions are:

Electrolyte concentration = 1.0 mol L-1

Standard pressure = 100 kPa

Standard temperature = 25oC

This is known as the standard state.

Standard electrode potential

The standard hydrogen electrode is assigned a half-cell potential of zero volts.

The standard electrode potential, EƟ, of an electrode is the EMF (voltage) produced by a cell combined with a
standard hydrogen electrode in its standard state.

The data sheet used in the HSC is a table that shows a range of electrode potentials (teacher should have given you a
data sheet).

Each potential relates to the reduction reaction involving the combination of electrodes and electrolytes (as some
electrodes are inert).

The more positive the electrode potential the greater the tendency for reduction to occur.

The more negative the electrode potential the less likely it will be reduced and the more likely it will be oxidised.

The value of the standard electrode potential may be positive or negative depending on the test cells used.

Calculating the EMF

EMFƟ (total) = EMFƟ (reduction) + EMFƟ (oxididation)

Determining the EMF of the galvanic cell below

The standard potential of hydrogen is more positive than that of zinc.

Therefore hydrogen is more likely to be reduced, meaning zinc is oxidised.

The reduction potential for hydrogen is O.

Because zinc is oxidised the negative standard potential of zinc is reversed, becoming 0.76V.

Signs of reaction Voltage and spontaneity

Calculating cell voltages allows us to decide whether or not a reaction is spontaneous or not.

If the reaction voltage is positive, the reaction is spontaneous.

If the reaction voltage is negative, the reaction is not spontaneous.

Question

Calculate the EMF and show your working using the appropriate half equations.

Oxidation- Bromine

REduction Chlorine

• The one that is higher on the standard potentials list is the annode (for spontaneous reactions)

• An-OX

• Red- Cat

Rate of Reaction

rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the reactants or the rate of increase in concentration of any one of
the product.

Collision Theory

based on the assumption that for a reaction to occur it is necessary for the reacting species (atoms or molecules) to
come together or collide with one another.
Collison Theory and Reaction rate

Reactions occur because particles collide with sufficient energy to break bonds and allow new bonds to form

A reaction only occurs if the kinetic energy of the reactants is greater than the activation energy

Factors that change rates of change

• Nature of reactants – what elements are present, reactivity

• Ability of reactants to meet – state and surface area

• Concentration of reactants – more concentrated, increase chance of collisions

• Temperature – effects energy of atoms

• Presence of catalyst – A catalyst increases the speed of a reaction, without being consumed in the reaction.

Catalysts

Catalysts are substances that change the rate of a reaction without being used up in the reaction

Catalysts never produce more product – they just produce the same amount more quickly.

How Catalysts work

provide a pathway of lower activation energy

Although catalysts decrease the activation energy of reactions, they have absolutely no effect upon ΔH

Reactants adsorb (stick) onto the surface of the catalyst. In doing this some chemical bonds are broken or weakened.

The particles then collide and a reaction occurs

The catalyst remains unchanged

Enzymes are biological catalysts made from proteins

Activation Energy

• For a reaction to occur between reactant molecules, the molecules must collide with a certain minimum
amount of energy.

• Unless this minimum amount of energy is met or exceeded the colliding molecules will not react.
 • The energy comes from the collision of particles

Module 3
Enthalpy

• Is the measure of the total energy possessed by a substance or group of substances.

• Simply, it is the chemical energy stored in a substance.

• You can’t measure the total enthalpy only the change in it.

• The change in enthalpy for a chemical reaction, ΔH, is defined as the heat absorbed (per mole of specified
reactant or product) when the reaction occurs at constant pressure.

• Note: the definition states that ΔH is per mole of specified reactant or product.

Making and breaking bonds

Energy is used to break chemical bonds but is released when chemical bonds are formed.

Therefore breaking bonds is endothermic and making bonds is exothermic.

The enthalpy change for a reaction is:

ΔH = energy to break reactant bonds - energy to make product bonds

Endothermic and Exothermic

• ΔH = enthalpy of products – enthalpy of reactants

• In endothermic reactions the change in enthalpy is positive.

• In exothermic reactions the change in enthalpy is negative.

Energy profile diagrams

Exothermic Reactions

These are reactions that transfer energy to the surroundings.

The energy is usually transferred as heat energy. Examples include;

burning

neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis

Endothermic Reactions

• These are reactions that take in energy from the surroundings.

• The energy is usually transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings to get
colder.

• Some examples of endothermic reactions are:

• electrolysis

• the reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate

 • the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in a blast furnace

• In an endothermic reaction the initial bonds that are broken have less energy than the new bonds that
need to form.

• The reactants are at a lower energy level compared to the products

Measuring Enthalpy

• The enthalpy change of reactions can be found using calorimetry.

• Calorimetry involves measuring the temperature change of water in a system as a result of a chemical
reaction.

• Water has a specific heat capacity i.e. the heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance per
unit of mass.

• Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18x103 J kg-1 K-1

Calorimetry

Heat Capacity Formula