FAZAIA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION FOR WOMEN

SOCIAL MOBILITY
SUBMITTED TO:

Ma’am Sammara

SUBMITTED BY:

Fatima Kausar
Aleeza Hafeez
Sidra Arshad
Eiman Rauf
Zuneera Naseer
SUBMISSION DATE:

29, October, 2019

DISCIPLINE:

BBA(Hons.) – 3rd Semester

SUBJECT: Sociology
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 Table of contents

Topics Page
#

1. Introduction 3

2. Definition of Social Mobility 3

3. Theoretical Background 3

4. Types of Social Mobility 4

5. Determinants of Social Mobility 8

6. Factors responsible for Social Mobility 10

7. Consequences of Social Mobility 14

8. Case Studies 18

Conclusion 20

References 21

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 SOCIAL MOBILITY

1. INTRODUCTION

Social mobility is any change in social position. It  is the movement of individuals, families,
households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a
change in social status relative to one's current social location within a given society. Most
commonly, social mobility refers to the change in wealth and social status of individuals or
families. However, it may also refer to changes in health status, literacy rate, education, or other
variables among groups, such as classes, ethnic groups, or countries. In the social ladder this
movement may be upward or downward or it may be inter-generational or intra-generational.

2. DEFINITION

Social mobility is defined as the movement of individuals, families, households, or other

categories of people within between layers or tiers in an open system of social stratification. It
may also refer to classes, ethnic groups, or entire nations, and may measure health status,
literacy, or education; however, more commonly it refers to individuals or families, and to their
change in income.

Barber defined social mobility as the movement, either upward or downward between higher or
lower social classes; or more precisely, movement between one relatively full time, functionally
significant social role and another that is evaluated as either higher or lower.

3. THEORATICAL BACKGROUND

Sorokin was the first sociologist who addressed the topic of social mobility in his book “Social
and Cultural Mobility”. He was of the opinion that there is no society which is closed (Caste
System in India) and no society which is completely open (Class System). He further stated that
no two societies are exactly same in the amount of movement allowed or discouraged. As per his
opinion, the speed of movement or change may differ from one period of time to another. The
rate of change depends upon the level of modernization of a given society. Social Mobility was
later on delineated by various sociologists in different contexts, with reference to its types,
factors and impacts on the society.

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Barber stated that in social mobility, movement is to be conceived as a process occurring over
time, with individuals moving from one role and social class position to another because of what
has happened to them in various kinds of social interaction. Mobility arises in social interaction,
as each individual reacts to others in a changing series of social roles.

Mobility may be considered in different senses, such as:

(a) A change in occupation that involves a consequent change in status.

(b) A promotion within the same occupational group.

(c) The accumulation of seniority within a given occupation.

(d) A change in occupation from one generation to another, as from father to son.

4. TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY:

Change of social position of an individual or group of individuals takes different forms and
shapes. At one period of time there would be one type of mobility and another period of time it
can be another type. Each of the following types of social mobility are not exclusive but they
may overlap, it is only for the purpose of convenience and analysis they are given different
labels.

4.1. Horizontal Mobility:

Under this type of social mobility, a person changes his or her occupation but the overall social
standing remains the same. Certain occupations like Doctor, Engineer, and Professor may enjoy
the same status but when an engineer changes his occupation from engineer to teaching
engineering, he has horizontally moved from one occupational category to another. But no
change has taken place in the system of social stratification. In other words, horizontal mobility
is the transition of an individual or social object from one social group to another situated on the
same level.

According to Sorokin, “Horizontal mobility refers to territorial, religious, political party, family,
occupational and other horizontal shifting without any noticeable change in vertical position. The
individuals are no more attached to their place of birth. The individuals move from one place to

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another in search of jobs which may be of same prestige. The modern means of transportation
have brought in more territorial movement of individuals.

For example, Naima is a third-grade teacher at Elementary School in a small city. After two
years of working at Elementary, Naima decides that she no longer wants to live in a small town
and would rather live in a major city. Naima interviews for jobs in different cities. After three
months of looking, Naima is offered a new position as a first-grade teacher at an urban school.
Naima switching jobs is an example of horizontal mobility.

4.2. Vertical Mobility:

Vertical mobility refers to any change in the occupational, economic or political status of an
individual or a group which leads to an upward or downward movement on the social ladder. In the
words of Sorokin, by vertical social mobility is meant the relations involved in transition of an
individual (or a social object) from one social stratum to another.

According to the direction of transition, there are two types of vertical social mobility –
ascending and descending or social climbing and social sinking. Ascending social mobility is
when the manager of the meat department is promoted to general manager of the supermarket so
he achieved upward vertical mobility. On the other hand, the major league, baseball player who
is sent back to the minor leagues has suffered descending or downward vertical mobility.

For example, When a big businessman meets with losses in his business and is declared
bankrupt, he moves to a low status. On the other hand, if a small businessman with occupational
skills of money and manipulation becomes an industrialist, he occupies a higher position in the
social ladder. Hence his position improves in the hierarchical order.

4.3. Upward Mobility:

When a person or a group of persons move from lower position to upper position it is called
Upward Mobility e.g. a person belonging to a lower caste and occupying a lower position after
winning elections becomes a Minister and occupies a higher position. He may not be able to
change his caste but with his economic and political power he may move upward. For the
individuals involved, there are many social and psychic costs of upward mobility. Some of the
costs are obvious, as men and women break under the strain of a consistent drive for ‘success’.

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In the course of his upward movement, the mobile man must leave behind many people and
places. He must leave the ways of thinking and behaving that characterized many of his earlier
associations and he must learn, if he can, new ways of thinking and behaving appropriate to his
new status.

4.4. Downward Mobility:

Downward mobility indicates that one loses his higher position and occupies a lower position.

For example, we can take the example of an individual, who is an Engineer and occupies a
respectable position in the society because of his occupational position, education and may be
caste. If he is caught for accepting bribe or has committed a sin or has done something wrong, he
may be sentenced to jail or members of his caste may outcaste him and as a criminal or as an
outcaste he may occupy a lower position vis-a-vis position he was occupying earlier. Under the
traditional Indian system if a lady of higher Brahmin caste married a man of Sudra caste, not
only the man and woman were out casted but their children were declared as ‘chandalas.’

Downward Mobility is more stressful for persons who suffer a drastic decline in station position.
Lipset and Zetterberg are of the opinion that this type of mobility is due to interchange of ranks
i.e. mobility arising from implementation of equality of opportunity.

4.5. Inter-Generational Mobility:

This type of mobility means that one generation changes its social status in contrast to preceding
generation. However, this mobility may be upward or downward.

For example, people of lower caste or class may provide facilities to their children to get higher
education, training and skills. With the help of these skills the younger generation may get
employment in higher position. If the father is a shoemaker but his son after acquiring education
becomes a clerk or a doctor or an engineer, this would be called upward inter- generational
mobility. Similarly, a family of Brahmins may be engaged on traditional occupation of teaching
and performing rituals but its younger generation is neither intelligent nor follows the family
occupation. They become daily wagers then the younger generation has downward inter-
generational mobility.

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With the improvement in economic position, people start changing their style of living by
discarding the old practices and adopting the practices of those who are high in social ladder.
After two or three generations their new position may be recognized. This process of social
mobility, according to Srinivas is a process of Sanskritizon.

4.5.1. Conditions for Inter-generational Mobility:

According to Sorokin, the following conditions affect rates of mobility between generations:

(a) Differences between Parents and Offspring’s:

If a parent occupies an important position requiring high capacity, his children who are less
capable are likely to be downward mobile. Conversely, children who are more capable than their
parents are likely to be upwardly mobile, especially open-class societies.

(b) Population Change:

In developed and developing countries, greater population expasion at the lower than at the
higher levels contribute to upward mobility. Overall population growth creates new positions in
the upper and middle levels, where growth is not great enough to fill the vacancies.

(c) Changes in Occupational Structure:

With the changing times many occupations have been upgraded and downgraded because their
socially defined importance has changed. Some occupations have moved up or down because of
changes in the scarcity of workers willing and able to perform their tasks. Such changes in
occupational structure has also effected the rates of mobility between generations.

4.6. Intra-Generational Mobility:

This type of mobility takes place in life span of one generation. This can be further divided into
two:

(a) Change in the position of one individual in his life span

(b) Change in the position of one brother but no change in the position of another brother.

For example, a person may start his career as a clerk. He acquires more education and skills.
Over a period of time, he becomes a Professor. In this way he moves up and occupies a higher

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social position than the one with which he had started his career. His brother may have also
started his career as a clerk but did not occupy higher position in his life span and continued to
remain at the same position. Hence, within the same generation we find that one brother changes
his position and other brother does not.

4.7. Occupational Mobility:

Occupational mobility means change from one occupation to another. Different occupations are
hierarchically arranged because the incumbent of these occupations gets different economic
rewards and enjoys different power, prestige and privileges based on the economic returns,
authority and prestige. We must keep in mind that society grants recognition, prestige and power
not only based on economic returns from a occupation or profession but according to the skills of
the individual which are valued most in the society. A smuggler may be earning more than a
clerk but his means of livelihood are not recognized in the society. Hence, he is placed lower in
the social ladder. Now-a-days politicians with their political power occupy higher position
irrespective of the means adopted. Hence, people aspire to occupy positions.

When a person or a group of persons move from occupations of lower prestige to occupations of
higher prestige, this is called Upward Vertical Mobility. Similarly if an individual or a group of
individuals from occupations of higher prestige take up occupations of lower prestige, then this
occupational mobility is called Downward Vertical Mobility. For example, from a clerk to an
officer is upward vertical occupational mobility; from a clerk to a peon or a smuggler is
downward vertical occupational mobility.

5. DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

There are a range of determinants of social mobility which help in aggregate to determine the
level of overall relative and inter-generational mobility in a particular country. These can be
grouped into three categories:

(1) social structures

(2) family-related influences

(3) policy/institutional influences

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The different determinants which are grouped within these categories are often heavily inter-
related to one another but will act in different ways for different social groups and in different
historical and social contexts.

5.1. Social structures

Social structures include the level of inequality in society and dominant practices (such as pay
differentials, the degree of employment security etc) in the labour market. What is very clear is
that the overall level of inter-generational mobility is strongly related to the level of inequality in
society; with the more equal countries tending to be the more mobile also.

5.2. Family-related influences

Family- related influences include the types of dynamic by which families convey advantages
and disadvantages on their children. They include the transfer of genetic capabilities, the
socialisation (from very early childhood) of particular behaviours and attitudes, the
straightforward transfer of material assess and also the way in which families condition access to
social networks, useful contacts and role-models. Families also have differential levels of
knowledge which can help to inform their children’s decision making, for example in relation to
decisions to stay in or leave education or career choice.

5.3. Policy or institutional influences

Policy or institutional influences include the role of public services and legislative or regulatory
provisions. For example, the provision and design of childcare from a very early age can have
very positive influences on the extent to which two parents are able to work, thereby alleviating
poverty in childhood, and can help to equalise early childhood experiences, access to networks
and socialisation. The way in which the education system is designed can either promote greater
equalisation between the life chances of different social groups or can accentuate differences as
can the way in which the labour market is regulated and employment services provided.

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6. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOCIAL MOBILITY:

There are many factors which facilitate social mobility. These factors may be attributed to
individual motivation and efforts to improve or the institutions may work out new mechanism or
the society at large may bring about drastic changes in the system of evaluation. The following
factors facilitate Social Mobility:

6.1. Gender

Gender is one of the important factors of social mobility. In American society, males and
females receive different types of socialization reading employment and family. Until very
recently, males took for granted that they were to be the primary wage earner and ere to assume
overall responsibility for the family's financial stability. Females ware traditionally not
encouraged to pursue a higher education or enter a career. Recently, there has been an increase in
dual career families (families where both. wife and husband have careers) arid females in higher
social statuses. Despite this change, however the opportunities that females receive for social
mobility are still not equal to those of male.

A female's age at the time of marriage is also an important factor in determining the likelihood of
social mobility. Research suggests that they younger the female is at the time of marriage, the
lower the probability of her gaining upward mobility. Females and males may also achieve
vertical mobility by marrying into a social class higher than their own.

6.2. Motivation:

Each individual has a desire not only to have a better way of living but also wants to improve
upon his social stand. In open system it is possible to achieve any status. This openness
motivates people to work hard and improve upon the skills so that one can attain higher social
status. Without such motivation and efforts on the part of the individual social mobility is
impossible.

6.3. Achievements and Failures:

Achievement here refers to extra ordinary, usually unexpected performance, which attracts the
attention of a wider public to the abilities of a person. Not all achievements will result in social

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mobility. Achievements affect status only if they are remarkable. For example, a poor man who
has acquired wealth or an unknown writer who has won a literary prize will improve his status.

Failures and misdeeds have a similar effect on downward mobility. Fraudulent bankruptcy will
remove a member of the upper classes from blue books; he will receive no dinner invitations
from his peers and he will become ineligible as a marriage partner. If he is already married, his
wife may divorce him. He will have to resign from his clubs and all positions he holds. But he
will not become a member of the lowest stratum, although it will be difficult for him to find new
association.

6.4. Education:

Education not only helps an individual to acquire knowledge but is also a passport for
occupational position for higher prestige. To become a doctor one has to have education in
science subjects.

It is only after acquiring minimum formal education that individual can aspire to occupy higher
positions. It is through education that in modern India the members of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes are not only able to change their traditional occupation but have also started
occupying jobs of higher prestige. In the modern industrial society in which statuses can be
achieved, education is basic requirement.

6.5. Skills and Training:

Each society makes provision to impart skill and training to the younger generation. To acquire
skill and training one has to spend a lot of time as well as money. The reason being that society
gives incentives to such persons. When they complete their training, they are entitled to high
positions, which are far better than those positions which they might have taken without such
training. Society not only assigns higher social status but also gives higher economic rewards
and other privileges to those persons who have these training. Keeping in view these incentives
people undergo these training with a hope to move up in the social ladder. In other words, skills
and training facilitate in improvement of the position, this leading to social mobility.

6.6. Migration:

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Migration also facilitates social mobility. People migrate from one place to another either due to
pull or push factors. A particular place may not have opportunities and facilities to improve
upon. Hence, people are forced to migrate to other places to earn their livelihood. At new places,
where they migrate, may have different openings and opportunities.

These persons avail of these opportunities and improve upon their social position. We can take
the example of people belonging to Asians countries who migrate to various European countries
and the United State of America and move from one status or position to another. People migrate
from villages to cities because urban centers have institutions of higher status as well as
opportunities for jobs. People come to urban areas to acquire education and skills and occupy
higher positions than their parents and brothers who continue to live in villages. In this way we
find that both push and pull factors lead to migration which subsequently facilitates social
mobility. The pull factors attract the people because they do not have those facilities at their
place of residence and the new place attracts them by providing these facilities, so that after
acquiring new skills and knowledge they could occupy better positions.

6.7. Industrialization:

Industrial Revolution ushered in a new social system in which people are given status according
to their ability and training. No importance was given to their caste, race, religion and ethnicity.
Industrialization, resulted in mass production at cheaper rate. This forced the artisans out of their
work. In search of jobs they migrated to industrial towns. They acquired new vocational training
and got jobs in industries. With experience and training they moved up in the social ladder. In
the industrial society, the statuses are achieved, whereas in the traditional society like India, the
statuses are ascribed according to birth. Hence industrialization facilitates greater social mobility.

6.8. Urbanization:

In the cities there are more people, they have formal relations. People do not know each other
intimately. Urban centers are marked by anonymity. People are close to their friends and
relatives only. Urban settlements provide secrecy to individual’s caste and background.
Individual’s position is largely dependent upon his education, occupation and income rather than
his background. If an individual has higher education, income and is engaged in occupation of

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higher prestige, he occupies high social status irrespective of his caste. Urbanization facilitates
social mobility by removing those factors which hinder social mobility.

6.9. Legislation:

The enactment of new laws can also facilitate social mobility. Racial Anti-Discrimination Act of
America has facilitated social mobility of persons of Black race as well as women. In this way
we find that legal provisions also facilitate social mobility.

6.10. Politicization:

With education and greater exposure to mass media of communication as well as greater contacts
have made people aware about their rights. The political parties also educate the people about
their rights. To achieve their rights, unite and force the authority in power to accept their
demands. These persons may use agitations, strikes etc. as methods of attaining the desired goals.
The political party to get votes provides a number of concessions. With the help of these new
concessions and provisions, they improve upon their social status. A few persons may become
political leaders, Ministers, Cabinet Ministers or Chief Minister of a State.

6.11. Modernization:

The process of modernization involves use of scientific knowledge and modern technology. It
also refers to rationality and secular way of life. With the improvement in technology, people
engaged in occupations of low prestige like scavengers discard their traditional occupations and
take up occupations which are not dirty and have no polluting effects. In this way, they change
their position upward. Similarly, the level of development of a country also facilitates or hinders
social mobility. The less developed and traditional societies continue with old system of
stratification and with accretive statuses. Whereas the developed and modern societies paved the
way for greater opportunities and competition, it is only in the developed countries that there is a
greater possibility of achieved statuses. In other words, modernization facilitates social mobility.

Aspirations for moving upward also results in frustration and different mental and psychological
problems. An individual is given to understand that he can achieve any status. But in reality this

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does not happens, his social background, birth in a race, ethnicity, facilitate or hinder his chances
of social mobility. Similarly, the nations which do not have avenues for social mobility also
suffer from stagnation and lack of development. In short, social mobility has both positive and
negative consequences.

7. CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

It is generally presumed that social mobility is positive rather than a negative value and that an
open society is preferable to a closed one. It is, however, not the case. A closed society, in which
there is little social mobility, shelters the individual from the frustrations of unsuccessful
competition. It does not encourage expectations that cannot be fulfilled. Furthermore, it protects
a person from the strain of adjusting to unfamiliar surroundings. The mobile individual must
constantly adapt to socially unfamiliar situations a new class, new norms, new values. A member
of a closed society spends his life in an environment that is familiar to him. In other words, an
open society, with its high degree of mobility, does not guarantee happiness.

On the other hand, a closed society, in which there is little social mobility, is not very likely to
become a world leader. Heredity does not guarantee that the son of a capable and wise father will
be equally capable and wise. A society that does not give talented people from the lower strata an
opportunity to advance into positions of leadership will not fare well for long.

Mobility leads to some consequences or effects. Some of these consequences or effects are
positive in nature while some others are negative. They may be briefly examined here:

7.1. Positive Consequences

Social importance of mobility consists of its positive consequences. These are also referred to as
the “gains of mobility” or “benefits of mobility.” The so-called gains of mobility are stated as
under.

7.1.1. Social Mobility Provides Opportunity for the Expression of Individual Talents:

As P.M. Blau and O.D. Duncan have pointed out social mobility makes it evident that a talented
individual is bound to achieve “social ascendance” by means of his talents and efforts
irrespective of the stratum to which he belongs. According to them, social mobility becomes

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inevitable if the most important functions of the society are to be performed by the most capable
persons.

7.1.2. Acts as a Safety-Valve:

According to S.M. Upset and R. Bendix, providing opportunity for social mobility virtually
means creating a ‘safety-valve’ to escape from the dangers. Since the lower classes are provided
with an open chance to enhance their social statuses or to enter into the status- positions of other
upper-class people by means of their performances; they do not normally organize themselves to
dislodge the upper-class people of their statuses. Social mobility becomes inevitable and
essential from this point of view.

7.1.3. Social Justice:

D. V. Glass and others have felt that providing equal chances or opportunities for social mobility
for all social classes is a democratic commitment. According to them, a democratic society has to
depend upon “an egalitarian opportunity structure “.

7.1.4. Job Satisfaction:

Social mobility is inclusive of occupational mobility also. Most of the instances of social
mobility are occupational in character. In the traditional societies [for example, traditional caste
society] occupations are normally hereditary in character and hence children are obliged to
follow the occupations of their parents whether they have a liking for it or not. Now in modern
industrial society things are different. People need not stick on to their parental occupations.
They have a vast opportunity and freedom to change their occupations. This opportunity for job
selection or change has contributed to their job satisfaction.

7.1.5. Improvements in the Life-Styles:

A person who gets into an occupation or profession as per his capacities and expectations is
likely to be more satisfied with it. For the very same reason, he may work sincerely, put in more
efforts and earn good income also. This higher income or economic rewards help him to improve
his “life-styles”.

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For example, a lower-class man after obtaining the middle-class status will definitely pay
attention to improve his style of life. He may purchase a vehicle, wear relatively costly dresses,
get better education for his children, construct his own house, and so on. Social mobility, many
times helps economic improvement.

7.1.6. Opportunity for Competition:

Social mobility is of great importance in helping individuals to improve their capacity and work-
efficiency. It provides motivations for progress and higher attainments. It makes individuals
active, alert and dynamic. It keeps the individuals fit to life in a competitive society. It is
important to note here that the societies that provide greater opportunities for social mobility are
also those that entertain and encourage competitive values.

7.1.7. Reposes Confidence in the Established System:

Average individuals of all types of societies expect some chances or the other to improve their
positions. People in the higher strata also expect still better opportunities. Individuals, who feel
that their social system is providing them opportunities to grow well, are the ones who toil and
struggle for improvement. They do not lose faith in the system. They believe that their hard work
would yield them due rewards, if not immediately, at least, in the near future. Because of this
faith, they would remain as the supporters of the system even if their actual mobility involves
difficulties and challenges.

7.2. Negative Consequences

It is normally believed that social mobility is good and supportive of democratic ethos.
Supporters of democracy and social equality strongly advocate that opportunities for social
mobility must be provided for all. A closed class system which thwarts the fulfillment of
individual personality is criticized because such a system deprives society of the contributions of
talented people.

Social mobility, no doubt, permits a society to fill its occupational positions with the most able
people and offers the individual a chance to attain his or her life goal. But such a provision which
society makes, involves certain costs. Some of them may be noted below.

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7.2.1. Rising Expectation Leading to Dissatisfaction and Frustration:

Upward mobility is not always advantageous for a society. A mobile society arouses
expectations which are not always fulfilled, thereby creating dissatisfaction and unhappiness.
Even in societies where upward mobility is both valued and highly visible, expectations may be
over aroused. Although many want to be upwardly mobile, not everyone can succeed.

A traditional society, in which one is born into one’s appointed place, may not arouse many
hopes. Hence, possibilities of one getting disappointed or frustrated are also fewer as long as the
traditional social structure remains intact. The benefits of social mobility are inseparable from its
costs.

7.2.2. An Open Class Society Or A Mobile Society May Impose Penalties Also:

An open class society may be desirable from the viewpoint of both society and the individual,
but it still may impose some penalties. These penalties may include – “the fear of falling in status
as in downward mobility; the strain of new role learning’s in occupational promotions; the
disruption of primary group relationships as one moves upward and downward.”

One who moves higher and higher in social status as a result of promotion may feel less and less
secure. Since terrorism of different type is becoming widespread now days, people in top
positions [in politics, business or administration] seek the support of security guards for they feel
that they may be attacked at any time.

Thus, one who is passed over for promotion to a higher position may envy the security of a less
mobile society. Social attitudes of such persons change to such an extent that their own parents,
friends and relatives may appear to be strangers. High Court and Supreme Court judges in India,
for example, are expected as a matter of legal norms, to minimize their social contacts with the
people.

7.2.3. Social Mobility Often Demands Geographic Mobility:

People are often made to move from one geographic area to another if they are to accept new
prospects in life. This results in “a painful loss of treasured social ties.” Further, new physical
and social set up demands new adjustments. These adjustments may often bring in new fears and

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anxieties. Such anxieties and tensions are bound to be very high especially at present when the
whole world is experiencing the complex process of globalization.

7.2.4. High Rate of Mental Illness is Associated with Mobility:

An offer of promotion is normally associated with the burden of new responsibilities. One who is
ready to accept such offers must be mentally ready to shoulder new responsibilities, face new
challenges, and compromise with new situations. Any failure in these areas brings tensions,
anxieties, mental worries. Even marriages may be threatened when spouses are not equally
interested in mobility. One mate resents the implied position of being neglected by the other;
while the other resents the mate’s lack of co-operation in social climbing. Upward mobility puts
a great strain on the relationship between parents and children. Upward mobility is linked with
upwardly mobile person who exhibits more prejudice against low- status people than do non-
mobile individuals at the same level. Some studies have even found that a high rate of mental
illness may accompany either upward or downward mobility.

7.2.5. Downward Mobility Also Creates Mental Disturbances:

Mental anxiety and tension also go with downward mobility. In fact, a number of studies have
reported that downward mobility is associated with many unpleasant accompaniments, such as
poor health, marital discord and feelings of alienation and social distance. But these studies have
not properly identified the cause and effect relationship. Such unpleasant developments could be
either a cause or an effect of downward mobility.

8. Case studies

8.1. Arshad Khan – Example of Downward social mobility

The tall off-spin bowler from Pakistan, Arshad Khan made his debut in the 1997-98 series
against the West Indies. He played nine Tests and 58 ODIs till 2006 for his country. He has also
played for Lahore Badshahs in the Indian Cricket League. Arshad’s best bowling performance
came against the arch-rivals India in 2005, when he got 4 wickets for 33 runs at Kochi.

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According to Khaleej Times, Arshad Khan now resides in Sydney, Australia and drives Uber
Taxi over there. This shows the pitiable conditions of the former retired cricketers especially in a
troubled country like Pakistan. After playing for his country, one would’ve expected him to be
wealthier financially, but the former cricketer is struggling hard in a foreign country to make for
his living.

8.2. Jack Ma – A true rags-to-riches story

Jack Ma is one of those self-made billionaires with humble beginnings. Jack Ma was born in
Hangzhou, located in the south-eastern part of China. He was born and raised along with an elder
brother and a younger sister during the rise of communist China and its isolation from the
Western regions. His parents were traditional Musicians-Storytellers and they didn’t make
enough to be even considered as middle class during those days.

Former US president Richard Nixon’s visit to Hangzhou in 1972 improved the situation of
tourism in his home-town and Jack wanted to make the most of this opportunity. Jack always
wanted to learn English as a kid and he spent his early mornings riding on his bike to a nearby
park, giving English tours to foreigners for free. It was then he met a foreign girl who gave him
the nickname ‘Jack’ for his name was hard to spell for her. Jack, after graduating with a
Bachelor’s degree in English, worked as an English teacher at Hangzhou Dianzi University with
a pay of $12 a month! Now here comes the part where it gets more interesting, even before he
has received that degree and became an English teacher.

In his early childhood, Jack Ma Failed in his Primary School examinations, not once, but Twice!
He Failed Thrice during his Middle School exams. When applying to universities after his High
school, Jack failed the entrance exams thrice, before finally joining Hangzhou Normal
University. He even applied and wrote to Harvard University ten times about being admitted –
and got rejected each time. This was only during his education!

During and after his Bachelor’s degree Jack tried and failed to get a job at a multitude of places.
After spending three years to get into a University, Jack failed to land a job after applying to

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them 30 times! He recollects in his interview, “When KFC came to China, 24 people went for
the job.  Twenty-three people were accepted.  I was the only guy who wasn’t.” He also one of the
5 applicants to a job in Police force and was the only one getting rejected after being told, “No,
you’re no good.” Also, on his Entrepreneurial undertakings, Jack Ma went on to fail on two of
his initial ventures. But that didn’t stop him in any way of dreaming bigger.

In one of his interviews, when asked about his rejections, this is what he had to say, “Well, I
think we have to get used to it.  We’re not that good.” Overcoming the pain of rejections and
treating rejections as opportunities to learn and grow was what Jack Ma made of it. After finally
coming to terms with all of his rejections and failures, Jack Ma visited US in 1995, for a
Government undertaking project related to the building of highways. It was then that Jack Ma
was first introduced to the Internet and Computers.

Finally, after persuading 17 of his other friends to invest and join him in his new e-commerce
startup – Alibaba, the company began from his apartment. Initially, Alibaba didn’t had a single
penny in investment from outside investors, but they later raised $20 Million from SoftBank and
another $5 Million from Goldman Sachs in 1999. Building trust among the people of China that
an online system of payment and package transfers is safe was the biggest challenge Jack Ma and
Alibaba faced, a challenge that Jack will cherish for his lifetime. Having started his first
successful company at the age of 31 and even after never having written a single line of code or
selling something to anyone, Jack Ma runs one of the biggest E-commerce networks in the
world. The company went on to grow rapidly, expanding all across the world, quickly growing
out of its China shell. Only second to Walmart now in terms of sales per year, Alibaba has
become the E-commerce giant that Jack Ma has envisioned for it.

9. Conclusion

Social mobility is the movement of the members of a certain society within the social space
mapped by status, occupation, income, and similar factors. In a perfect world, social background
would be of no importance, since everybody would be able to train and apply for any jobs that
interested them. We don't live in a perfect world, though. There are differences in the social
circumstances of classes, of men and women, of people from different ethnic groups, and people

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from different occupational backgrounds. Thus, the relative ease of mobility within a society has
difficulties for those who are not content to live within the limitations of their original
circumstances, or for whom circumstances change due to events beyond their control. A sound
moral foundation, law abiding societal behavior, a successful educational system open to the
whole spectrum for everybody (regardless of the students' social strata), effective judicial system
and law enforcement capability, respect for human rights, and freedom of religion should allow
both social mobility and some stratification of society. These attributes should, then, bring the
sustainable growth of societal prosperity and well-being, which is, after all, the ultimate goal of
every society.

References

 Barone, Michael. Is Social Mobility on the Decline? 2005. Retrieved October 14, 2015.

 Breen, Richard. National Patterns of Social Mobility 1970-1995: Divergence or

Convergence? Retrieved October 14, 2015.

 Gottschalk, Peter, and Timothy M. Smeeding. "Cross-National Comparisons of Earnings

and Income Inequality." Journal of Economic Literature 35(2) (June, 1997): 633-687.

 Jackson, Michelle, J. Goldthorpe and C. Mills. "Education, Employers and Class

Mobility," in Research in Social Stratification and Mobility edited by Kevin Leicht.
Elsevier, 2006.

 Sorokin, P. Social and Cultural Mobility New York, NY: The Free Press, 1959. ISBN
0029302706

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