Maheśvara/Mahākāla: A Unique Buddhist Image from Kaśmīr

Author(s): Phyllis Granoff

Source: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 41, No. 1 (1979), pp. 64-82
Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers
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 PHY L LIS GRAN O FF

MAHE SVARA/MAHAKALA: f

A UNIQUE BUDDHIST IMAGE FROM KASMIR

I. TheFattehgarb
Statue

he villageof Fattehgarh,3 milesfrom has yieldeda remarkable image(fig.i).

Byramila,
SLife-size andnowbrokenbelowthe knees,the greyschiststatueshowsa three-headed
figureon thefrontwitha Nandinbullpeeringout frombehindhimat his right,andon the
reversea single-headeddemonicfigure(fig.2).Thethreeheadsof thefrontimagearealldistinct
(fig.3). Thecentralface,withpendulousearlobesadornedwithjewelledearrings anda third
verticaleyeon theforehead, displaysa deepcontemplative calm.Thenormal,almond-shaped
eyes,curvingslightlyupwardatthecornersanddeeplysculpted,seemfocusedon thetipof the
broadnoseasif in yogicmeditation (fig.4).Thehairis boundin a highja.tdmuku.ta,fromwhich
emerges a small Buddha-like figure,wearing a monastic robe which fallsgentlyoff the left
shoulder, andbearinga circular halobehindhim(fig.5).Thehairstyleof thiscrowningfigure
is no longerentirelyclear;it appears to lie somewherein between andthe
aja.tdmuku.ta typical
usnisa of the Buddha.Therighthandof thissmallfigurehasbeendestroyed, andthelefthand
holdsanobjectnowindistinct. He sitsin a relaxed
posture,therightleg slightlyin frontof the
leftone,andhisfacedisplaysa broadsmilewithwideopeneyes.
Returning to themainimage,thelateralfacesaresmallerin sizethanthecentralface.The
left face,fig.6,likewisehasa thirdverticaleyeon theforeheadanda calmmien.Thehairdo
withits stylizedarcsor plaitsis feminine,andthesoftsmileon thefacecontributes to anim-
pressionof womanlygrace.In sharpcontrastto this,therightlateralfaceis ferocious(fig.7).
Thewildflaminghairis tiedby a snakeandrevealsa humanskull.Thereis a thirdverticaleye
as in the othertwo faces,and the normaleyes aredeeplyhollowedout beneaththe frowning
browsto createan impressionof savagefury.The faceis beardedbeneatha mouththatseems
openedin a blood-curdling
scream.
Thesethreefacestakentogether,eachpowerfuland unmistakable in its mood, appearto
embodythe most salientaspectsof Saivareligion:the contemplative,the womanlyand suc-
coring,andthefierceanddestructive.Withtheirhorizontalmovementperfectlybalancedby the
verticalityof the highja.tdmuku.ta,
andwith theirpreciseand expressivecarving,they attestto
the artisticabilityof theirunknowncreator.
The body of the frontfigureis equallypowerful.The broadchestand shoulderscreatean
appearanceof massivestrengthand potentialforce. The waist tapersonly slightlyand then
widensagainfor the curveof the hips,givinganimpressionof masculinesolidity.Thiseffectis
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relievedand softenedby a seriesof counteraccentsset up by the braceletson the upperarms,
thenecklace, thedemarcating curvesof thebreasts,andthesoftborderandfoldsof thedhoti.
Thesegentlewavesadda graceandcharmto thetorsoandpreventit fromseemingstiffand
inflexible.Furthercounteraccentsareprovidedby thelong mdldor garlandwhichrunsfrom
theshoulders to theknees,pickingup thediagonalswoopof theyajgopavita on thechest.The
dhotiis marked by a smalltigerface,indicatingthatthefigureis cladin a tigerskin.
Thefrontfigureappears to havebeenfour-armed; todayonlyonerightarmremains intact,
the or
holding aksamild rosary. A second hand, now detached,leans on a club,before whichis
a smalladoringfigurewithcurlyhairandwearinga shortdhotthatendsbeforetheknees(fig.8).
The reverseimage,fig.2, in somerespectsprovidesa contrastto the frontfigure,which
involvescomplexandsubtleblendsof different moodsandcontrasting accents.It seemsby
comparison monotonic; thefaceshowsonlytheoneemotional state,ferocity,andthetorso,its
chestlessemphasized thanits swellingbelly,seemsunrelieved by anygracefuldecorative lines.
Thefaceof thisfigure,fig.9, showsdevilishly pointed earswith snakesfor The
earrings. open
mouthhasfangsat thecorners,andtheroundopeneyesarecrownedby angrycurvedbrows.
Justabovethe verticaleye on the foreheadis a humanskull.A smallfiguresits atopthe skull,
almosta replicaof thestandingpersonage he crowns.Thissmallfigurewearsayaj~opavita and
a necklace;he has threeeyes, all wide open and his
threatening; mouthis the sameas thatof
thelargerfigure,wideopenandfanged,andhishairflamingupwardis a reflectionof thehair
of the standingfigurebelowhim.Theleft armof thissmallcrowningfigureis now missing,
andtherightarmholdsa longobjectnowdifficultto identify,butperhapsa cluborgadd.
Returningto themainimageon thereverse,hisonlyornaments arethesnakesat hisneck
andhisyajgopavita andholdsa smalltridentor triz~dla
(figs.2, io). He is two-armed, hori-
zontallyin both hands.A smallindistinctobjectis suspendedfrom the left handbeneaththe
trident;it maybe a bell.Belowthisobjectappearstheheadof a tiger,indicating
thatthisdeity
alsowearsa tigerskin.Althoughthefiercefigurelacksthegraceandbeautyof thefrontimage,
it is nonethelesspreciselyexecuted andsuccessfulin its portrayalof seethinganger.
TheFattehgarh sculpturethus consistsof two different
andaddorsed
images.Addorsed
imagesarenot unknown in Indianart.They occurduring Kusinaperiodat Mathurd
the and
in Gandhira,andmoreimportantfor the presentdiscussionin post-GuptaKasmirisculpture.,
One of the Kaimiripiecesis in fact almostidenticalto the Fattehgarhstatuein both styleand
iconographyandwill be discussedbelow; the otheris shownin figs. ii and 12.7 Datedto the
crownedfigureon eitherside.Oneholdsa
7thcenturyA.D., theimageshowsa four-headed
in the
staffhorizontally histwohandsverymuchas Fattehgarh reversefigureholdsthetrident,
andthe otherfigureholds a goat and a trident.Dr.Palhas tentativelyidentifiedthe figuresas
Padupati/Yama or Lakuli~a.However,the goat is the unmistakablesign of anothermemberof
the Saivaitepantheonwho was particularly veneratedin KaSmir.This is Nandirudra,whose

SFor the works from Mathurdsee John Rosenfield, TheDynasticArts of the Kusbhans, University of CaliforniaPress, I967,
pl. 21, and PratapadityaPal, "A Brahmanical Triad from Kashmir and Some Related Icons", Archivesof Asian Art,
XXVII, 1973-74, P.41. For the Gandharanwork see I. Lyons and H.Ingholt, GandhiranArt in Pakistan, New York,
1957, fig. 276, cited in Pal, and for a list of the Ka'miri examples see Pal mentioned in this note.
2 Published by PratapadityaPal,
Bronzesof Kashmir,Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck und Verlagsanstalt, I975, plates
4a, 4b. Photographs courtesy of the Los Angeles County Museum.

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storyis toldin detailin the of Jayaratha.3 Althoughno otherindependent
imageof this deityis known,Haracaritacintdman.i
it wouldnot be at all surprisingif he had been an independent
objectof worship,in the light of his prominencein medievalKa'mirilegendsandthe repeated
assertions
inthetextsthatNandirudrais equalto Siva.4Stylistically
thisNandirudra
showsmany
to the Fattehgarh
similarities statue.Thebulkychestrelievedby the scallopedcurvesof the
breastsandarmletsandtheundulating sacredthreadandlongmaldarereminiscent of thesame
featuresin the Fattehgarhthree-headed
figure.However,the Fattehgarhfigureis muchmore
massivein its proportions
andpointsbackto earlier,Gandhdran prototypes.
TheFattehgarh three-headedfigurewithits highja.tdis remarkably
closeto someof the
Gandhdran Bodhisattvasthatdisplaysimilarfan-shaped
locks,for examplethefamousBodhi-
sattvain the TaxilaMuseum,a BodhisattvafromTaxilain the NationalMuseum,Karachi,and
a Gandhdran Bodhisattvain the MuseumRietberg,Ztirich,to namebut a few.sThefull almond
eyesof thecentralfacealsorecallGandhiran imagesof Bodhisattvas andtheBuddha, although
themodelling of thefacewithits reliance on smoothandcurvingsurfaces avoidstheharshness
andsharpangularity of the featureson someof the Gandhdran works.Finally,the massive
torsoandtheheavyproportions of theFattehgarh three-headedfigurerecallthefullfiguresof
theGandhiran workshops.
Thereversesingle-headed imageon theFattehgarh statuelooksbothbackward to theBud-
dhisttraditionof Gandhira andaheadto laterBuddhist productsin Kagmir. It callsto mindthe
well-known image of the Bodhisattva fromtheCleveland Museumof Art,datedto
Vajrapa.ni
the 8th c. A.D. and picturedhereas fig. I3.6 Both figureshave a knotted snakeas a necklace,
andbothhavepointedears,theupwardthrustof whichis carried by thehairwhichstandson
end.TheFattehgarh imageis clearlyearlierthantheCleveland Vajrapini; its stiffsolidtorso
againgoesbackto Gandhdran andMathurin workswhichareremarkable fortheirsolidpower.
theclosestparallels
Stylistically to theFattehgarh addorsed imagesareprovidedby several
Ka'miri works from the Bdramila area.The an
first, ekamukhaliriga, (fig.14) is now in the

3 ed. Mahamahopddhydya Givadattaand KZidinth Parab, Kivyam1j, 61, Bombay,

Haracaritacintimani,
1897, chapter 2. See in particularvs. 74, P. 38, where Nandirudra is described
Pan.dit as "caturvaktra","Ilap ani", and "chagal-
P.n<durang
adhvaja""four-faced", "holding a trident in his hand", and "having the goat as his distinguishing mark" (lit. "flag").
In fact, Nandirudra's goat is so important to him that he even asks Siva for a boon for the animal. In vs. 82-83, 39
p.
he asks that his faithful goat be made immortal. The story of Nandirudra is also told in the Nilamatapurdna,ed. K.De
Vreese, Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1936, vs. I04I-II42, pp. 87-94. The Nilamatapurinais earlier than Jayaratha'sHaracarita-
cintamaniand probably belongs to the 6th-8th c. A.D. For the date see Dr. Ved Kumari, TheNilamata Purdna,Vol. I:
A Culturaland LiteraryStudyof a Kalmiri Purana,Jammu and Grinagar:Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture,
and Languages, 1968, p. I4.
4 See op.cit., ch. 8, p. 62, where in the myth of Dakqa's sacrifice Nandirudra subdues Virabhadra
Haracaritacintimani,
who has gone out of control, and Virabhadra bows to him and proclaims him equal to Siva; vs. 67, p. 138, ch. 14,
where Siva says that Nandirudra is his very soul; vs. 19, p. 183, ch. 21, where Siva says that Nandirudra is Siva in
another body ("tvamlarirantaramevame"); vs. 5o, p. I86 where Visnu says to Nandirudra, "tramapi prabburasmikam
Maheivaraivdparah","You are also our Lord, like another Mahesvara (Siva)"; and vs. 20, p. 20s, ch. 25 where Siva
proclaims, "Nandirudram dvitiyamvigrahammama","Know that Nandirudrais my second form". For the identity
vijofnihi
of the second half of this addorsed image see the remarksthat follow on the iconography of the single-headed side of
the Fattehgarh statue.
s See Dr.F.A.Khan, Architectureand Art Treasuresin Pakistan, Karachi: Elite Publishers Limited, 1969, p. I12, 148,
for the first two and Madeleine Hallade, GandharanArt of North India, New York: Harry N.Abrams, 1968, p. 89, pl. 64
for the third.
6 Discussed by Pal, Bronces,op.cit., pl. 60, p. 164. The author wishes to thank the Cleveland Museum of Art for the present
photograph.

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Fig. i. Mahe'vara/Mahdkdlafrom Fattehgarh. Front view Fig. 2. Fattehgarh statue, reverse view

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 Fig. 4. Detail of the central head

of front central face

Fig. 5. Buddha figure in thejaaldmukuta

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 Fig. 6. Female face to the left of the central face

Fig. 7. Fierce face to the right of the central face

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Fig. 8. Small adoring figure Fig. 9. Face of reverse figure

Fig. Io. Chest of reverse figure

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 Fig. 11i. Nandirudra, Ka'mir, 7th c. A.D. Fig. 12. Reverse of 11i
Pan Asian Collection,Los AngelesCountyMuseum

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 Fig. 13. Bodhisattva
Vajrap.ni,
Ka'mir, 8th c. A.D., Cleveland
Museumof Art

Fig. I4. Ekamukhalinga,Baramula, 6th c. A.D.

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Fig. 15. Caturmukhaligafrom Sir, 6th c. A.D. at Sir
Fig. 16. Detail of caturmukhalifga

at Sir
Fig. 17. Detail of caturmukhalifga at Sir
Fig. 18. Detail of caturmukbaliiga

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 Fig. I9. Siva temple at Fattehgarh, Ioth c. A.D.

Fig. 20.
fiir IndischeKunst,Berlin
Buddhist Siva, Ka'mir, 6th-7th c. A.D., Museum

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 Kotidvaratempleat Biramilaand showsa largethree-eyedSivaemergingfromthe frontface
of the liiga.7The recallsthatof Gandhdran Bodhisattvasandis identicalto the
fan-shapedja.td
jantdof the centralface on the three-facedFattehgarh image.It is precededby tight snailcurls
thatrecallthe curlsof the Buddha,whereasin the Fattehgarh imagethe hairis simplypatterned
into neat tightlydrawnstrands.8 The Fattehgarhcentralface is far more expressive.With the
headbent slightlytowardsthe chestand the deeplycarvedeyesit seemsa perfectportrayalof
spiritualcalm.The Bdramilalifrgaby comparisonis muchmorelinearin its treatmentof the
featureswhichseemhardenedandlackingin expressivepower.It probablydatesto the end of
the 6th c. or the very beginningof the 7th c. A.D.
AnotherKa'miriwork with which the Fattehgarhstatuesharessome similaritiesis the
colossal Siva lihgaat Sir, a smallvillage a few minutes'drive from Fattehgarh.The liriga,a
caturmukhalifga, is now much effacedand standsin the fields outsidethe village (fig.I5-I8).
The lirgashowsfourtorsos,one of whichholdsa byapiraor citron.Onefigureis unmistakably
female.Unfortunately dueto the poorconditionof theliRgalittlecanbe saidof the othertorsos.
The Sirlihga,mostlikelyof the 6th c. A.D., is closeto the Fattehgarhstatuein its massiveness
and in its bold carvingof the now ruinedfigures.
Finally,a sculpturefrom Bdramilanow in the SriPratapSinghMuseumin Srinagarandin
manywaysidenticalto the Fattehgarhwork completesthis analysisof the styleanddateof the
Fattehgarhstatue.*It consistsof two addorsedimages.The frontdepictsSivaandPdrvati.The
Siva is three-headed.The centralface is benign and has pendulous earlobeswith the same jew-
elledearringsasthe Fattehgarh centralface.Theleftlateralfaceis feminineandsharesthehairdo
of the Fattehgarhfemale,while the rightlateralface is similarlybeardedand fierce.All three
facesdisplaythe thirdverticaleye on the forehead.Accordingto Palthe Sivais six-armed.Two
of the left handshold a waterpot or kamandalu and a disc, while one rests aroundPdrvati's
back.The only remainingrighthandholds the aksamala or rosary.The figureon the reverse
has only one head.His hairis wild and he has a long scruffybeard,while his eyes seemwide
open in fury. The figureis six-armed.The upperarmsseem to stretchsomethingabove the
head.The middleleft armis gone and the righthandis empty.The lowerleft armis broken,
but the lowerrightarmholdsa tridentor triji~dlain a horizontalposition,exactlyas the reverse
figureon the Fattehgarhsculpturedoes. The BaramulaSivaand Pdrvatihas been datedeither
to the 6th c. A.D. or the 7th c. A.D.10The three-headed Sivais clearlyidentifiableas Mahe'a-
1
mfirtior Saddfiva, andthe identityof the personageon the reversewill be treatedbelowin the
7 Photograph from Manohar Kaul, Kashmir: Hindu, Buddhistand Muslim
Architecture,New Delhi: Sagar Publications,
1971, p.4I.
8 This peculiar combination of snail curls and a is seen in Chambaas well. Compare the image of LakpandDevi
highja.td
from Brahmor, plate VI and p. 79 in Hermann Goetz, TheEarly WoodenTemplesof Chamba,Memoirs of the Kern Insti-
tute, No. I, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1955. The image has an inscription dating in the reign of Meruvarman, second half of
the 7th c.A.D.
9 For a picture of this image see Krishna Kumar, "A Dhydna-Yoga Mahe'amfrti, and Some Reflections on the Icono-
graphy of the Mahe'amurti-Images", Artibus Asiae, vol. 37, 1-2, 1975, plate XI, and Pal, "A Brahmanical Triad",
op.cit., fig. and 11 and discussion on p. 39. Krishna Kumar seems not to have been aware of the figure on the reverse
side. lo
10 Kumar, ibid., plate XI dates it ca. 6th c. A.D., while Pal, ibid., fig. and
lo 11, prefers a 7th c. A.D. date.
SxThis nomenclature is not without difficulties. Some modern scholars of iconography group the three-headed Givain
which one lateral face is female and one fierce while the central face is pacific, under the separateheading Mahe'amuirti,
while others prefer to consider them along with images of Siva in which three, four, or five faces may be represented

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discussionof the iconographyof the Fattehgarhsingle-headed
demonicdeity.This statuefrom
Bdramelais thus almost an exact parallel to the Fattehgarhsculpture,except that it lacks the
crowningfigureof the Buddhaon the front,and the crowningdemonon the reverse.Artisti-
cally,however,it is nowhereas fineas the Fattehgarh piece; by comparisonthe carvingon the
Bdramilawork seemscrudeandstiff.
In review,the Fattehgarhstatueprobablybelongsto the 6th c. A.D. It is of extraordinarily
fineworkmanship andexhibitssimilarities
to earlierGandhiranBuddhistimagesandto 6thand
7th c. Ka'miriproducts.It is, however,uniquein its iconography.The other works in the
Bdramelaareaare all purelySaivaitein iconography,whereasthe Fattehgarhstatue shows
Buddhistconnectionsin the smallcrowningfigureon the frontimage.Thiscombinationis not
unexpectedgiven the complexreligioushistoryof the region.Biramulais the ancientVardha-
mala,mentionedin the Nilamatapurina, a 6th-8thcentury text the
Kanmiri describing legends

and in which the lateralfaces are all masculine. These images are known as SaddBiva,and they symbolize the five powers
of the god, his five aspects as he evolves into the visible universe, his five activities and the five elements of the universe.
Marie-Ther6sede Mallmann, "Divinites Hindoues dans le Tantrisme Bouddhique" Arts Asiatiques,vol. X, 1964, fig. 3,
preferred the name Saddiiva for the three-headed Siva with female and fierce lateral faces. Brijendra Nath Sharma,
Iconography of Saddiiva,New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1976, did the same as did C. Sivardmamurti,Satarudrtiya:
Vibhbtiof iva'sIconography, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, I976. Both of these authors also included caturmukhalingas
in their descriptions of Saddbiva,for these litfgasshare with the images of Saddgivathe same symbolic intent: they re-
present the five powers and aspects of the God.
T.A.Gopinath Rao, Elementsof Hindu Iconography, New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation, 1968, vol. II,
pt. 2, p. 379, first singled out the three-headedimages with female and fierce faces under the name Mahegamurti,a name
that he took from a passage in the Suprabhedagama. This passage in fact describes Mahe'a as five-headed with only four
faces visible and does not mention any female face. Stella Kramrisch, "The Image of Mahddeva in the Cave Temple
on Elephanta Island", AncientIndia,July, 1946, PP.4-9, followed Rao's nomenclature and correctly identified a passage
in the Vis.udharmottarapurdna which supplies a textual source for the female face, equating Vdmadeva with Umd. At
the same time, however, she also noted the similarityin religious conception between MahegamGrti,Saddtivaand catur-
mukbalifgas.J.N.Banerjea in two articles in Arts Asiatiques,"The so-called Trimirti of Elephanta" (vol. 2, 1955, pp.I20
to 126) and "A Visnudharmottara Passage and the so-called Trimurti of Elephanta" (vol. 3, 1956, pp.i130-133), repeated
much of what Kramrisch had said. More recently, Krishna Kumar, op.cit., p.1o7, suggested that the term Saddtiva be
restricted to representations in which all five heads are shown, and that the name Mahe'a be applied to images with
three or four heads. It seems unnecessary to the present author to make such a rigid distinction. The Suprabhedigama
passage mentioned above clearly states that Mahe'a is also five-headed, thus indicating his affiliation in symbolic intent
with Saddgiva.In addition, the IV, (ed. U.P.Sankhyatirtha, Calcutta, 1936, 31) in describing the
Ripamandiana 94 P.the variant reading be
mukhalitiga of Siva states that the fifth face, that of i'na, is not visible to ordinary mortals, or if
taken, is not visible even to yogins. Thus Sadd'iva as the embodiment of the five aspects of Siva might very well be
depicted with only four heads, due to the limitations of the perceiver, or with three heads, adding to the problem that
one head is invisible because it is behind the picture plane.
Compounding all of this confusion is the furtherfact that even the name Saddtivaseems somewhat arbitrarilyselected.
Siva is repeatedlydescribed in the texts as five-headed, but he is not always designated as Saddgiva.See the Brhatstotrarat-
ndkara,compiled R. Pandeya, Varanasi: Panditapustakdlaya,pp. 44, 45, 48, 55, 58, etc. See also the Sivapurdna,Kadi:
Panditapustakdlaya,p. 69, vs. 52; p. 97, vs. 25-27; p. 104, vs. 4; P-175, vs. 4, etc. See also the various texts cited by
B.N.Sharma, op.cit.,and by Haridas Mitra, "Sadd'iva Worship in Early Bengal: A Study in History, Art and Religion",
Journalof the Asiatic Societyof Bengal,New Series, Vol. XXIX, 1933, pp.i71-273.
The selection of either the name "Saddtiva" or "Mahe'a" thus seems largely a matter of convenience, without
necessarily strong textual support.
The literature dealing with Mahegamurtisand related images is extensive. The following is a representativesample
of articles not already mentioned in this note. R.C.Agrawala, "Two Interesting Saiva Terracottas in the Bikaner Mu-
seum", Artibus Asiae, XIX, 1956, pp. 61-65. V.S.Agrawala, "The Religious Significance of the Gupta Terracottas
from Rang Mahal", Lalit Kald, 8, i96o, pp. 63-71. Douglas Barrett, "Sculptures of the Shdhi Period", OrientalArt,
n. s. III, 1957, PP.54-59. Hermann Goetz, "A Kashmiri Lingam of the ioth century", Artibus Asiae, XXVII, 1964,
p. 275-279. Jos' Pereira, "A Mahe'amurti from Bhuvane'vara", Artibus Asiae, XXX, 1968, pp. 85-89. Maurizio
Taddei, "A Lifiga-shapedPortable Sanctuaryof the Sdhi Period", East and West,XV, I964-65, pp. 24-25.

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andholyplacesof Ka'mir,in the Haracaritacintimatni,
a latercompilation
of Kagmiri
Saivaite
myths,and of coursein Kalhana'sRadataraigin1,
the chronicleof the kings of Kagmirwritten
between1148-1149A.D.'2 It was famousas a tirthasacredto Visnuin his incarnationas Adi-
theGreatBoar,andwasalsoa majorsiteof Sivaworship.Vardhamfula
vardha, is firstmentioned
in connectionwith King Ksemagupta,950-958 A.D., who foundedthe
in the Rajataratigini
andKsemamatha,
SivatemplesSrikanthamatha remainstestifyto
1aalthougharchaeological
the factthatit was an activecenterof Sivaworshipseveralcenturiesbeforethatdate.In addi-
tion,Var~ihamoilalay acrossthe riverfromone of the earliestandmostimportant
Buddhist
sitesin Ka'mir,thetownHuskapara saidto havebeenfoundedby theKusdnaKingHuviska
in the firstor secondcenturyA.D. Fattehgarh,situatedwithinthe Vardhamf-la area,thusmight
be expected to reflectthesevariousreligioustrends.In fact in additionto the statuepresently
underdiscussion hasa ruinedSivatemple(fig.19)whichhasbeendatedto theioth
Fattehgarh
c. A.D., contemporarywith the two Sivatemplesat nearbyPatanbuiltby Samkaravarman
(883-902A.D.), the Samkaragaurisa
andthe Sugandhega temples.4 Thepresentstatue,then,
providesconcreteevidenceof the complexpatternsof worshipin this region of Kasmir,so
oftenalludedto in the texts.It remainsnow to discussmorefullyits iconographyandthe pos-
sibletextualsourcesfor this Saiva-Buddhistdeity.

oftheFattehgarh
II. TheIconography Statue

The comparison of the Fattehgarh frontimage,the three-headed figure,andthe Bi~ramala

Mahe'amirti of the6thor 7thc. A.D. hasrevealed at oncethattheFattehgarh imagebelongs
andpopulargroupof Saivaicons,sometimes
to a recognizable labelledas Saddiivaandother
timesdesignated Mahe'amarti. Theunusualfeatureof the Fattehgarh Mahe'ais thepresence
of the Buddha-likefigurein theja.t. Theclosestparallel
to thissituationcanbe foundin late
Buddhistimageswithinand outsideof India.De Mallmannin an articleon Hindudeitiesin
TantricBuddhism
illustrates
two previously figuresof Givawith smallBuddha
unpublished
figuresin theirhair.s Oneis a fierceSivain Sino-Tibetanstyle.Seatedin Europeanfashionthe
god displaysanangrycountenance.
four-armed In facttheopenmouthwiththefangsandthe
eyesrecallthe imageon the backsideof the Fattehgarh
openthreatening statue.Thereis a
smallBuddhafigurein of thisSiva.Thesecondimageis fromThailandor Cambodia
theja.td
andshowsa Sivaelegantlyperchedon his Nandin.The Givais ten-armed
andbearsa seated
and meditatingBuddhain his headdress.In additionto thesetwo statues,clearlyof Siva but

x2 See the Nilamatapurdna,op.cit., vs. 113, 1180, I348ff.; Haracaritacintamani, op.cit., p.II4, ch. 12, vs. 43; Rdjatarafgini,
translated by M.A.Stein, reprinted New Delhi, 1961, vol. II, pp.482-483. For a summary of the legends associated
with Vardhamulasee G. Buhler, Detailed Reportof a Tourin Searchof SanskritMss, Journalof the RoyalAsiatic Societyof
Bengal,Extra Number, Bombay and London, 1877, pp.II-i3-
1a Rejatara'gini,op.cit., vi, 186.
x4For a detailed description of this temple see W.G.Cowlie, "Notes on Some of the Temples of Kashmir", Journalof
the Royal Asiatic Societyof Bengal, 1866, pp.II3-II4. It is also discussed by Ram Chandra Kak, Ancient Monumentsof
Kashmir,London: The India Society, 1933,
de Mallmann, "Divinit6s Hindoues", op.cit.,P.I55.
s15 figs. 9 and i o.

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in a Buddhistcontext,thereis a BhairavafromPadangRotjo',SungaiLangsat,CentralSumatra,
picturedby Bernet-Kempers in his volume on Indonesianart.16 Accordingto Bernet-Kempers
the deity representedis a BuddhistBhairavaand a likenessof the SumatranKing Adityavarman.
The small Buddha figure appearsin the balloon-like structuresupposed to representtheja.tad
of the god. Finally, there is an image from Bengal now in the Asutosh Museum that Banerjea
identifiedas "Siva-Lokeivara".It alsorepresentsa Sivawith an imageof a meditatingBuddha
in his locks.1 The brassfigureshows a two-armedithyphallicSiva holdinga kapdlaor skull
and a triidla or trident. In her discussion of this statue and the first two mentioned above, de
Mallmannconnectsthe presenceof the smallmeditatingBuddha,Amitdbha,with a passagein
the Nispannayogdvali(late IIth-earlyi2th c. A.D.). Accordingto this text, Mahe'varais orna-
mentedwith a figureof Amitdbha,the Buddhainto whose kulaor familyhe has been assimi-
lated.I8
Returningnow to the three-headed Mahesvara fromFattehgarh, the onlydifference
between
the smallfigurein its locksandthe Buddhafigureson the headsof the EastIndian,Southeast
Asian,and TibetanSivasis that whereasthese laterworks all follow exactly the Nispannayo-
form,in dhydndsana
gdvalianddisplaysmallfiguresof Amitibhain hispreciseiconographic and
the Buddhafigurein the locks of the FattehgarhSivaneithersits in this pose of
dhydnamudrd,
of hisattitudesuggestsa
norclaspshishandsin thatgesture.In fact,thecasualness
meditation
timewhentheiconography of a BuddhistSivawasnot yetfixed.
although do not haveanyearlierSanskrit
Fortunately, we textsdescribingMahe'varain a
Buddhistcontext,thereareChinesetextswhichpurportto be T'angdynastytranslations of
originalsandwhichdealwithMahesvara
Sanskrit andthe Tantricritesinvolvinghim.igOne
of thesetextsin particular,
the Sokushitsuryigen (Taishb1277),sup-
setsuabishahba
Makeishuraten
posedlya T'angtranslation describes
by Amoghavajra, as havinga Buddhafigure
Mahesvara
on his head.zoThe text is peculiar.In its title it callsitself an "abisha", of the
a transliteration
Sanskrit Thiswasa Tantricritein whicha seven-or eight-year-old
"dvela". girlwasmadeto
becomepossessed by a spirit.Trembling At one
violently,shewouldthenforetellthefuture.2I
on hisownbodyasthebodyof thegodMahe'vara.
is toldto meditate
pointthepractitioner It
is herethatMahe'vara Hehasonehead,threeeyes,andwearsa crown,whichbears
is described.
a Buddhaimageat its top andis bluein color.He is eighteen-armed andholdsvariousimple-
ments, the identityof which is not specified.Finally,he wearssnakesas hisyajgopadita,
has
garlandson histemples,andis smeared withblood.
providesus withan earlierBuddhisttextualsourcefor thesmallBuddha
Thisdescription
figureon theheadof MaheTvara. thattheseatingposture,thehandgesture,and
It is significant

I6 A.J.Bernet-Kempers, Ancient IndonesianArt, Amsterdam: C.P.J.Van der Peet, 1959, pl. 259 and p. 87.
17 University of Calcutta, 1956, pl. XLVI, fig. 4 and de Mall-
Jitendra Nath Banerjea, Developmentof Hindu Iconography,
mann, "Divinites Hindoues", op.cit.,fig.I.
s Nispannayogavali, Yogambaramandala,pp. 32-34, cited de Mallmann, "Divinites Hindoues", op.cit., p. 76.
19 Taish6
1277, 1278, 1279, 1289, vol. 21. I wish to thank Dr.Yun-hua Jan, chairman of the Department of Religious
Studies, McMaster University, for his kind assistance with these texts.
20 Taish6, vol. 21, p. 330a. Matsumoto Eiichi in his discussion of CentralAsian images of Mahe'vara in Tonkigano Kenkyf,
Tokyo, 1937, P- 736 cites this passage as does Sawa Ryfiken, Butsu.ZZuten,Tokyo, 1967, p.-152.Both read the character
yangbfor fo, Buddha. Thus the line would mean, "He has a half moon looking upward on his crown", and not "He has
a Buddha encircled by a half moon on his crown".
21 For details see the text itself and Mochizuki, Bukkyjdaijiten,Vol. I, p.5o-5I, under "abisha".

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the nameof the Buddhaarenot specified.It was perhapsjust such a loose iconographicpre-
scriptionthatunderlaythe planningof the FattehgarhSiva.
Unfortunately,however,in otherrespectsthe descriptionprovidedby thissitrais at variance
with the Fattehgarhimagewho is three-headed andidenticalto conventionalHindurepresen-
tations of Mahe'a or Sadifiva, for example the Bdramalaimage mentionedabove with which it
is roughlycontemporary.Thereis anotherBuddhisttext that does describea three-headed
Mahesvara andthatmoreoverordersthe headsin the exactsameway in whichthey appearon
the FattehgarhSiva.Thisis the Karoragyvishotenmitsugonkync
(Taishd 278),translated
by Prajfil-
balafromKapi'a.22.According to thistext,Mahe'vara
is bluein colorand hasthreefaces.The
centralfaceis thatof a devaor god,therightfaceis thatof ayaksa(ordemon)andhasfangs,
andtheleftfaceis of a heavenlygoddess,beautiful andpinkin color.Theimagehasfourarms
andtheimplements namedarea trizdla or trident,a watervessel,a floweranda rosary.23
This
configurationof thethreefacesis moreover thetypicalKaimiripattern;almostalltheknown
imagesfrom Kaimir to
appear arrange the threeheadsin thisway.24
Wetherefore havetwo TantricBuddhist textswhichaccordin theirmajordetailswiththe
fronthalfof theFattehgarh Siva.Giventhisfact,it seemslikelythatthe statuemightindeed
havebeenmadein accordance with someprescribed iconographic formula,andone would
suspectthat it shouldnot be unique.Thereare of courseimagesof Maheivaraknownfrom
Buddhist Central Asia.Khotanhasyieldedsixpaintedrepresentations
of thegod;2stheQyzyl
wallpaintingsshowa three-headed Sivaoftenin thecompanyof Pdrvati;26 andBiiziklikhas
severalpaintingsof the multi-headedgod.27Matsumoto Eiichireviewedthe examplesfrom
Tun-huang and the singlefigureat cave 8 in Yin-kang.28Mahe'varaalso figureson reliefsin
in scenesderivedfrom theKarayndavyuha.29
SoutheastAsian art, particularly In none of these
examples,however,is Mahesvara crownedwith a smallBuddhafigureas he is in the Fattehgarh
image.TheFattehgarh Mahe'vara thusremains a uniqueexampleof thisiconographic type.
Ouridentificationof the frontFattehgarhimageas the BuddhistMahesvara givessome
clueasto theidentityof thedemonicfigureon thereverse.Mahe'vara is oftenaccompaniedby
anotherformof SivaknownasMahdkIla. Thisoccursbothon Hinduimagesof thegodwhere
Mahdkdla
a pot-bellied appearsasanattendantholdinga trident,andin CentralAsianBuddhist

22 See P.C.Bagchi, Le CanonBouddhique en Chine,Vol. 2, Paris, 1938, p. 628.

23 Taish6, vol. 21, 334a, b.
24 With Tatpurusa in the center, Umd at the left and Aghora at the right. See Krishna Kumar, op.cit.,p.
io9, note 35.
25 Discussed by Joanna Williams, "The Iconography of Khotanese Painting", East and West,Vol. 23, 1973, pp.I42-I45.
Given the strong textual support for the identification of these Khotanese figures as Mahesvara, a Buddhist deity to
whom, as this paper has shown, entire sftras were dedicated, there is no need to regard them as did Krishna Kumar,
op.cit., pp.ii8-1i20, as representations of the Adibuddha, Vajradhara.In addition, the presence of the two animals as
a vahana,which Kumar regarded as further evidence that the deity represents Vajradhara,is not in fact peculiar to the
Dhydnibuddhas alone; according to the Haracaritacinta'mani, op.cit., ch. 22, vs. 42, p. 191, Durgd has two lions as her
vahana.
26 See Albert Grtinwedel, Altbuddhistische Kultstattenin ChinesischTurkistan,Berlin, 1912, fig. 297 which has a bull head
as well. This may reflect the influence of a text like the Visnudharmottarapurdna (III, 48, I-I9) which equates Tatpurusa
with Nandin. See Sharma, op.cit., pp. 35-36 for the text. Also Griinwedel, fig. 410o.
27 A line drawing is in Matsumoto Eiichi, op.cit., p. 730; Albert von Le Coq, Chotscho, Berlin, 1913, pl. 46f.
28 Matsumoto, ibid., pp.732-736, plates 167, 174, 187b, 188a.
29 J. Boisselier, '"Precisions sur quelques images Khmeres d'Avalokite'vara. Les Bas-Reliefs de Bantdy Chmir", Arts
Asiatiques,Vol. XI, 1964, pp. 73-91, figs. 2 and 3. In fig. 3 Siva is actually five-headed.

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paintingswhereMahakdla often appearsoppositeMahe'varain hangingsof Avalokitegvara.30
Although in the Kasmiri Mahakilais describedas the formerasura
Haracaritacintdimayi
who becamea gapaor memberof Siva'sdevotedhordeafterbeingsubduedby the greatB.na god,
in the Buddhisttext Daikokutenjinhbd
(Taisha 12z87)attributedto the T'ang dynastymonk
Shin-k'aie(Jap.Jingai),a disciple of Amoghavajra,Mahdkdlais specificallystatedto be a mani-
festationof the god Sivahimself.3,He is describedas a god of war,three-faced
andsix-armed,
blue in color, and holding a sword horizontallyin his two front arms, holding a human head
andthe headof a sheep,stretchingbehindhim an elephantskin,andwearingornamentsmade
of bones.37Matsumoto Eiichi, reviewing the CentralAsian examples of Mahdkdla,noted that
althoughin the texts the god can havetwo, six, or eight arms,the two-armedform does not
appearat Tun-huang.33 It is describedin the Buddhistsitra, Kongjkufushie
hokokigi
Kanjizai-
bosatsu (Taish6Io33)translated
sanZeisaishoshimmyjjkyjf by Amoghavajra in the mid8thc. In
thistextMahikilawearsthe elephantskinandholdshorizontally a spear,one endof which
piercesa humanhead,andtheotherenda sheep.34
Commenting upontheexamples fromCentral
AsiaandtheFarEast,Matsumoto Eiichiremarked thatthe spearor tridentheldhorizontally
was common.as
In the SanskritBuddhisttexts Mahdkilais still differentlydescribed.In the Nispannayoga-
vali, Vajrahuzmkramandala,he is black, three-faced,and holds a trident. In the Dharmadhitu-
he is blackandholdsa tridentanda skull.36Accordingto the Sidhanamld,he
w-gisvaramandala
maybe one-facedand havefour or six arms,or he maybe eight-facedand have six armsand
four legs. In any case he is black, has three eyes, fangs, wild hair adorned with skulls, and is
pot-bellied.In addition,he wearsa tiger skin, and amonghis attributesare the tridentand a
bell.37
Returning now to the Fattehgarhstatue, fig. 2, it is clear that the demonic figure on the
reverse has much in common with Mahdkdlaas describedin the Buddhist texts. Matsumoto's
most significantfeature,the tridentheld horizontally,clearlyidentifiesthe figureas Mahdkila.
Moreover,the pot belly,the ferociousfacewith fangsand threeeyes, the tiger skin,the wild
hairwith the skulldecoratingit, andthe bellareall consistentwith the descriptionof Mahdkila
offered by the texts. The peculiar replica of the god in his hair is nowhere mentioned in the
texts examinedto date, nor would it appearto occur in any other Buddhist image of Mahakdla.
Perhaps it was added by the sculptor for the sake of symmetry, to help the reverse image
matchthe front imagein iconographicconception,or perhapswe have yet to discoverthe
textualsource.At any event,the identificationof the figurewith Mahdkdla
appropriate seems
well supportedby the texts.

Haridas Mitra, op.cit., pp. 211, 212, 216, 244-245, and Matsumoto Eiichi, op.cit., plates 167 and 174.
o30
3x Haracaritacintamani,op.cit., ch. 21; Taisha vol. 21, 355b and 356 a. Shin-k'ai here cites the Sanskrit Mahamdydrividyd,
extant in several Chinese versions. See Yi-liang Chou, "Tantrism in China", HarvardJournalof Asiatic Studies,vol. 8,
1944-1945, 324.
32 Taishb, vol.P.21, 355c.
33 Matsumoto Eiichi, op.cit., pp. 728-731, plates 162, I67, I74, I88b.
34 Taishb, vol. 20, IIc.
as Matsumoto Eiichi, op.cit., pp. 729-731.
36Nispannayogavali,ed. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, Gaekwad'sOrientalSeries, lo9, Baroda, 1949, Pp. 24, 62.
a l'iconographie
37 Marie-Thtrese de Mallmann, Introduction du TantrismeBouddhique, Paris, 1975, P. 238.

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 In closing,we mightreturnto the earliermentionedaddorsedKaimiriimagesfigs.xxand12.
The first showedNandirudraon the obverse(fig.i1). The reverse,fig.12 holds a staffhori-
2zontallyat the height of his knees.Despite the lack of the other identifyingfeatureswhich
distinguishMahdkdla, perhapswe can identifythe god on the basisof this featurealone.The
addorsedimagesin figs.-x and i2 would then representNandirudra,who is identicalto Ma-
heivara,andMahdkila.If thistentativesuggestionis correct,thenwe wouldhavea closeparallel
to the Fattehgarhimage,perhapslike the BiramalaMahesvara/Mahdkdla in a purelyHindu
context.The Bdramelareversedeity, with the wild hair, open staringeyes, the tridentheld
horizontallyandthe objectstretchedabovehis headclearlyconformsto textualdescriptionsof
Mahdkila,and with the figureon the obverseis withoutquestiona close counterpartto the
Fattehgarhaddorsedimages.
There is one final work that deserves to be noted, for although it is not an addorsedimage
like the aboveNandirudra/Mahikila or the BdramalaMahesvara/Mahdkila, and so does not
sharethis particularfeaturewith the Fattehgarhpiece, it seemsto me to be a contemporary
Kaimiriexampleof Maheivara(SadIfiva)in a Buddhistguise(fig.20).38 The figureis unusually
beautiful.It is one-headedand four-armed,holding the rosary,water pot, and staff,and making
the gestureof reassurance He hasan
or abhaya. andwearsa tigerskin.Dr.Pal
elegantja.timuku.ta
choseto identifythe figureas Brahmsin a Buddhistcontext,andthe fourattendants,including
the animal-headed one, as the fourVedas.39 who alsopublishedthe image,hadidentified
Hairtel,
it as Giva-Lokeivara.40It seemsto me thatHirtel is closerto the truth,andthatwhatwe have
hereis a Buddhistimageof the five aspectsof Siva,a conceptsymbolicallyrepresented by the
imagesof SaddSiva or Maheivara(seenote 11).The animal-headed figureseemsto supportthis
interpretation,for althoughtheVedaswerenot describedin animalform,one aspectof thefive-
fold Sivacouldbe Nandinor the bull, oftenshownin artas a bull-headedhuman.4,The water
pot and rosarywould also be consistentwith an identificationof the figureas Giva;the Bira-
mulaMahesvara holdsboth of theseobjects,andthey arethe commonattributesof figureson
caturmukhalifigasin the Himilayanarea.42This group, then, in the BerlinMuseum,would be
anotherexampleof Maheivarawithina Buddhistcontextin Kasmir.

III. Conclusions

This article has introduced a new and unique statue from Fattehgarh,Ka4mir. In identifying
the addorsed figures as Mahedvaraand Mahikila, here both Buddhist, it has drawn upon the
obvious iconographicalfeaturesof the images themselves, on a variety of Sanskrittexts, and a

38 Reproduced from Pal, Bronzesof Kashmir,op.cit., plate 3, P. 54 with permission of the publisher.
39 Pal, "A BrahmanicalTriad", op.cit., and Bronges,op.cit., 54.
p.
40 H. Hdrtel, IndischeSculpturen,Berlin: Museum ffir V61kerkunde, g196o,cited Pal,
Bronzes,op.cit., p. 54.
4I See note 26 above.
42 For examples see Ernst and Rose Leonore Waldschmidt, Nepal: Art Treasuresfromthe Himalayas,New York: Uni-
verse Books, 197o, Fig. XI; Pal, BronZes,op.cit., plates 87a and b from the Kulu Valley, and Krishna Kumar, op.cit.,
p, IiO0.

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samplingof the Chinesematerial.It then concludedwith a re-examination of threepreviously
publishedKa-miriworks, a bronzeNandirudra/Mahikila in the Pan Asian Collection,Los
AngelesCountyMuseum,a stone Mahesvara/Mahikila in Srinagar,and a bronzeSiva from
Berlin.The articleproposedthattheseworksall belongwith the Fattehgarhstatuein concep-
tion, at leastone of them,the BerlinGiva,being a BuddhistGiva.It is hopedthatthe discussion
of theseworksmaystimulateotherinvestigatorsto look againat knownworks,and perhaps
therebyenhanceour knowledgeof this little understoodareaof BuddhistHindudeities,and
to delvedeeperinto the richChinesesourcesto uncoverthe detailsof the variousTantricrites
in whichthesesyncretisticdeitiesplayedsucha majorrole.

GLOSSARY

a. 290'R Mt WER
R:•• •
b. ~

d.. 2,
e.

fl.
oil8M

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