PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

081 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT INITIAL

PRT-081-01/REV.0 - 11.02.2019
 INTRODUCTION

• Lift
• Thrust
• Stability  Wings
• Control  Engines
• Space to carry crew and  Tail surfaces
passengers  Flight Control Surfaces
 Fuselage

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 INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION

𝟏
𝝆 𝝑 𝟐 𝑪𝑳 𝑺
𝟐

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1. SUBSONIC
AERODYNAMICS
081 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PRT-081-01/REV.0 - 11.02.2019
 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

MASS WEIGHT
• quantity of matter in a body • force of a mass due to gravity
• independent of gravity • depends of gravity
kg Newton

W = mass x gravity = 10kg x 10m/𝒔𝟐

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

FORCE (N) F= mass x acceleration T = 150000 N

F=mxa

WORK (Nm, J) Work= Force x Distance 150000 N

50 m

10secs
POWER (Nm/s, W) Power= Work / Time 150000 N

50 m

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

PRESSURE WING LOADING

DENSITY (ρ)
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑪𝑬
𝝆= PRESSURE= 𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨
𝑾𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨
kg/𝒎𝟑 N/𝒎𝟐 , Pa , psi
N/𝒎𝟐

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑫𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝟏
Q= 𝝆𝝑𝟐
𝟐

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

• Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
CAS = IAS+instrument and position error
• Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
EAS = CAS+compressibility
• True Airspeed (TAS)
TAS = EAS+density
TAS=IAS/√ρ
• Groundspeed
Groundspeed = TAS+wind correction
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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Undisturbed
Airflow

Converging
Section

THROAT
Mass flow = 𝒎 = 𝝆 𝝑 𝑨 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 + 𝑷𝒅𝒚𝒏

Speed 𝑷𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄
Density
𝑷𝒅𝒚𝒏 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

V1 = 0 (stagnation point)
V2 > V

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Leading Edge Trailing Edge

CHORD LINE: a straight line connecting the leading edge and the
trailing edge.

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Leading Edge Trailing Edge

Chord

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

MEAN CAMBER LINE: a line connecting the leading- and trailing edge
midway between the upper and lower surface of a aerofoil.

A line joining the centres of inscribed circles.

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Positive cambered aerofoil

 Used in main wings.

Negative cambered aerofoil

 Used in horizontal
stabilizer in commercial
jet aircrafts.

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Symmetrical aerofoil

 Used in vertical stabilizer.

 Used in main wings of aerobatic
airplanes
 Used in some control surfaces such as
ailerons, elevator and rudder.

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Symmetrical Wing

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Thickness-chord ratio =𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬/𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐝 ratio is

expressed as a percentage of chord.
(relative thickness)

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Thick Airfoil Thin Airfoil

 𝐂𝐋 higher.  𝐂𝐋 is lower.
 But too much drag is produced,  𝐂𝐃 lower , cost-efficient
making it inefficient to use in large 1
 L = x V 2 x CL x S
commercial jets. 2
 Flaps and slats are used during take-
off and landing.

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Wing Area (S) = Span x mean geometric chord

Aspect Ratio (AR) = Span / mean geometric chord

AR= Span^2 / Wing Area

Mean geometric
chord
span

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Taper ratio = tip chord / root chord

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1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Dihedral

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Anhedral

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Relative Airflow
AOA

Flight Path

Angle of Attack (AOA): the angle between chordline and relative airflow
/ free stream airflow / undisturbed airflow

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 1.1. BASICS, LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

Angle of incidence: the angle between the aeroplane longitudinal axis and
the wing root chord line.

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 1.2. 2D FLOW AROUND AN AEROFOIL
Stagnation Point

Velocity = 0

STAGNATION POINT: the point where the velocity of the relative airflow is
reduced to zero.

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 1.2. 2D FLOW AROUND AN AEROFOIL
LIFT

Relative Airflow 𝑪𝑷 DRAG

CENTRE OF PRESSURE: the point where the single resultant aerodynamic force
(lift) acts on an aerofoil.
 Lift is always parpendicular to relative airflow.
 Drag is always parallel to relative airflow.

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 1.3. COEFFICIENTS

Lift : because of the pressure difference between the lower and upper surface

Drag : because of the pressure difference between the leading edge and
trailing edge
The lift- and drag forces, acting on a wing cross section depend on the pressure
distribution about the wing cross section.

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 1.3. COEFFICIENTS

𝟏
𝝆 𝝑 𝟐𝑪 𝑳 𝑺
𝟐
To maintain level flight, lift must be kept constant!

IAS AOA

IAS AOA

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 1.3. COEFFICIENTS
Positive Cambered Symmetrical Negative Cambered

 Produces positive lift  Produces zero  Produces downforce

at zero A0A lift at zero AOA at zero AOA

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 1.3. COEFFICIENTS

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 1.5. TOTAL DRAG
𝟏
𝝆 𝝑𝟐 𝑪𝑫 𝑺
𝟐
TOTAL DRAG

PARASITE DRAG INDUCED DRAG

Skin Friction Drag Pressure ( Form) Drag Interference Drag:

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 1.5. TOTAL DRAG
INDUCED DRAG ( Lift Dependent Drag)

 Main Reason : Vortex

at the wing tips.
 Decreases with
aircraft speed.
 Greater at takeoff
and landing.

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 1.5. TOTAL DRAG
INDUCED DRAG INDUCED DRAG
Increases with: Decreases with:
 Vortex strength.  Speed.
 Mass.  Aspect Ratio.
 AOA.  Elliptical Wing.

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 1.5. TOTAL DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
Decreases with:
 Winglet / Sharklet.
 Tip tanks.

But fitting winglet/sharklet or tip tanks increase parasite drag!!!

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 1.5. TOTAL DRAG
Total Drag Curve
𝑉𝑀𝐷
DRAG  Minimum Drag Speed.
Total Drag
 Obtained at optimum AOA(4)
𝐿
 max.
𝐷
 Maximum glide distance
 From 𝑉𝑆 to 𝑉𝑁𝐸 ; total drag
First decreases then increases
 Above 𝑉𝑀𝐷 , total drag
Increases.

IAS
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑀𝐷 𝑉𝑁𝐸

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 1.5. TOTAL DRAG
Speed Stability

DRAG
Total Drag
NEUTRAL

UNSTABLE
REGION

STABLE REGION
IAS
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑀𝐷 𝑉𝑁𝐸

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 1.6 GROUND EFFECT
Ground Effect
When the aircraft height above ground is less then halve of the wingspan.

Ground

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 1.6 GROUND EFFECT
Entering Ground Effect Leaving Ground Effect

 Vortex  Vortex
 Induced Drag  Induced Drag

 Lift  Lift
 𝐶𝐿  𝐶𝐿

 Landing Distance will  Rate of Climb will decrease

increase due to floating. due to increase in drag and
decrease in lift.

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 1.9. CL,MAX AUGMENTATION

FLAPS SLATS

• increases camber and 𝐶𝐿,𝑀𝐴𝑋 • Re-energize boundary layer

• Vs decreases • Critical AoA increases
• Critical AoA decreases • Vs decreases

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1.9. CL,MAX AUGMENTATION

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 1.8 STALL

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 1.8 STALL
REASON

RECOGNITION

RESULTS

RECOVERY

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 1.8 STALL

Main Reason : Exceeding Critical Angle of Attack.

 Critical AOA is independent from weight or
turns.

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 1.8 STALL

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 1.8 STALL
 any airspeed,
An aircraft can stall at;  in any attitude,
 with any power setting.
RESULTS:
 Flow Seperation
 Decrease in Lift.
 Increase in Drag.
 Decrease in speed.
 Control Surface Inefficiency.
 Aerodynamic Buffet.
 Loss of altitude.

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 1.8 STALL

STALL!

STICK FORWARD
FULL POWER
Gently pull the control stick
Gain altitude

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5. CONTROL
081 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PRT-081-01/REV.0 - 11.02.2019
 5.1. GENERAL

Roll – longitudinal axis, ailerons or roll spoilers, moving the

control colum to the sides
Pitch – lateral axis, elevator,push & pull control wheel
Yaw – normal axis, rudder, pedals

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 5.2. PITCH CONTROL

Stability Controllability Elevator

Stability Controllability Elevator

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 5.3. YAW CONTROL

• Trailing edge of the tail fin

Adverse yaw, recover from spin, crosswind

control, propwash

• Right pedal, rudder to right, yaw to right

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 5.4. ROLL CONTROL

Vertical Lift – balances weight

Horizontal Lift – provides turn around a center (centripetal force)

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 5.4. ROLL CONTROL

ADVERSE AILERON YAW

Up going aileron moves
through a larger angle to
create an equal total
drag

Extra part creates drag

on upgoing aileron side

• Roll control spoilers

• Aileron Rudder coupling

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 5.5. INTERACTION IN DIFFERENT PLANES

• YAW to right • Results in ROLL in the same

• Speed & lift is increased on left direction
wing

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 5.6. MEANS TO REDUCE CONTROL FORCES

BALANCE TAB SERVO TAB

SPRING TAB ANTI-BALANCE TAB

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4. STABILITY
081 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PRT-081-01/REV.0 - 11.02.2019
4.1. STATIC / DYNAMIC STABILITY

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 STATIC STABILITY

Initial tendency to return its original position.

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 STATIC STABILITY

Initial tendency to stay in disturbed position.

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 STATIC STABILITY

Initial tendency to diverge from its original

position.

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 STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
 Tendency of an aeroplane to recover from a skid with rudder free
 Mainly provided by vertical stabilizer.

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 STATIC LATERAL STABILITY
 Aircraft response to sideslip
 Mainly provided by vertical stabilizer.

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8. FLIGHT MECHANICS
081 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Steady Level Flight

Lift

Thrust Drag

Weight

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Climb
PITCH ANGLE = FLIGHT PATH ANGLE + AOA
AoA
Pitch
Angle

Flight Path Angle

Horizontal Plane

Flight path angle: the angle between flight path(speed vector) and horizontal plane
Angle of Attack (AOA): the angle between relative airflow and chordline.
Pitch angle: the angle between longitudinal axis and horizontal plane

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Climb

W𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝜽

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Descent

W𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝜽

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Glide

Gliding angle & distance are

determined due to the L/D ratio

WEIGHT has no effect on gliding angle

& distance but heavier aircraft glides
faster.

𝜽 Headwind: decreases the glide distance

Tailwind: increases the glide distance
W

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Turn
In level turn; 𝜽
Φ is the bank angle
cos Φ= W/L

Load factor is L/W

𝑳/𝑾 = 𝟏/ cos 𝚽

𝑛 = 1/𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑘)

The load factor in a 30˚ angle of bank turn is;

1/cos 30=1.15

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 8.1. FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE

Turn Co-ordination

STEP ON THE BALL

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6. LIMITATIONS