Ballastless Track for Urban Transit Lines

Dr S Ponnuswamy, Fellow

Ballast has been an integral part of railway track for many years. It has many advantages. It is an economical medium
providing an elastic support to the sleepers and absorbs major part of the noise created by passing wheels. Material is locally
available. But ballasted track calls for frequent maintenance attention, and periodical screening and recoupment. It also
causes dust pollution. Hence, railways all over have been researching and developing a more permanent track base, in
form of ballastless track for their high speed lines and urban transit lines. Though they will be more expensive, they will
be most cost effective for such lines. This paper reviews the research and development work done so far on such tracks and
different types in use. It suggests desirable criteria for design of such tracks in India, in the context of planning being done
for urban rail transit lines in a number of Indian cities.

Keywords: Urban transit system; Railway track; Ballastless

INTRODUCTION
Need for Ballastless Track
The three basic requisites of laying a good railway track are
economy, safety and comfort. The comfort includes not only
the riding comfort to the passengers, but also causing least
disturbance to the inhabitants around, ie, environmental non-
degradation. Traditional tracks on wooden and metal sleepers
with good ballast cushion and shoulders satisfied all these
requirements in the normal traffic conditions prevailing till few
decades’ back. However, these required constant attention to
packing, lining and level adjustments. Increased traffic density
and increased speeds on railways became necessary to suit
growing economy and competition. In such cases the
conventional tracks were found lacking. These require
o better load distribution requiring increased ballast
cushion;
o stabler track with minimum joints leading to
development of CWR and concrete sleepers;
o more frequent and higher level of attention to track
increasing costs; and
o more time than what is now available for track
maintenance operations due to frequency of trains.
On main lines, ‘possession’ or ‘line block’ times available for
machine tamping etc, is becoming shorter and shorter and on
urban transit lines, only time available for maintenance is from
0000 h to 0400 h mostly. In addition the demographic change of
the average age of track workers has been increasing with higher
proportion in the population of older people, particularly in
developed countries. They cannot cope with the kind of tasks,
Dr S Ponnuswamy formerly with Southern Railways resides at
56, Venkatratnam Nagar, Adyar, Chennai 600 020.
This paper was received on December 09, 2003. Written discussion on this
paper will be received till January 31, 2005.
the track maintenance calls for and it has become difficult to
lure younger people to such tasks. This has led countries like
Japan to look for track forms, which require low maintenance
efforts. Ballasted tracks are also becoming more difficult to
maintain due to their getting pounded under heavier loads
causing drainage problems. They also cause rise of dust by the
trains passing at higher speeds, adversely affecting the
environment.
DEVELOPMENT OF BALLASTLESS TRACK (BLT)
This problem has received attention since as early as 1925 in
Japan. The Japanese tried some form of BLT (ballastless track)
in one of their subways in 1947. It appears Teito Rapid Transit
Authority is perhaps the first railway to use ballastless track on
larger scale. Figure 1 shows the form used on their Tozai line
subway completed in 1964. In about same period, London
Transport used in their underground sections a design by
embedding wooden sleepers at ends in a concrete bed, leaving
the space between filled with ballast. At the same time different
forms of such tracks were being tried by a number of other
railway systems for their subways both on the main lines in
tunnels and Metro lines. Switzerland and Germany were the
forerunners in use of BLT on main line and Moscow for their
(Metros) subways on a large scale.
The earliest form used on main line in the Alpine tunnels
consists 30 mm-65 mm size ballast compacted, overlaid by (a) a
10 mm layer of fine sand; (b) 150 mm to 200 mm thick grouted
concrete; (c) 50 mm thick bitumenised concrete; and (d) 120 mm
thick concrete with recesses at 650 mm spacing for fixing pot
type sleepers [ORE D57 R1, 1966].
European and UK Rail systems started trying a number of slab
track forms in the sixties for their proposed high-speed lines and
also for reducing the maintenance problems elsewhere,
specially in tunnels. They were quite concerned about the
behaviour of the slab track in respect of transmission of
vibration to surrounding ground and increased noise levels
caused inside trains and outside. A study by ORE in 1976

Vol 85, November 2004 149

 500 250

1067
Rail 60 kg/m

300 R.L.
180
10

4 50
First Pour
200
invert concrete Precast concrete block
Second pour concrete
Early systems Steel hooks

Tokyo Metro : laid in tunnels except in close proximity to residential buildings

Figure 1 Ballastless track design and development

indicated prevalence of following types of BLT on different
urban rail systems then:
(i) Laying concrete sleepers or blocks over a base or deck
slab and subsequently stabilizing by pouring grout or
concrete around them (Budapest and Sonneville).
(ii) Laying tracks complete with fasteners and dowels on
auxiliary sleepers supported by special props and
subsequently pouring longitudinal beams below
(Cologne, Germany).
(iii) Laying a continuous RCC floor on tunnel floor or over
formation, laying rails with rubber pads and elastic
fastenings in position and fixing to concrete slab with
proper holding down/anchoring (Japan and UK).
(iv) Laying the concrete slab to proper tolerances and then
fixing the rail with base plates and rubber pads on the
same with proper holding down arrangements
(Netherlands).
French developed a variant of type (i) with sleeper blocks (one
under each rail) embedded in a second pour concrete over a
solid base with a micro cellular elastic pad at bottom enclosed
within a ‘shoe’ around foot of such sleeper block. This was
christened as Sonneville type and is shown in Figure 2. A
number of minor variants under this category have since been
commercially developed and patented in Europe, namely,
Walo in Netherlands, Stedef in France. One of the latest
developments is the one in which the concrete slab below is laid
with longitudinal recesses for laying the running rails over
special pads (Corke pads) fixing the same rail in position by
pads at intervals on the side and filling space around with a
special compound. This type is reported to give best
performance from support and noise point of view and is being
adopted in Netherlands (Figure 3). But it will be the most
expensive1.
For the bridges and viaducts DB (German) Railway and Berlin
Metro have gone in for a type with precast sleepers embedded in
concrete within a precast RCC trough form of track slab which
is laid in lengths of 4100 mm to 4450 mm with 100 mm joint gap.
This is laid over the deck slab with a wedge slab (to take care of
any cant to be provided for the track) intervening. Stopper
sockets are provided at the ends of slabs corresponding to stubs
cast as part of the track slab. (Figure 4)2.
The Japanese Railways were looking for a form for their high
speed Shinkansen lines. The Railway Track Research Centre of
the Japanese Railways had taken up research studies for
evolving a low maintenance track for their high-speed lines
since 1964. Their development has been essentially as track
slabs over partly flexible base like bitumen base. Initially they
used these for tunnels and viaduct structures only but now they
Two block reinforced
concrete sleeper
Rail fastenings
Microcellular
resilient pad
Rubber shoe
12mm
Concrete bed Cement mortar
Figure 2 Concrete sleepers in a rubber shoe in concrete—Stedef (France)

150 IE (I) Journal—CV

 20 mm
Track gauge 1435 mm
40 cm 80 cm UIC 54
20 cm Ballast Corkelast wedge
Reinforced continuous concrete and tube holder
Corkelast wedge
and block PVC tube f 50mm

Frost protecting layer 50 cm 1: 40

Improved soil construction Corkelast levelling shim Corkelast is a trademark

the principles of embedded rail construction the channel containing the embedded rail

Figure 3 Netherland railways — ERC system

are using these on major portion of ‘at grade’ sections also. The
earlier form consists of precast concrete slabs laid over a
Cement Asphalt Mortar (CAM) layer. Slabs are generally
5000 mm long and 2350 mm wide for the 1435 mm gauge. At
ends stopper concrete stubs (400 mm dia and 200 mm high) are
provided between the slabs extending from the tunnel invert or
viaduct slabs and for which semi-circular slots are provided in
the precast slabs. Rails are fixed over steel bearing plates or pads
(tie plate type). Figure 5 shows the arrangement.
Initial CAM used was found to be weak in freezing and thawing
conditions. So a cold restraint type was evolved for such areas-
CAM Type AE PRC slabs were used in cold areas to avoid
cracks and preventing water penetration, which would lead to
freezing ice damage. Slab thickness was increased from 16 cm to
19 cm. These were protected by a steel frame in subsequent
designs. So they developed a vibration reducing type slab for
bringing vibration under high speeds within human acceptance
level. In this a rubber slab mat is provided between the CAM
layer and track slab. Over central portion of viaduct structures
they used a grooved type of slab mat.
American main line railways do not appear to have developed
such tracks on large scale. This aspect till recently has been in
discussion stage only. The urban rail transit systems of recent
origin in the USA have gone in for ballast less track for both

Section A– A

Concrete trough
160
150

700
Protective concrete Elastomer layer
140

2800

Section B – B

7. 80m

Figure 4 Diagram of Berlin-type ballastless track, showing the stoppers in the protective concrete and the slots in the underside of the reinforced
concrete trough

Vol 85, November 2004 151

 Rail
Slab mat
CAM
Track slab
Fastener
Stopper
Roadbed
Vibration – Reducing A-type track
Figure 5 Japanese slab track
tunnel and aerial structures. They mostly use DFF (Direct
Fixation Fastening) tracks with an elastic pad below bearing
plate over a pair of plinths laid directly over tunnel invert or
deck slab. A few systems like Atlanta Metro have gone in for
floating slabs over discrete elastic pads. The floating slabs have
been used for short lengths on Singapore Metro Phase I. In their
recent extension they have used the poured form around
sleepers using top down method.
TESTS IN LABORATORIES AND FIELD
The ORE (office de Recherché et decays) of the UIC
(International Union of Railways) in 1964 formed a committee
D873 for studying various practices of ballastless tracks,
assessing their performance, carrying out any research required
in this connection. Studies were aimed at evolvement of
standard measuring methods for noise, vibration, performance
of fittings etc, and also determination of tolerable noise and
vibration levels. They conducted field trials in order to
o establish fundamental principles and constructional
recommendations for tracks in tunnels without ballast;
and
o evolve technical and economic recommendations for
use of new types of unconventional track.
For this, the ORE sponsored laboratory tests and also prototype
trials in the field on a number of alternative designs then
available. The field trials were done in two stages, one in 1965-
1967 and one in 1972-1975. Prototype tests were conducted to
study the noise and vibration levels measured under passage of
trains on a number of tracks with different support
characteristics. The test results showed that the vibration
attenuation was linked to some extent on pad stiffness but no
clear relation between track stiffness and attenuation for track
as a whole could be established. Sound levels in the open were
higher than on ballasted tracks and they increased with speed,
ie, a rise of 6 dbA to 11 dbA for a doubling of speed in 40 km/h
152
to 120 km/h range. Speed caused no significant change in
vibration level of slabs but vertical vibration of rails was
affected. On wet track, ie, under rainy condition there was
depression of about 2.5 dbA at 80 km/h. Within the tunnels, the
noise level on ballastless track was no worse than over a
ballasted track on concrete floor in similar conditions. A stiffer
pad showed a definite adverse effect on noise and vibration.
Tracks with continuous pads appear to produce less increase in
noise level. A noise level of 70 dbA inside the vehicle and 90 dbA
outside within the tunnel was found acceptable then.
The laboratory work included repeated load tests of selected
fastening systems. They also conducted a theoretical study of
the forces, stresses and deflections on various components of
the track for evolving a mathematical model for design and
verifying against field observations and also studied the crack
behaviour of slabs [ORE D 87/R4-1970]. Heresy’s model for
flexible slabs was found applicable for design of track slab. The
studies indicated that cracks cannot be totally eliminated but
can be controlled in width and spacing. Cracks tend to start
from the location of anchor bolts thus affecting the integrity of
fastenings. Control of cracks requires specially designed
reinforcement and provision of movement joints. Requirement
of total water tightness and impact of crack width on corrosion
of reinforcement is debatable. BS recommends crack widths
upto 0.1 mm in locations alternating dry and wet and less than
0.2 mm at other locations. They found that if cracks are spaced
at 1.5 m or less, sagging moments are considerably reduced and
hogging moments do not change materially as compared to
uncracked slabs. Then the deflection increases thus causing
higher formation pressure.
Study by the Hong Kong Metro (HKMTR) indicated
requirement of critical ratio of steel for M30 concrete as 0.32 %
for high tensile steel and 0.52% for mild steel for controlling
crack width. They result in crack spacing of 0.8 m for crack
width of 0.2 mm and 1.2 m for crack width of 0.3 mm. Crack
control is necessary in concrete beds of tunnel also. HKMTR
also carried out detailed studies on the effect of stray current
and have suggested how the reinforcement in track slabs should
be detailed and how to make earthing provision. In case of
embedment of sleepers or sleeper blocks with resilient pads,
this problem would not be an issue4.
German Railways tried a type of slab type BLT using a special
lightweight concrete intervening layer. The track bed
comprised of
o 15 cm thick cement reinforced soil bed over compacted
formation.
o 20 cm thick layer of ‘styropor’ light weight concrete.
l 14 cm thick concrete slab (Mix equivalent to
M35) reinforced throughout in which precast
concrete sleepers (B70 V 5-60) is laid @ 60 cm
embedded in.
l A plain 10 mm rod is passed through a 3 cm dia
horizontal hole through the sleeper and the
same is embedded in the finishing concrete
layer embedding the sleeper.
IE (I) Journal—CV
 o This type of track permits development of shrinkage
cracks with no impact on the strength of the track
structure. The riding quality on this track was found
excellent even at 250 km/h and no maintenance was
called for except for occasional adjustment of rail
fastenings. Such a slab track had been laid on a poor
formation and was found to behave well. Though
initiator grooves had been provided, additional cracks
did occur but none affected the fastening systems [ORE
D87/R13–1975]2.
Research and Development Work in India
Based on the reports available in 1976 on the various types used
on other Metros, Metro Railway, Kolkata selected three types
for test and trials. As the Pandrol clips has become the standard
elastic fastening for the concrete sleepers on Indian Railways,
the choice of track form should suit their use. The main
problem was in respect finding resilient pads for attenuation of
vibration and noise indigenously. They selected
(i) Two pour type by laying RC sleeper blocks on base/
deck slab, embedding the blocks in concrete and fixing
rails on bearing plates with one rubber pad below and
normal grooved rail pad below the rail above the pad;
(ii) Embedding wooden sleeper blocks in concrete over
the base /deck slab; and
(iii) Fixing rails directly on longitudinal slab over a rubber
pad with cast in malleable cast iron shoulders
embedded at rail seats at 600 mm intervals for fixing
Pandrol clips.
Extensive pulsometer tests were carried out on the assemblies
in the RDSO at Lucknow. A trial section was laid in Ranajitpura
tunnel on the South Central Railway. They also laid short trial
lengths of all three types on a short stretch of suburban line in
1920
1490
1673
Existing bottom slab of RCC box
Figure 6 Kolkata metro rail track
Vol 85, November 2004
Calcutta. Later they laid all three types on the viaduct length
between Dum Dum but modifying the first type as a two pour
type in which the second pour was an RCC track slab with
holes left for fixing inserts for holding down stud bolts. It
appears they excluded the wooden block type later [Figure 6].
In tunnels they have used modified type (i) and (iii) They used
indigenously procurable rubber pads for both levels. Top pads
are 4.5 mm grooved and the bottom pads 12 mm thick plain.
These tracks have been behaving satisfactorily except for gauge
and level variation due to initial laying defects and loosening of
rubber pads. Such loosening is more evident where they have
used continuous pads. This is mainly due to use of short (600 mm
long) pads in continuation of each other.
After further trials conducted in RDSO in early nineties and
study of more modern systems, Konkan Railway has gone in for
a type of BLT embedding normal PSC track sleepers in second
pour concrete, but with resilient pads interposed between the
base slab and the embedded sleeper. The embedding concrete
on sides is separated from the sleeper blocks by thermocole
packing topped by cement grout. Their behaviour is generally
good except that, where there is heavy water leakage from
tunnel roof, the thermocole packing has yielded making the
sleepers loose. At some other locations also, the thermocole
packing provided on sides are crushed or becoming loose as
they do not provide the necessary elastic compression required
to be in compression irrespective of direction of traffic. But the
percentage of such defect is not high. It was reported that it
causes rough riding, having been laid over hard rocky invert, but
the author did not feel any perceptible difference, while passing
over the same in an inspection train. It is not suitable for high-
speed tracks and on tracks exposed to rains. Considering the
economy achieved and quick laying made possible with
indigenous technology and material, it can be adopted in
tunnels not subject to seepage of water, with some improved
elastic material used on sides in lieu of thermocole.
1950
RCC Grade M-20
153
TYPES OF BALLASTLESS TRACK PREVALENT
Essentially there are now three types of ballastless track in use
in different parts of the world. They are listed here with a few
examples of location.
Fixed Base
Continuous RCC Plinth
BART (San Francisco); Hong Kong Metro
Continuous Slab
UK and Europe; Kolkata Metro
Floating Slab with
Continuous Resilient Medium
Japan-Shinkansen lines; Germany-Berlin Metro
Resilient Pads at Intervals
Atlanta Metro; Honk Kong Airport line
Sleepers/Sleeper Blocks Inset in Concrete
Timber
Trials at Calcutta; BART — at turnouts and locations where
lateral shifts are expected
Twin Block Sleepers with Boot — ( Sonneville, Stedef etc)
Channel Tunnel; Europe, Hong Kong Metro and BART at
sensitive locations.
The relative characteristics and properties of the three types are
tabulated in Annexure 1.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF BALLASTLESS TRACK
Objectives
The various tests and trials and the forms developed have been
aimed at arriving at a system with the objectives:
Stability; Durability; Elasticity; Suitable fastening system:
Minimum maintenance; Ease of replacement of sleeper/
fastening:
Economy
Stability
A low height of rail provides better lateral stability. It has been
found that stresses developed in a lower weight 54 kg rail on a
ballastless track was comparable or even less than those on a
60 kg rail on ballasted formation. Considering frequency of
traffic in a Metro line a more wear resistant lighter rail can be
chosen if available. Otherwise higher weight rail is
unavoidable.
Thickness of the slab (or second pour concrete) or sleeper block
depends primarily on the requirement of the rail fastening
anchor, namely, (i) the anchoring length of the rail fastening and
the method of fixing the anchor (preformed holes require larger
depth/margin than drilled holes); (ii) tolerance in the level of
first pour concrete, tolerance in depth of the second pour
154
concrete or structural requirements of sleeper; and (iii) rail seat
inclination and transverse slope for drainage and system of
drainage.
Depth of second pour concrete or plinth should be such that it is
minimum so as to lower the height in tunnels and also reduce
weight on elevated structures. Some railways specify a
maximum height of rail level above invert/deck of 400 mm. For
purpose of insulation and providing resilience, grooved rubber
pads have to be provided under rail seat and micro cellular pads
below bearing plates. Most foreign countries have gone in for
steel clips or steel liners with insulation coating impregnated.
Holding down/anchor bolts are the most critical items in the
fixing system where a bearing plate is used. The bolt has to be
strong enough against pull out stresses under vibratory
conditions and provide adequate lateral restraint against
transverse forces even on curves and be corrosion resistant. It is
difficult to specify the pull force to be resisted and different
systems have specified different minimum. For example,
Washington Metro – 180 kN in a restrained test and 90 kN in
unrestrained test without slippage or cracking; BART-50 kN in
pull out and 55 kN in shear; BR- minimum pull out load on
glued in shoulders of 25 kN to 60 kN depending on the specific
job requirement; some European rail systems achieving pull out
resistance of 160 kN to 180 kN; HKMTR specified that a
circular shank of the shoulder should not show any sign of
turning under a horizontal torque of 375 Nm.
Generally, it is preferable to leave holes in the slab for later
fixing the inserts or bolts with preferably an epoxy-based grout.
In Indian conditions 28-mm dia bolts made of chromium-
molybdenum alloy stud type bolts set in polystyrene insert has
been found satisfactory.
Resilience
Resilience of the track is of high importance from the points of
view of both vibration and damping as also noise abatement. A
good resilient track adds to comfortable ride also. It is
extremely necessary to take on the hammering action of passing
vehicles including defective or hard springs and defective
wheels. Pads should be such as to provide a µ value of about
900 kg/cm/cm. The design criteria have to be visualized in three
different situations: (a) without live load; (b) with live load on
the rail seat; and (c) with live load (moving) away from the rail
seat. When there is no live load on the track, the holding down
bolts tightened with a force Pb introduces pre-compression in
the spring washers and the bottom rubber pad. Similarly, the
clips or bolts of fasteners with a toe load of Pt introduce pre-
compression in the top rubber pad. When the load is over the
rail seat, both pads get further compressed and the load on the
fasteners and the spring washers is relaxed. When the load is in
the vicinity of the rail seat and is moving away from it, the rail
deflect upwards and the load on the fasteners and the spring
washers increases, whereas the load on pads is released. In all
the situations it is necessary that various elastic components be
always under compression, so that they do not work loose.
Also, if there is any separation of the pads between the rail seat
and bearing plate or between the bearing plate and slab/sleeper
IE (I) Journal—CV
block, hammering effect would develop leading to large
increase of noise and damage to components. Desirable design
criteria are:
(a) Increase in compression of the top rubber pad under
the wheel load should be less than the initial deflection
of rail fastenings.
(b) Under the upward deflection of track, the upward
movement of the rail vis-a-vis top pad should be less
than the pre-compression of the pad under the toe load
of rail fastenings per rail seat.
(c) Additional compression of the bottom rubber pad
under wheel load should be less than the initial
compression of the spring washers used with the HD
bolts.
(d) Under the upward deflection of track (condition c) the
upward movement of the bearing plate due to release of
load should be less than the pre-compression given to
the lower rubber pad.
These criteria would indicate the need to have two stages of
resilience where the rail is supported intermittently whether
with DFF or enclosed sleeper blocks. When it is supported
continuously conditions (b) and (c) get combined. This is
achieved also by providing a resilient pad below the sleeper
block or the CAM under the PC slabs by the Japanese. In case of
enclosed sleepers, some resilient pads of similar quality has to
be interposed in the vertical direction also between the
embedding concrete and the blocks for preventing the blocks
working loose when the load moves away from the block,
unless the block is tightly held by the filling concrete. In such a
case replacement of sleepers in case of derailments becomes
difficult. Generally, lower rubber pads are minimum 12 mm
thick. Some railways have found possibility of reducing noise
level by 3 dBA by using 18-mm pads below and using a closer
spacing of 500 mm for blocks. Top pad thickness varies from
4.5 mm to 6 mm. Cork pad, specially for the bottom pads have
been found better as also the microcellular pads used in Stedef
type.
Durability
For durability, workmanship should be of high standard, joints
in the bed carefully designed and constructed. Vibration effect
should be minimized. In order that the vibrations transmitted to
the concrete beds are absorbed without damage, adequate mass
has to be provided. There should be adequate bondage between
the track slab and slab/sleeper blocks. This is achieved by
providing starter bars or stitching bars in the base slab, keying in
the track slab or plinth provision of shear keys in the track/deck
slab and corresponding recesses in the base slab/concrete. For
base plate track laid on a levelling layer over the track slab,
scabbing of invert concrete for a depth of 5 mm to 10 mm before
providing the levelling layer (preferably an epoxy based grout)
is recommended. Track should be laid to close tolerances.
Track tolerances followed by the Metros using ballast fewer
tracks are more or less same as those used for high-speed tracks.
The construction tolerances used by various systems are
indicated in Table 1.
Good drainage has to be provided on the slab so as to avoid
lower track insulation, preventing corrosion of rods/fittings
and preventing separation at joints in the concrete bed. This can
be in form of a central drain or on sides with adequate cross
slopes and provision of collection sumps at intervals for leading
away the water collected. On canted tracks, the drain has to be
on one side. In small tunnels and aerial structures central drains
may be the only option. Side drains should be such as not to be
incompatible with provision on surface to suit the tilt of rail.
Fastening System
The other requirements can be achieved by a good fastening
system. This can be achieved by having fastenings having
essential characteristics:
o resilience to distribute and absorb forces;
o attenuation of impact and vibrations and noise
absorption;
o electrical insulation;
o capability to accommodate longitudinal rail
movement/restraint as required;
o facility for rail level and line adjustment during
construction and maintenance;
o maintaining their holding power right through its life
and be a ‘fit and forget’, type;
o be simple to install, remove and replace, if required,
without losing their performance characteristics;
o have long service life and be economical at the same
time;

Table 1 Track construction tolerances for NB track on metros

Item Tokyo Osaka New York Paris Stockholm San Francisco Great Britain Hong Kong

Gauge, mm + 1/–2 +2 NA + 3/– 1.5 –1 +/– 3 +/– 2 +/– 1.5

Level, max +/– 3 +/– 3 +/– 3 +/– 1.5 +/– 3 +/– 3 +/– 3 +/– 3

Twist 2 mm on 10 m 1 in 360 3 mm on 9 m 1.5 mm on 25 m 3 mm on 10 m 3 mm on 9 m 1 in 300 1 in 400

Alignment 3 mm 3 mm 3 mm 1.5 mm 5 mm 3 mm 4 mm 3 mm
over 10 m over 10 m over 9 m over 25 m over 10 m over 9 m over 10 m over 3 m

Vol 85, November 2004 155

 o corrosion resistant and with adequate service life; and
o provision for future traffic and operating conditions.
Design for Vibration and Noise Attenuation
Rail vibrations are generated by vertical and horizontal bending
of rails, torsional bending of rail due to eccentric loading,
additional web strain (0.02 mm), elastic strain at the wheel-rail
contact point (0.03 mm), friction at rail-wheel contact,
unbalanced wheels, flats in wheels and corrugations and
undulations on the rail running surface. The strongest
vibrations lie between 40 Hz and 130 Hz depending on support
spacing, rigidity of rail section and the resilience and damping
provided by rail support. Lowest natural frequency and force
transferred to the support is reduced by a factor 2 to 3 when the
resilience is increased from 40 × 105 N/cm to 40 × 104 N/cm.
Increase in support spacing and reduction in mass of rail also
reduces natural frequency, but there are limitations in this due
to strength requirements of rail for carrying the load. The rail
fastening has to provide necessary damping to destroy the
vibration quickly and this calls for use of materials with high
hysterisis. Some systems have restricted pre-compression force
in rail clips to 6 kN or less. A reduced pre-compression of the
resilient pad improves the damping force. Use of ribbed
neoprene pads helps.
Noise is also caused by the rail wheel contact, part of the energy
created in the process being emitted as noise. The spacing of rail
fastening and restraint imposed has an influence in the noise
created. Restraint from the fastening to angular rail movement
would raise the natural frequency of vibration. Increased
UIC 60
1435
228
228
566
110+10
Plastic clips to separate
the main bars from the
stirrups
338
Deck surface
260
983
200 500
2383
Track
Figure 7 Ballastless track on bagykok sky traia line
156
spacing of supports decreases the frequencies but reduces
damping resistance. Noise level in BLT has been found to be 3 dBA
to 10 dBA higher than on ballasted track depending on the type
used. The only effective remedial measure is to bring it down
further is by adopting the measure of spreading a layer of ballast
or a noise absorbent material in the space between sleeper
blocks over the base slab. On the recently built Hong Kong
West Rail line a multi-plenum design comprising use of
resilient pads under floating slab, provision of taller parapet
barriers lined with sound absorbing material, resilient base
plates and complete hood over track at places have brought
down sound level5 at 25 m from centre line of track to 64 dBA.
These are highly expensive and can be thought of only for very
highly sensitive areas.
In more sensitive locations better resilience and damping is
called for, particularly the latter in the low frequency range
since vibrations of this range travel far and cause nuisance to
nearby buildings. This calls for special track design with high
vertical track resilience and a large damping mass. Such
resilience is limited by considerations of rail stability.
Additional resilience can be provided by providing resilient
pads below the sleeper block or the track slab, as is done in
Berlin Metro or on Shinkansens in Japan. Such floating slabs
would provide the extra mass required for damping also.
Method of Construction
There are two ways of construction of these tracks, namely,
bottom upwards and top down. In the former the slabs are laid
or blocks/sleeper blocks fixed in position with pre-formed
UIC 60
208
228
20
Deck level
Fully insulated bolts
cast in deck
500 200
All longitudinal rebars with hooked ends
All longitudinal reforcements bars f 9 mm
All strrups f 12 mm
Spacing 200 mm
Concrete cover 40 mm
IE (I) Journal—CV
 1676
60 IIC
Rail Base Plate
Assembly
with anchor
bolts and
spring clips
Shear Deck slab or floor Shear
connectors of tunnel connectors
2353
Ballastless Track — Plinth
Figure 8 Ballastless track used on MRTS Chennai
holes or anchor bolts/inserts fixed in position and then the rails
are fixed and final adjustments made with tolerances available
in the fastenings. This process is quick for implementation but
results in difficulties in maintaining proper line and level.
In the second method, only base concrete or base slab including
any wedge for providing cant is laid. The second pour concrete
or grouting the sleepers/ blocks is done after laying/fixing the
rail with bearing plates and fastenings is done to final line and
level and the assembly is temporarily supported by shims and
adjusting frame. After the second pour concrete or grout sets,
the temporary supports are removed. A minor variation
adopted for switch and crossing assembly particularly is to lay
the slab to high accuracy, lay the turnout assembly and drill the
holes for anchorage using bearing plates as templates or with
jigs and marking their positions. While drilling the holes,
assembly is removed. After drilling holes with provision for
grouting and cleaning the slab, the assembly is laid with bearing
plates and fastenings and bolts in position, levelled and epoxy
grouting done to fill the holes and also to form a levelling pad
below the bearing plates. The latter method is now preferred by
most systems as they result in a better ‘fit and forget’ system,
even though it takes more time and would be slightly more
expensive initially. These have been adopted while laying BLT
in Delhi Metro and in MRTS line extension in Chennai.
Economics
The designs with slippers/boots provided with micro cellular
pads provide good characteristics with respect to vibration and
noise and are easy for maintenance and replacement but they
tend to be very expensive. Track slabs of the types used in Japan
would be next in rank of cost. The types used in Calcutta Metro,
HKMTR and by the American systems are the most
economical but do not suit high speeds. In Japan, it has been
found that the ballastless track costs about 1.4 times to 1.5 times
that of conventional ballasted tracks. But the maintenance
efforts are so small that the excess can be recovered within
about l2 years as has been analyzed for the Shinkansen lines. In
tunnels they even initially lead to some lower costs due to lower
track height and economy in size of tunnel. On viaducts also
due to lower dead loads, lighter structures will be adequate. In
such cases the initial cost itself would be about 1.2 times to 1.3 times
that of ballasted track. In India it has been found to cost about
2.0 times to 2.5 times the cost of ballasted track for elevated
structures. At grade, except in case of high-speed lines, they are
not found advantageous to justify the extra costs.
Vol 85, November 2004
CONCLUSION
In order to satisfy various conditions mentioned, the specific
attributes of good ballastless track for choice in Indian
conditions should be with
o Proven design — having been in service for a number of
years.
o Capability to be laid to close tolerances.
o Economy in cost of construction.
o Durability — long life for components, specially
rubber and cushioning material which will require
replacement during life time of the base and suitability
for Indian weather and maintenance conditions.
o Minimum number of patented components.
o Easy and economical maintainability — ease of change
of parts with minimum dislocation to traffic.
o Ease in restoration of traffic in case of accidents/
derailments.
o Effective drainage of track.
o Noise pollution and vibration control within
practicable limits.
o Electrical insulation for facilitating track circuiting
and corrosion control.
l Facility for laying LWR/ CWR on elevated
structures.
l Facility for taking track through turnouts and
fixing arrangements.
Considering various factors mentioned above, it is felt that the
forms mentioned below can be used at different locations on
urban transit systems in India.
Tunnels
Normal Locations: Continuous plinth with gaps at intervals for
drainage on sides. Use of two level pads-a microcellular below
bearing plate and a grooved rubber pad over bearing plate
below rail.
Special Locations: Special locations like tunnels in shallow
depth and in sensitive areas or close to important buildings
should have sleepers or sleeper blocks with shoe and pad below
similar to Sonneville/Stedef.
Elevated Structures
Normal Locations: Continuous plinth with gaps at intervals for
drainage on sides. Use of two level pads-micro cellular below
bearing plate and grooved rubber pad below rail over bearing
plate. This is what has been adopted by both DMRC and MRTS.
(Figure 7). They have adopted VOSLO fastenings, in which the
grip at rail seat can be varied to suit the needs.
157
Special Locations: Special locations like sensitive areas ANNEXURE 1
requiring low noise level or close to important buildings Attributes of Different Types of Ballastless Track
requiring low vibration. Floating slabs similar to ones used in S No Attributes Type I Type II Type III
Atlanta Metro or Hong Kong Airport line. Continuous Floating Sleepers or
Slab or Slab with Blocks Insert
Construction Aspects Plinth continuous in concrete
with DFF or isolated or grout
medium
o Laying tolerances adopted in Great Britain or Tokyo
1. Construction:
will be adequate and can be adopted.
Accuracy Good to fair Very good. Excellent.
and quality — depends Needs little Medium skill
o On continuous slabs at-grade and in tunnels, crack on skill and skill to required for
initiation grooves should be left. supervision achieve achieving
quality quality
o Over elevated structures, in order to break continuity Rate of Low 250 Excellent Low 250
and allow for shrinkage, joints can be provided at 3 m progress m/month/ 4 km-5 km/ m/month/
to 4 m intervals and joints made waterproof. In case of party month/ party
plinths also gaps will need to be left at intervals of 2.5 m party
to 3.0 m and gaps can be 7.5 cm to 10 mm wide. This is Ease of Good Difficult. Medium
construction Needs
required for cross drainage and also to break the heavy
continuity so as to avoid any interference with the equipment
design of the deck below. to handle
Cost Low ($ 1.5 Highest High. ($ 2.0
o For continuous slabs and plinths cast in situ, stitching million/km) ($ 2.7 million/ million/km)
reinforcement or other form of keying is essential for km)
adequate bond against horizontal movement. In case of Design Simple Needs high Needs high
second pour concrete in-fill, it should be reinforced technology technology
below, on sides and between sleepers/blocks. The 2. Dampening Fair to Excellent Excellent
good
longitudinal reinforcement, according to some
depending
systems, should be about 0.6% of in-fill slab section. on pads
3. Noise Poor to Excellent Excellent
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS good — low — low
depending
The author is thankful to RITES for giving him an opportunity on pads.
to study this problem in detail and Shri R Balasubramaniam, 4. Vibration –Do– Excellent Excellent
Advisor and Shri B P Khare for their advice and help in the study — low
and preparation of this paper. 5. Maintenance Good (easy) Difficult to Easy.
and repla- replace units Replacement
cement of and maintain of boot/pad
REFERENCES pads/fittings elastic medium below sleeper
1. Coenraad Esweld. ‘Ballast Less Track Offers Long Term Advantages.’ difficult
International Railway Journal, September, 1997. 6. Lightness of Slab – heavy Heaviest Medium
structure Plinth
2. Lother Fendrch. ‘Ballast Less Track on Berlin Stadtban.’ ITR, 1996. – lighter
7. Proprietary Most self- Needs import Needs import
3. ORE Committee D87 Reports R1 to R6, R8, R13 and 14 — Various nature reliant of technology of technology
Years. 8. Other charac- Economical Most Expensive but
teristics and quicker expensive preferable.
4. B I Singhal. ‘Design of Non-ballasted Track for Underground Mass for implemen- Will take
Transit Lines.’ Dissertation. tation time to
develop
design and
5. Alan Crocket and John Carlisle. ‘West Rail Sets New Standards in Noise
test
Control.’ Railway Gazette International, September, 2003, pp 581-585.
Note : * Precast slab tracks used in Japan and on the S-Bahn in Berlin
can be classified under this; ** The cast-in situ blocks tye used
6. M I Baxter. ‘Versatile Track Designs Solve HK Airport Line with bearing plates in BART and Washington Metro are
Constraints.’ Railway Gazette International, November, 1998. variations of this process; *** The new Netherlands Railway
development of Edilon type with rail embedded in Corke
7. Jelte Bos (1998). ‘Low Noise Track.’ Rail International, June 1999. packing can come under this.

158 IE (I) Journal—CV