St.
Paul University Philippines
Graduate School
A Course Presentation in Statistics
Course Requirements
 Reaction Paper/ Film Clip Analysis
 Problem Set
 Final Examination
Course Content
• Basic Concepts in Statistics
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of Variability
• Correlation and Regression Analysis
• Test of Hypothesis
– Z – Test
– T – Test
– Chi – Square Test
– Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
• EXPLORING THE SPSS
Reaction Paper (Film Clip Analysis)
Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics: The
Misapplication of Statistics in
Everyday Life
1
 Statistics defined . . .
• STATISTICS is a collection of methods
for planning experiment, obtaining data,
and then organizing, summarizing,
presenting, analyzing, interpreting and
drawing conclusions based on the data.
Population vs. Sample
• A POPULATION is the complete collection of
elements (scores, people, measurements, and so
on)
• A SAMPLE is a portion / subset of elements
drawn from a population
Main Divisions
 Descriptive Statistics
- summarize or describe the
important characteristics of a known
set of population data
 Inferential Statistics
-use sample data to make inferences (or
generalizations) about a population
Parameter vs. Statistic
• A PARAMETER is a numerical measurement
describing some characteristics of a population
• A STATISTIC is a numerical measurement
describing some characteristic of a sample
2
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
• Qualitative (categorical or attribute)
data can be separated into different
categories that are distinguished by
some non – numerical characteristics
• Quantitative data consists of numbers
representing counts or measurements
Dependent vs Independent Variable
• Dependent variable – the variable that is being
affected
- the variable that is being
explained
• Independent variable – the variable that affects
- the variable that explains
Discrete vs Continuous Data
• Discrete data result from either a finite number of
possible values or a countable number of possible
values (that is, the number of possible values are
0, 1, 2, or more)
• Continuous data result from infinitely many
possible values that can be associated with points
on a continuous scale in such a way that there are
no gaps or interruptions
Nominal Level of Measurement
• The nominal level of measurement is
characterized by data that consists of
names, labels or categories only. The data
cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme
• Examples:
gender of employees, civil
status, nationality, religion, etc
3
 Ordinal Level of Measurement
• The ordinal level of measurement involves
data that may be arranged in some order, but
differences between data values are either
meaningless or cannot be determined.
• Examples:
good, better or best speakers; 1 star, 2
star or 3 star movie; rank of an employee
Ratio Level of Measurement
• The ratio level of measurement is the
interval modified to include the inherent
zero starting point. For values at this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful.
• Examples:
weights, lengths, distance traveled
Interval Level of Measurement
• The interval level of measurement is like the
ordinal level, with the additional property that
meaningful amounts of differences between data
can be determined. However, there are no inherent
(natural) zero starting point
• Examples:
body temperature, year (2007, 2008, 2013, etc)
Visual Summary of the Scales of Measurement
Are there named categories?
YES NO
Nominal scale of measurement
YES
Are the scores ranked?
NO
Ordinal scale of measurement Are there equal intervals with a
meaningful zero point?
YES NO
Ratio scale of measurement Interval scale of measurement
4
 The Mean

Measures of
Central
Tendency
(UNGROUPED
• Two Forms
DATA) – Simple mean
– Weighted mean

Mean Median Mode The mean takes the symbol X.

The Mean
Arithmetic Mean (Mean)
If you have a
“balancing point” of a set of scores Population Sample

the “average score” Total number of cases is N Total number of cases is n

Sum of the scores is ΣX Sum of the scores is ΣX

Compute the mean of the Compute the mean of the

population sample
∑X ΣX
µ= X=
N n

5
 Example:
Simple Arithmetic Mean
Consider the following data set:
Where:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
x = an individual
Solution:
X
score

X n = the number of
X
X = 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10
n scores/cases n 10
Sigma or x= sum of
the individual score
values Mean = 5.5

Example: Solution:
• The following data represents the ages of the mothers • To obtain the mean age of the mothers of the Grade 1,
of Paulinian Graders randomly selected from four we have
different grade levels who attended a session on
Counseling. What is the mean age of the mothers per
X=35+37+45+54+39+48
grade level?
6
= 258
• Grade 1: 35, 37, 45, 54, 39, 48
6
• Grade 2: 54, 63, 47, 63, 45, 53, 52, 48, 55, 48, 63
X=43
• Grade 3: 56, 48, 39, 48, 55, 57, 41, 56
**This means that the mothers of the Grade 1 pupils are relatively young.
• Grade 4: 53, 47, 49, 59, 60, 45, 53, 59, 47

6
 Example: Answers:
• Find the mean of the other grade levels. Round off
your answers to the nearest hundredths. • Grade 2: 54, 63, 47, 63, 45, 53, 52, 48, 55, 48, 63
ANSWER: 53.73
• Grade 2: 54, 63, 47, 63, 45, 53, 52, 48, 55, 48, 63
• Grade 3: 56, 48, 39, 48, 55, 57, 41, 56 • Grade 3: 56, 48, 39, 48, 55, 57, 41, 56
• Grade 4: 53, 47, 49, 59, 60, 45, 53, 59, 47 ANSWER: 50

• Grade 4: 53, 47, 49, 59, 60, 45, 53, 59, 47

ANSWER: 52.44

Example:
Weighted Mean • The following are the responses of 30 randomly chosen
respondents in one item of a research questionnaire.

Xw = w1X1 + w2X2 + w3X3 + . . . + wnXn Verbal Description Weight No. of Responses

Total number of weights Very strongly agree 5 7

Strongly agree 4 11
Where: Agree 3 9
w = weight per item value Disagree 2 2
x = individual score values Strongly disagree 1 1

* Find the weighted response of the respondents

and interpret the result.

7
 Solution: Interpretation of Values
• To obtain for the weighted response, we have
Range Verbal Description
X = 5(7) +4(11) + 3(9) +2(2) + 1(1) 4.20 – 5.00 Very strongly agree
30 3.40 – 4.19 Strongly agree
= 111
2.60 – 3.39 Agree
30
 1.80 – 2.59 Disagree
X = 3.70 strongly agree
1.00 – 1.79 Strongly disagree

Exercise: Example:
• The following are the grades of one student one
• Construct a likert scale to interpret items of a summer term.
questionnaire with weights 1 – 4.
Subject No. of Units Grade

• Assume the following descriptions were used: Statistics 3 98

4 – always
PE 2 90
3 – sometimes
2 – seldom Chemistry 5 93
1 – never

* Find the weighted average of the student.

* What could have been the student’s average if all
his subjects are of equal weights?

8
 sum of the deviations about the mean is zero
Characteristics of the Mean
(–1)+(–2)+(–2)+1+4=0
an interval statistic B
A C D E
calculated average
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
value is determined by every  
(+1)
case in the distribution

affected by extreme values  

(-1)
(-2)
most widely used (+4)
(-2)
most sensitive measure

Median
Median 
the value at which 1/2 of the ordered scores fall above
and 1/2 of the scores fall below
the value that lies in the middle after ranking
all the scores n = odd n = even
positional measure 12345 1234

the midpoint or
the 50th Median = 3 Median = 2.5
percentile of a
distribution
9
 Example Example:

I am the 4th
observation. I 5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48
am the median. 1.10
0.42 0.48 0.73 1.10 1.10
5.40

(even number of values – no exact middle

shared by two numbers)
0.73 + 1.10
MEDIAN is 0.915
2

Example

Example an ordinal statistic

rank or position average

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10 0.66 not affected by extreme values
0.42 0.48 0.66 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40
(in order - odd number of values) can be subjected to a few
mathematical computations
exact middle Characteristics less widely used than the mean
MEDIAN is 0.73
of the Median represents a typical score

10
 Exercise
Mode
• The following data represents the ages of the mothers
of Paulinian Graders randomly selected from four the value which occurs most frequently in a given data
different grade levels who attended a session on set

Counseling. What is the median of the ages of the does not involve any calculation or ordering of data
mothers per grade level?

• Grade 1: 35, 37, 45, 54, 39, 48

• Grade 2: 54, 63, 47, 63, 45, 53, 52, 48, 55, 48, 63
• Grade 3: 56, 48, 39, 48, 55, 57, 41, 56
• Grade 4: 53, 47, 49, 59, 60, 45, 53, 59, 47

Example Examples
Consider the following data set:

Observation Value/ a. 5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10


Score Mode is 1.10

1 5 b. 27 27 27 55 55 55 88 88 99 
Bimodal - 27 & 55
2 7 c. 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10

3 3 No Mode

4 8
5 7

11
 Characteristics of
the Mode Which is best?

a nominal statistic Advantages Disadvantages

an inspection average
Mode Quick and easy to May not be representative
most frequently occurring value calculate. of the whole sample

Median Fairly easy to calculate. Tedious to find for a large

cannot be manipulated mathematically
Half of the scores lie set of numbers or for a set
above the median. that is not in order
rarely used
Mean Takes all numbers into Can be affected by outliers
account.
most “popular score

When to use . . .
Measures of
Central
Mean -an interval interpretation is needed Tendency
(GROUPED
-the value of each score is desired
DATA)
-further statistical computation is expected

Median -an ordinal interpretation is needed

-the middle score is desired
-avoidance of the influence of extreme values is
needed
Mode -a nominal interpretation needed Mean Median Mode
-a quick approximation of a central tendency
measure is desired
-most frequently occurring score is needed

12
 The Mean The Mean
i.) Classmark method ii.) Coded – deviation method
 fxm fd i

X= n
X = AM +  n
Where: Where:
Xm – class mark / class midpoint AM – assumed mean (Xm of where the zero deviation is set)

f – frequency f – frequency
n – number of cases / observations d – deviation
n – number of cases / observations

Example The Median

**Find the mean, median and mode of the
following data set: n - cfp
2
X F
Md = XLB + i

24 – 26 3 f
21 – 23 12

18 – 20 10 Where:
15 – 17 6
XLB – lower boundary of the median class
12 – 14 6
cfp – cumulative frequency preceding the median class
9–11 5
n – number of cases
6– 8 5

3– 5 3 f – frequency of the median class

i – class size/width

13
 The Mode Exercise
**Find the mean, median and mode of the
following data set:
Mo = XLB + ∆1 i X F

56–62 4

∆1 +∆2 49–55 9

Where: 42–48 12

XLB – lower boundary of the modal class 35–41 12

∆1 – difference between frequency of the modal class 28–34 10

21–27 8
and frequency below it
14–20 6
∆2 – difference between frequency of the modal class
and frequency above it 7–13 4

i – class size/width

Other Measures of Position The Quartile

(QUANTILES) kn
- cfp
4 i
Qk = XLB + f
1. Quartile (Qk ) – divides the distribution into 4
equal parts
2. Decile (Dk )- divides the distribution into 10 Where:
equal parts XLB – lower boundary of the quartile class
3. Percentile (Pk )- divides the distribution into cfp – cumulative frequency preceding the quartile class
100 equal parts n – number of cases
f – frequency of the quartile class
i – class size/width

14
 The Decile The Percentile
k n
kn
- cfp - cfp
10 i 100 i
Dk = XLB + f
Pk = XLB + f

Where: Where:
XLB – lower boundary of the decile class XLB – lower boundary of the percenttile class

cfp – cumulative frequency preceding the decile class cfp – cumulative frequency preceding the percentile class
n – number of cases n – number of cases

f – frequency of the decile class f – frequency of the percentile class

i – class size/width i – class size/width

Exercise Measures of Variability

**Using the frequency distribution below, find:
1. Q1 3. D3 5. P3 • The statistical tool used to describe the degree to
2. D6 4. P78 which scores/ observations are scattered.
X F •It is used to determine the degree of consistency /
56–62 6
homogeneity of scores.
49–55 9

42–48 10 1. range
35–41 12 2. mean absolute deviation
28–34 10 3. semi – interquartile range/ quartile deviation
21–27 8 4. variance
14–20 6
5. standard deviation
7–13 4

15
 Formulas (Ungrouped Data) Formulas (Ungrouped Data)
1. Range 4. Variance
R =HOV – LOV
2 (X  X )2
s = n 1
2. Mean absolute deviation
/XX/
MAD= 
n 5. Standard deviation
3. Semi – interquartile range/ quartile
deviation QD=Q3–Q1 s = s2
2

Exercise: Application:

• Given the following data, find the range, MAD,
variance and the standard deviation.
20, 26, 40, 39, 35
• Two seemingly equally excellent students are
vying for an academic honor where only one must
have to be chosen to get the award. The following
are their grades which are used as a basis for giving
the award.
•Student A: 90, 92, 92, 94, 95
•Student B: 90, 91, 93, 94, 95

•Who do you think deserves the award? Why?

16
 Guiding Principle Formulas (Grouped Data)
1. Range
• The lesser the value of the measure, the R=HOV–LOV
more consistent, the more homogenous and
the less scattered are the observations in the 2. Mean absolute deviation
f / Xm  X /
set of data. MAD = 
n
3. Semi – interquartile range/ quartile deviation
QD=Q3–Q1
2

Formulas (Grouped Data) Exercise:

4. Variance **Using the frequency distribution below, find:
1. Range 3. QD 5. Standard Deviation
=  f ( Xm X )
2

s 2 2. MAD 4. variance
n 1
X F
56–62 6

49–55 9
5. Standard deviation 42–48 10

35–41 12
s = s2 28–34 10

21–27 8

14–20 6

7–13 4

17
 Tests of Hypothesis Kinds of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho)
Hypothesis • It serves as the working hypothesis
•A statement or tentative theory which aims to • It is that which one hopes to accept or reject
explain facts about the real world •An • It must always express the idea of no
educated guess significant difference
•It is subject for testing. If it is found to be
statistically true, it is accepted. Otherwise, it gets 2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)
rejected. • It generally represents the hypothetical
statement that the researcher wants to prove.

Types of Alternative Hypotheses (Ha) Type I and Type II Errors

1. Directional hypothesis 
 When making a decision about a proposed
expresses direction hypothesis based on the sample data, one runs the

one – tailed risk of making an error. The following table on the
 next slide summarizes the possibilities:
uses order relation of “greater than” or “less than”,
2. Non – directional hypothesis

does not express direction

two – tailed

uses the “not equal to”

18
 Type I and Type II Errors

A Type I error is the mistake of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is true.

The symbol ∞ (alpha) is used to represent the probability of a
type I error.

A Type II error is the mistake of failing to reject the null
hypothesis when it is false.

The symbol  (beta) is used to represent the probability of a
type II error.

Critical Region
Level of Significance The critical region (or rejection region) is the set of all values of
the test statistic that cause us to reject the null hypothesis.


The probability of making Type I error or alpha
Region of
error in a test is called the significance level of the rejection
test. The significance level of a test is the maximum
value of the probability of rejecting the null Region of
acceptance
hypothesis (Ho) when in fact it is true.

P - value Critical - value

19
 Critical Value
A critical value is any value that separates the
critical region (where we reject the null
hypothesis) from the values of the test statistic
that do not lead to rejection of the null
hypothesis, the sampling distribution that
applies, and the significance level .
P - Value
The P-value (probability value) is the probability of
getting a value of the test statistic that is at least as
extreme as the one representing the sample data,
assuming that the null hypothesis is true. The null
hypothesis is rejected if the P-value is very small,
such as 0.05 or less.

Two-tailed, Right-tailed and Two-tailed Tests

Left-tailed Tests Given:
H0:= ; H1:≠

• The tails in a distribution are the extreme

regions bounded by critical values.

20
 Right – tailed Tests Left – tailed Tests
Given: Given:
H0:= ; H1:> H0:= ; H1:<

Steps in Hypothesis Testing Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. Formulate the null hypothesis (Ho) that there is no 4. Determine the tabular value of the test.
significant difference between the items compared. State ***For a Z – test, the table below summarizes
the alternative hypothesis (Ha) which is used in case the critical values at varying significance levels
Ho is rejected.
Type of Level of Significance
2. Set the level of significance of the test, . Test 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01
One – ±1.28 ± 1. 645 ± 1.96 ± 2.33
3. Determine the test to be used.

Z – TEST – used if the population standard deviation is given
 Tailed
T – TEST – used if the sample standard deviation is given
Two – ± 1.645 ± 1.96 ± 2.33 ±2.58
Tailed

21
 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
4. Determine the tabular value of the test.
***For a T – test, one must compute first the
degree/s of freedom (df) then look for the tabular
value from the table of Students’ T – Distribution.
i. For a single sample
df = n – 1
ii. For two samples
df = n1 + n2 – 2
Steps in Hypothesis Testing
6. Compare the computed value with its
corresponding tabular value, then state your
conclusions based on the following guidelines:

Reject Ho if the absolute computed value is equal to
or greater than the absolute tabular value

Accept Ho if the absolute computed value is less
than the absolute tabular value
Steps in Hypothesis Testing
5. Compute for z or t as needed. Vary your solutions
using the formulas:

For z – test
i. Sample mean compared with a population mean
ii. Comparing two sample means
iii. Comparing two sample proportions

For t – test
i. Sample mean compared with a population mean
ii. Comparing two sample means
Decision Criterion
Traditional Method:
***Reject H0 (Accept H1 ) if the test
statistic falls within the critical region.
***Fail to reject H0 (Accept Ho) if
the test statistic does not fall within the
critical region.
22
 Decision Criterion Decision Criterion
P - value method:
Another option:
* Reject Ho (Accept H1 ) if P-value 
 (where  is the significance level, such Instead of using a significance level
as 0.05) such as 0.05, simply identify the P-value and
leave the decision to the reader.
***Fail to reject H0 (Accept Ho)
if P-value > 

Z - TEST Z - TEST
1. Sample Mean (X) Compared with a Population Mean (μ) 2. Comparing Two Sample Means (X1 & X2)

( X – μ) n X1 -X2
Z= Z=

δ δ (1/n1) + (1/n2)

Where:
Where:
X – sample mean
X1 – mean of the first sample
μ – population mean
X2 – mean of the second sample
n – number of items in the sample
n1 – number of items in the first sample
δ – population standard deviation
n2– number of items in the second sample

δ – population standard deviation

23
 Z- TEST T- TEST
3. Comparing Two Sample Proportions (P1 & P2) 4. Sample Mean (X) Compared with a Population Mean (μ)

P1 -P2 ( X – μ) n – 1
Z= t=

(p1q1/n1) + (p2q2/n2) s

Where:
Where:
p1 – proportion of the first sample
X – sample mean
p2 – proportion of the second sample
μ – population mean
n1 – number of items in the first sample
n2– number of items in the second sample n – number of items in the sample

q1 = 1 – p1 s – sample standard deviation

q2 = 1 – p2

T- TEST Example 1
5. Comparing Two Sample Means (X1 & X2)
X1–X2
Data from a school census show that the
t=
mean weight of college students is 45 kilos with a
(n – 1)(s
1
2 2

) + (n – 1)(s )
2 1 +1 standard deviation of 3 kilos. A sample of 100
1 2
college students were found to have a mean of 47
n1 + n2 – 2 n1 n2
Where: kilos. Are the college students really heavier than
X1 – mean of the first sample the rest using the 0.05 level of significance?
X2 – mean of the second sample
n1 – number of items in the first sample
n2– number of items in the second sample
s1 – standard deviation of the first sample
s2 – standard deviation of the second sample

24
 Example 2
A researcher wishes to find out whether or not there
is significant difference in the monthly allowance of
morning and afternoon students in his school. By random
sampling, he took a sample of 239 students in the morning
session. The students were found to have a mean monthly
allowance of P142.00. The researcher also took a sample of
209 students in the afternoon session . They were found to
have a mean monthly allowance of P148.00. The population
of students in that school have a standard deviation of
P40.00. Is there a significant difference between the
two samples at 0.01 level?
Example 3
A sample survey of television programs in
Metro Manila shows that 80 out of 200 men and 75
out of 250 women dislike “May Bukas Pa”
program. One likes to know whether the difference
between the two sample proportions, 80/200 = 0.40
and 75/250 = 0.30, is significant or not at 0.05
level.

Example 4 Example 5
A researcher knows that the average height of
Beta company is manufacturing steel wire
Filipino women is 1.525 meters. A random sample
with an average tensile strength of 50 kilos. The
of 26 women was taken and was found to have a
laboratory tests 16 pieces and finds that the mean is
mean height of 1.56 meters, with a standard
47 kilos with a standard deviation of 15 kilos. Are
deviation of 0.10 meters. Is there reason to believe
the results in accordance with the hypothesis that
that the 26 women are significantly taller than the
the population mean is 50 kilos?
rest using the 0.05 level of significance?

25
 Example 6
It is known from the records of the city
schools that the standard deviation of math test
scores on ABC test is 5. A sample of 200 students
from the system was taken and it was found out that
the sample mean is 75. Previous tests showed the
population mean to be 70. Is it safe to conclude that
the sample is significantly different from the
population at 0.01 level?
Example 8
A manufacturer of flashlight batteries claims
that the average life of his product will exceed 40
hours. A company is willing to buy a very large
shipment of batteries provided the claim is true. A
random sample of 36 batteries is tested, and it was
found out that the sample mean is 45 hours. If the
population of batteries has a standard deviation of 5
hours, is it likely that the batteries will be bought?
Example 7
Two types of rice varieties are being considered
for yield and a comparison is needed. Thirty hectares
were planted with the rice varieties exposed to fairly
uniform conditions. The results are tabulated below:
Variety A Variety B
Average yield 80 sack/hec 85 sack/hec
Sample Variance 5.90 12.10
Is there significant difference in the yield of the
two varieties at 0.05 level of significance?
Example 9
A company is trying to decide which brand of two
types to buy for their trucks. They would like to adopt
Brand c unless there is some evidence that Brand D is
better. An experiment was conducted where 16 from each
brand were used. The tires were run under uniform
conditions until they wore out. The results are:
Brand C: X1 = 40,000 km s1 = 5,400 km
Brand D: X2 = 38,000 km s2 = 3,200 km
What conclusion can be drawn?
26
 Example 10 Analysis of Variance (F - Test)
-A test that was developed by Ronald A. Fisher
All freshmen in a particular school were
found to have a variability in grades expressed as a -A technique in inferential statistics designed to test
standard deviation of 3. two samples among these whether or not more than two samples (or groups)
freshmen, made up of 20 and 50 students each, were are significantly different from each other
found to have means of 88 and 85respectively.
Based on their grades, is the first group really
brighter than the second group using 0.01 level of
significance?

Analysis of Variance Analysis of Variance

Steps:
1. Compute for the sum of squares 2. Compute degrees of freedom

TSS =  x2 
(
 x)2 dft = rk – 1 = N – 1
N

(x)2
2
1 dfb = k – 1
( x )
SSB = r  ij  N
dfw = dft – dfb
SSW = TSS – SSB
27
 Analysis of Variance Contingency Table for ANOVA
3. Compute for the mean sum of squares Sources of Sum of Degree of Mean Sum F – Ratio
SSB Variation Squares Freedom of Squares
(df)
MSSB =
Between SSB dfb MSSB
SSW Column

MSSW = Within SSW dfw MSSW

Column

4. Compute for the F – Ratio Total TSS dft

MSSB
F=
MSSW

Exercise Exercise
1. The weights in kilograms of three groups of 5 2. The following are the mileage obtained after several road tests were
run using 5 different kinds of gasoline on a Toyota Car.
members each are shown in the table below. Is there
unusual variation among the groups? ( use ∞ = 0.05) Road Type of Gasoline
Test A B C D E
Group
Members 1ST 35 61 38 65 56
A B C
2ND 31 63 54 60 69
1 50 60 53
3RD 42 50 47 57 70
2 48 40 55
4TH 48 42 60 55 50
3 55 50 40
5TH 40 49 55 60 48
4 50 60 40
5 46 52 47 Is there significant difference among the mileage yields, at 1% level?

28
 Exercise 2
Chi – Square Test (X )
3. Below are the bowling scores of four groups og four - Used to test significant difference or relationship
members each. At 5% significance level, find out if - Used if data are in frequencies (enumeration data)
there is unusual variation among the groups.
Members Group USES:
1. to test the goodness of fit of a normal curve; that is
A B C D
to find out whether or not a sample distribution
1 98 100 87 90 conforms with the hypothetical normal distribution
2 78 95 92 93
2. to find out whether or not an observed proportion
is equal to some given ideal or expected proportion
3 95 90 105 95 3. to test the independence of one variable from
4 110 85 88 97 another variable.

Formulas: Exercise
1. Test the hypothesis that educational attainment does not
i. For a 2 x 2 table (with YATE’s correction for continuity) depend on socio – economic status for the following
100 persons in a particular community.

X2 = (OF  EF 0.5)2 Socio – economic Educational Attainment

status
EF Finished College Did Not Finish
College
ii. For a non 2 x 2 table Poor 18 10

(OF  EF )2
2
X = Middle Class 28 25
EF
Rich 14 5

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 Exercise Exercise
2. At 1% significance level, does college academic grade 3. At ABC Company, there are 28 males and 32
depend on the high school NSAT results for the females. Out of the 28 males, 10 holds executive
following 200 students?
posts and the others do clerical work. Of the 32
NSAT Rating
females, only 5 hold executive position and the
Academic
Grade Low Average High
others do clerical work. Prepare a contingency
table, then test the hypothesis that position is
Above 85 13 25 21
independent on sex.
75–85 18 31 38

Below 75 14 20 20

Exercise
4. To determine whether type of personality is related to
academic performance, a random sample of 180 high
school students from a certain college were taken and
Correlation
the data are as follows: and
Low Average Average High Average
Regression Analysis
Introvert 35 30 25
Extrovert 31 23 36

Is there a significant relationship between personality

type and academic performance?

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 Regression Analysis Regression Analysis
b= nxy  x y
- concerned with the problem of estimation and
forecasting nx2  x2

FORMULA:
y = a + bx
a = Y – bX
Where: Where:
 
y predicted score Y mean of the y values
 
a y – intercept X mean of the x values

b slope of the line

Correlation Analysis Range of Values: r = [-1, 1]

- Concerned in the relationship of the changes of
the variables (+) r – shows a direct positive relationship (- )
r – shows a negative or inverse relationship
Formula: Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r) 
r=0 this indicates no relationship

r = 1 perfect positive relationship
n(xy)  (x)( y)
r= 
r = -1 perfect negative relationship
[n(x2 )  (x)2 ][n( y2 )  ( y)2

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 Interpretation: Testing the Significance of r
Pearson r Qualitative Description

±1 Perfect Correlation
t=r (n  2)2
± 0.91 – ± 0.99 Very High
1 r 2
± 0.71 – ± 0.90 High

± 0.41 – ± 0.70 Marked

± 0.21 – ± 0.40 Slight/Low

0–±0.20 Negligible

Exercise
Exercise
1. It is generally known that the number of road accidents is inversely
proportional with road width. The following data shows the result of a
study indicating the number of accidents occurring per hundred
2. The following table shows the final grades of ten
thousand vehicles. students in Algebra and Statistics.

Road width (in feet) (x) 75 52 60 33 22 Algebra (x) 75 80 93 65 87 71

Number of accidents (y) 40 84 55 92 90 Statistics (y) 82 78 86 72 91 80

a. draw a scatter diagram a. draw a scatter diagram

b. find the equation of the LSRL b. find the equation of the LSRL
c. predict accident frequency for a road whose width is 55 feet; c. predict grade in Statistics if grade in
48 feet Algebra is 78; 82; 89; 95; 100
d. find the degree of relationship between road width and
accident frequency.
d. find the degree of relationship between grades
in Algebra and Statistics

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 Pilar B. Acorda
Email Address : pbacorda@yahoo.com
Mobile Number: 09359547319

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