A

TRAINING REPORT

ON

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
FROM
KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY,KURUKSHETRA

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO

AKHILESH KUMAR ER.VIPIN GUPTA

5708105(ECE-E1) H.O.D
DEPTT. OF ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

R.P.INDERAPRASTHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
BASTARA(KARNAL)
CERTIFICATE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A formal statement of acknowledgement is hardly sufficient to express my gratitude

towards the personalities who have helped me in training. First and foremost I take this
opportunity to express my sincere gratitude & sincere thanks to JAGMAL for providing

me the opportunity to work for a project on NETWORK TECHNOLOGY &

DEVICES.
I hereby convey my thanks to ER.VIPIN GUPTA Head of Department of ECE and all the
faculty members of ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION Deptt. for their valuable help
and constant co-operation.
I also want to thanks to my parents for providing me financial assistance and moral
support rendered by my parents in making this effort a success. All this has become a reality
because of their blessings.

AKHILESH KUMAR
5708105( ECE-E1)
 Preface

I am the student of ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION and my subject is more

practical so training play an important part in our life.i have taken training from HCL Career
Development Centre Karnal .a humble attempt has been made to make training simple exhaustive
& intelligible so as to sustain the interest of students in training.training is of 6 weeks and I am
very thankful to ECE DEPTT.&training & placement cell of our college for support and
encouragement.
I am thankful to ER. VIPIN GUPTA for the pain he had taken to bring out training in this form,I
would also like to extend my heartily thank to JAGMAL of HCL who have taken great pain
and really worked harh during our training period.

AKHILESH KUMAR
5708105(ECE-E1)
 CONTENTS

TEXT PAGE NO
CERTIFICATE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
PREFACE iii

Chapter 1 Introduction

ABOUT THE COMPANY 1-2

Chapter 2 TECHNICAL PART

I. INTRODUCTION
II. PROTOCOLS

III. BASIC TOPOLOGY

IV. OSI (OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION)

V. ROUTERS

VI. SWITCH

VII. CONCLUSION

Chapter-3 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ABOUT COMPANY

HCL

Born in 1976, HCL has a 3 decade rich history of inventions and innovations. In
1978, HCL developed the first indigenous micro-computer at the same time as Apple
and 3 years before IBM's PC. During this period, India was a black box to the world
and the world was a black box to India. This micro-computer virtually gave birth to
the Indian computer industry. The 80's saw HCL developing know-how in many
other technologies. HCL's in-depth knowledge of Unix led to the development of a
fine grained multi-processor Unix in 1988, three years ahead of Sun and HP.

HCL's R&D was spun off as HCL Technologies in 1997 to mark their advent into the
software services arena. During the last eight years, HCL has strengthened its
processes and applied its know-how, developed over 28 years into multiple practices
- semi-conductor, operating systems, automobile, avionics, bio-medical engineering,
wireless, telecom technologies, and many more.

Today, HCL sells more PCs in India than any other brand, runs Northern Ireland's
largest BPO operation, and manages the network for Asia's largest stock exchange
network apart from designing zero visibility landing systems to land the world's most
popular airplane.

HCL Infosystems Ltd is one of the pioneers in the Indian IT market, with its origins
in 1976. For over quarter of a century, we have developed and implemented solutions
for multiple market segments, across a range of technologies in India. We have been
in the forefront in introducing new technologies and solutions.

In the early 70’s a group of young and enthusiastic and ambitious technocrats
embarked upon a venture that would make their vision of IT revolution in India a
reality. Shiv nadir and five of his colleagues got together and 1975 set up a new
company MICROCOMP to start with; they started to capitalize on their marketing
skills. Micro comp marketed calculators and within a few month of starting
operation, the company was out selling its major competitors.

On 11th August, 1976 HINDUSTAN COMPUTERS LIMITED was incorporated as

joint
venture between the entrepreneurs and UPSCE, with an initial equity of Rs.1.83 Lacs
 The HCL of Today

This year (2007-08), IT industry is expected to grow by 20% over 2007, as per IDC,
which is amongst the highest rates of growth in the world. With employment to 2.13
crore households already in place, the National e-Governance Plan (NEGP) is
surging ahead with investments of Rs. 23,000 crores planned for initial five years, for
identified core projects.

HCL Infosystems Ltd, with annual revenue of US$ 2.7 Bn (Rs.11,855 crores) is
India’s premier information enabling and ICT System Integration company offering a
wide spectrum of ICT products that includes Computing, Storage, Networking,
Security, Telecom, Imaging and Retail. HCL is a one-stop-shop for all the ICT
requirements of an organization.

India’s leading System Integration and Infrastructure Management Services

Organization, HCL has specialized expertise across verticals including Telecom,
BFSI, E-Governance & Power.

HCL has India’s largest distribution and retail network, taking to market a range of
Digital Lifestyle products in partnership with leading global ICT brands, including
Nokia, Apple, Casio, Kodak, Toshiba, Bull, Ericsson, Cisco, Microsoft, Konica
Minolta and many more.

HCL today has India’s largest vertically integrated computer manufacturing facility
with over three decades of electronic manufacturing experience HCL desktops is the
largest selling brand into the enterprise space

With India’s largest ICT services network that reaches to every corner of India,
HCL’s award winning Support Services makes it the preferred choice of enterprise
and consumers alike. HCL Enterprise is a leading global technology and IT
enterprise with annual revenues of US $4.1 Bn (Rs. 17,889 crores). The HCL
Enterprise comprises two companies listed in India-HCL Technologies & HCL
Infosystems. The 3-decade-old enterprise, founded in 1976, is India’s original IT
garage start-up. Its range of offerings span Product Engineering, Technology and
Application Services, BPO, Infrastructure Services, IT Hardware, Systems
Integration, and distribution of ICT products. The HCL team comprises over 47,000
professionals of diverse nationalities, who operate from 17 countries including 360
points of presence in India. HCL has global partnerships with several leading Fortune
1000 firms, including leading IT and Technology firms
INTRODUCTION
In computing, a protocol is a set of rules which is used by computers to
communicate with each other across a network. A protocol is a convention or
standard that controls or enables the connection, communication, and data transfer
between computing endpoints. In its simplest form, a protocol can be defined as the
rules governing the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication.
Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of the two.
At the lowest level, a protocol defines the behavior of a hardware
connection.Network protocols like HTTP, TCP/IP, and SMTP provide a foundation
that much of the Internet is built on. Network protocols define a language of rules
and conventions for communication between network devices.

The OSI model, and any other network communication models, provided only a
conceptual framework for communication between computers, but the model itself
does not provide specific methods of communication. Actual communication is
defined by various communication protocols. In the context of data communication,
a network protocol is a formal set of rules, conventions and data structure that
governs how computers and other network devices exchange information over a
network. In other words, protocol is a standard procedure and format that two data
communication devices must understand, accept and use to be able to talk to each
other

PROPERTIES OF PROTOCOLS
While protocols can vary greatly in purpose and sophistication, most specify one or
more of the following properties

 Detection of the underlying physical connection (wired or wireless), or the

existence of the other endpoint or node
 Negotiation of various connection characteristics
 How to start and end a message
 Procedures on formatting a message
 What to do with corrupted or improperly formatted messages
 How to detect unexpected loss of the connection, and what to do next
 Termination of the session and or connection.

IMPORTANCE
The protocols in human communication are separate rules about appearance,
speaking, listening and understanding. All these rules, also called protocols of
conversation, represent different layers of communication. They work together to
help people successfully communicate. The need for protocols also applies to
network devices. Computers have no way of learning protocols, so network
engineers have written rules for communication that must be strictly followed for
successful host-to-host communication. These rules apply to different layers of
sophistication such as which physical connections to use, how hosts listen, how to
interrupt, how to say good-bye, and in short how to communicate, what language to
use and many others. These rules, or protocols, that work together to ensure
successful communication are grouped into what is known as a protocol suite.

The widespread use and expansion of communications protocols is both a

prerequisite for the internet, and a major contributor to its power and success. The
pair of internet protocol (or IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (or TCP) are the
most important of these, and the term TCP/IP refers to a collection (a "protocol
suite") of its most used protocols. Most of the Internet's communication protocols are
described in the RFC documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (or IETF).

Object-oriented programming has extended the use of the term to include the
programming protocols available for connections and communication between
objects.
Generally, only the simplest protocols are used alone. Most protocols, especially in
the context of communications or networking, are layered together into protocols
stacks where the various tasks listed above are divided among different protocols in
the stack.

Whereas the protocol stack denotes a specific combination of protocols that work
together, a reference model is a software architecture that lists each layer and the
services each should offer. The classic seven-layer reference model is the OSI model,
which is used for conceptualizing protocol stacks and peer entities. This reference
model also provides an opportunity to teach more general software engineering
concepts like hiding, modularity, and delegation of tasks. This model has endured in
spite of the demise of many of its protocols (and protocol stacks) originally
sanctioned by the ISO.

TYPES OF PROTOCOLS
 IP (Internet Protocol)
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 Telnet (Telnet Remote Protocol)
 SSH (Secure Shell Remote Protocol)
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol)
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

BRIEF DISCUSSION ABOUT

PROTOCOLS
1. INTERNET PROTOCOLS

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol used for communicating data across a
packet switched internetwork using the Internet Protocol Suite, also referred to as
TCP/IP.IP is the primary protocol in the internet layer of the internet protocol
suite and has the task of delivering distinguished protocol data grams (packets)
from the source host to the destination host solely based on their addresses. For
this purpose the Internet Protocol defines addressing methods and structures for
datagram encapsulation. The first major version of addressing structure, now
referred to as internet protocol version 4 (IPv4) is still the dominant protocol of
the Internet, although the successor, internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) is being
deployed actively worldwide.

2. USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the internet
protocol suite, the set of network protocols used for the internet. With UDP,
computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as data grams, to
other hosts on an Internet protocols (IP) network without requiring prior
communications to set up special transmission channels or data paths. UDP is
sometimes called the Universal Datagram Protocol. The protocol was designed by
David P.Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768.
UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit hand-shaking dialogues for
guaranteeing reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable
service and datagrams may arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing
without notice. UDP assumes that error checking and correction is either not
necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing
at the network interface level. Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because
dropping packets is preferable to using delayed packets. If error correction facilities
are needed at the network interface level, an application may use the Transmission
control protocol (TCP) or Stream control transmission protocol (SCTP) which are
designed for this purpose.

UDP's stateless nature is also useful for servers that answer small queries from huge
numbers of clients. Unlike TCP, UDP is compatible with packet broadcast (sending
to all on local network) and multicasting (send to all subscribers).

Common network applications that use UDP include: the Domain Name System
(DNS), streaming media applications such as IPTV, Voice over IP (VoIP), Trivial
File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and many online games.

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the
Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two original components of the suite (the
other being Internet Protocol, or IP), so the entire suite is commonly referred to as
TCP/IP. Whereas IP handles lower-level transmissions from computer to computer
as a message makes its way across the Internet, TCP operates at a higher level,
concerned only with the two end systems, for example a Web browser and a Web
server. In particular, TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes
from a program on one computer to another program on another computer. Besides
the Web, other common applications of TCP include e-mail and file transfer. Among
its other management tasks, TCP controls segment size, the rate at which data are
exchanged, and network traffic congestion.

DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOLS

In computer networking, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a

network application protocol used by devices (DHCP clients) to obtain configuration
information for operation in an Internet Protocol network. This protocol reduces
system administration workload, allowing networks to add devices with little or no
manual intervention.

RFC 1531 initially defined DHCP as a standard-track protocol in October 1993,

succeeding the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP). The next update, RFC 2131 released in
1997 is the current DHCP definition for Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) networks.
The extensions of DHCP for IPv6 (DHCPv6) were published as RFC 3315

HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOLS

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol for

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. Its use for retrieving
inter-linked resources led to the establishment of the World Wide Web.

HTTP development was coordinated by the World Wide Web Consortium and the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), culminating in the publication of a series of
Requests for Comments (RFCs), most notably RFC 2616 (June 1999), which defines
HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use.

Support for pre-standard HTTP/1.1 based on the then developing RFC 2068 was
rapidly adopted by the major browser developers in early 1996. By March 1996, pre-
standard HTTP/1.1 was supported in Netscape 2.0, Netscape Navigator Gold 2.01,
Mosaic 2.7, Lynx 2.5, and in Internet Explorer 3.0. End user adoption of the new
browsers was rapid. In March 1996, one web hosting company reported that over
40% of browsers in use on the Internet were HTTP 1.1 compliant. That same web
hosting company reported that by June 1996, 65% of all browsers accessing their
servers were HTTP 1.1 Compliant. The HTTP 1.1 standard as defined in RFC 2068
was officially released in January 1997. Improvements and updates to the The
HTTP/1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June 1999.

HTTP is a request/response standard of a client and a server. A client is the end-user,

the server is the web site. The client making a HTTP request—using a web browser,
spider, or other end-user tool—is referred to as the user agent. The responding server
—which stores or creates resources such as HTML files and images—is called the
origin server. In between the user agent and origin server may be several
intermediaries, such as proxies, gateways, and tunnels. HTTP is not constrained to
using TCP/IP and its supporting layers, although this is its most popular application
on the Internet. Indeed HTTP can be "implemented on top of any other protocol on
the Internet, or on other networks." HTTP only presumes a reliable transport; any
protocol that provides such guarantees can be used."

Typically, an HTTP client initiates a request. It establishes a Transmission Control

Protocol (TCP) connection to a particular port on a host (port 80 by default; see List
of TCP and UDP port numbers). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for the
client to send a request message. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a
status line, such as "HTTP/1.1 200 OK", and a message of its own, the body of which
is perhaps the requested resource, an error message, or some other information.

Resources to be accessed by HTTP are identified using Uniform Resource Identifiers

(URIs)—or, more specifically, Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)—using the http:
or https URI schemes.

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOLS

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to exchange and
manipulate files over an Internet Protocol computer network, such as the Internet.
FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data
connections between the client and server applications. Client applications were
originally interactive command-line tools with a standardized command syntax, but
graphical user interfaces have been developed for all desktop operating systems in
use today. FTP is also often used as an application component to automatically
transfer files for program internal functions. FTP can be used with user-based
password a While data is being transferred via the data stream, the control stream sits
idle. This can cause problems with large data transfers through firewalls which time
out sessions after lengthy periods of idleness. While the file may well be successfully
transferred, the control session can be disconnected by the firewall, causing an error
to be generated.

The FTP protocol supports resuming of interrupted downloads using the REST
command. The client passes the number of bytes it has already received as argument
to the REST command and restarts the transfer. In some commandline clients for
example, there is an often-ignored but valuable command, "reget" (meaning "get
again"), that will cause an interrupted "get" command to be continued, hopefully to
completion, after a communications interruption.

Resuming uploads is not as easy. Although the FTP protocol supports the APPE
command to append data to a file on the server, the client does not know the exact
position at which a transfer got interrupted. It has to obtain the size of the file some
other way, for example over a directory listing or using the SIZE command.

In ASCII mode (see below), resuming transfers can be troublesome if client and
server use different end of line characters.

TELNET REMOTE PROTOCOLS

Telnet (teletype network) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area
networks to provide a bidirectional interactive communications facility. Typically,
telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote host via a virtual
terminal connection which consists of an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). User data is interspersed in-band with
TELNET control information.

Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 854, and
standardized as Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8,
one of the first Internet standards.

The term telnet may also refer to the software that implements the client part of the
protocol. Telnet client applications are available for virtually all computer platforms.
Most network equipment and operating system with a TCP/IP stack support a Telnet
service for remote configuration (including systems based on Windows NT).
Because of security issues with Telnet, its use has waned in favor of SSH for remote
access.

Telnet is also used as a verb. To telnet means to establish a connection with the
Telnet protocol, either with command line client or with a programmatic interface.
For example, a common directive might be: "To change your password, telnet to the
server, login and run the password command." Most often, a user will be telnetting to
a Unix-like server system or a network device such as a router and obtain a login
prompt to a command line text interface or a character-based full-screen manager.

On many systems, a Telnet client application may also be used to establish

interactive raw-TCP sessions. It is commonly believed that a Telnet session which
does not use the IAC (character 255) is functionally identical. This is not the case,
however, because there are other network virtual terminal (NVT) rules, such as the
requirement for a bare carriage return character (CR, ASCII 13) to be followed by a
NULL (ASCII 0) character, that distinguish the telnet protocol from raw-TCP
sessions.
SECURE SHELL REMOTE PROTOCOL

Secure Shell or SSH is a network protocol that allows data to be exchanged using a
secure channel between two networked devices. Used primarily on Linux and Unix
based systems to access shell accounts, SSH was designed as a replacement for
Telnet and other insecure remote shells, which send information, notably passwords,
in plaintext, leaving them open for interception. The encryption used by SSH
provides confidentiality and integrity of data over an insecure network, such as the
Internet.

POST OFFICE PROTOCOL 3

In computing, the Post Office Protocol (POP) is an application-layer Internet

standard protocol used by local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server
over a TCP/IP connection. POP and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) are
the two most prevalent Internet standard protocols for e-mail retrieval. Virtually all
modern e-mail clients and servers support both. The POP protocol has been
developed through several versions, with version 3 (POP3) being the current
standard.

SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail
(e-mail) transmission across Internet Protocol (IP) networks. SMTP was first defined
in RFC 821 (STD 10), and last updated by RFC 5321 (2008) which includes the
extended SMTP (ESMTP) additions, and is the protocol in widespread use today.

While electronic mail servers and other mail transfer agents use SMTP to send and
receive mail messages, user-level client mail applications typically only use SMTP
for sending messages to a mail server for relaying. For receiving messages, client
applications usually use either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP) to access their mail box accounts on a mail server.

INTERNET MESSAGE ACESS PROTOCOL

The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is one of the two most prevalent
Internet standard protocols for e-mail retrieval, the other being the Post Office
Protocol. Virtually all modern e-mail clients and mail servers support both protocols
as a means of transferring e-mail messages from a server, such as those used by
Gmail, to a client, such as Mozilla Thunderbird, KMail, Apple Mail and Microsoft
Outlook.

SIMPLE OBJECT ACCESS PROTOCOL

SOAP, originally defined as Simple Object Access Protocol, is a protocol

specification for exchanging structured information in the implementation of Web
Services in computer networks. It relies on Extensible Markup Language (XML) as
its message format, and usually relies on other Application Layer protocols (most
notably Remote Procedure Call (RPC) and HTTP) for message negotiation and
transmission. SOAP can form the foundation layer of a web services protocol stack,
providing a basic messaging framework upon which web services can be built.

As a layman's example of how SOAP procedures can be used, a SOAP message

could be sent to a web service enabled web site (for example, a house price database)
with the parameters needed for a search. The site would then return an XML-
formatted document with the resulting data (prices, location, features, etc). Because
the data is returned in a standardized machine-parseable format, it could then be
integrated directly into a third-party site.

The SOAP architecture consists of several layers of specifications for message

format, message exchange patterns (MEP), underlying transport protocol bindings,
message processing models, and protocol extensibility. SOAP is the successor of
XML-RPC, though it borrows its transport and interaction neutrality and the
envelope/header/body from elsewhere (probably from WDDX).

POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

In networking, the Point-to-Point Protocol, or PPP, is a data link protocol

commonly used to establish a direct connection between two networking nodes. It
can provide connection authentication, transmission encryption privacy, and
compression.

PPP is used over many types of physical networks including serial cable, phone line,
trunk line, cellular telephone, specialized radio links, and fiber optic links such as
SONET. Most Internet service providers (ISPs) use PPP for customer dial-up access
to the Internet. Two encapsulated forms of PPP, Point-to-Point Protocol over
Ethernet (PPPoE) and Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA), are used by
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to connect Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Internet
service.

PPP is commonly used as a data link layer protocol for connection over synchronous
and asynchronous circuits, where it has largely superseded the older, non-standard
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and telephone company mandated standards
(such as Link Access Protocol, Balanced (LAPB) in the X.25 protocol suite). PPP
was designed to work with numerous network layer protocols, including Internet
Protocol (IP), Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), NBF and AppleTalk.

PPP is also used over broadband connections. RFC 2516 describes Point-to-Point
Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE), a method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet that is
sometimes used with DSL. RFC 2364 describes Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM
(PPPoA), a method for transmitting PPP over ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5),
which is also sometimes used with DSL.

PROTOCOL TESTING

In general, protocol testers work by capturing the information exchanged between a

Device Under Test (DUT) and a reference device known to operate properly. In the
example of a manufacturer producing a new keyboard for a personal computer, the
Device Under Test would be the keyboard and the reference device, the PC. The
information exchanged between the two devices is governed by rules set out in a
technical specification called a "communication protocol". Since communication
protocols are state-dependent (what should happen next depends on what previously
happened), specifications are complex and the documents describing them can be
hundreds of pages.

The captured information is decoded from raw digital form into a human-readable
format that permits users of the protocol tester to easily review the exchanged
information. Protocol testers vary in their abilities to display data in multiple views,
automatically detect errors, determine the root causes of errors, generate timing
diagrams, etc.

Some protocol testers can also generate traffic and thus act as the reference device.
Such testers generate protocol-correct traffic for functional testing, and may also
have the ability to deliberately introduce errors to test for the DUT's ability to deal
with error conditions.

Protocol testing is an essential step towards commercialization of standards-based

products. It helps to ensure that products from different manufacturers will operate
together properly ("interoperate") and so satisfy customer expectations..
BASIC NETWORK TOPOLOGY

TYPES OF NETWORK
LAN (Local Area Networks)
WAN (Wide Area Networks)
MAN (Metropolitan Area networks)
SAN (Storage Area Networks)
VPN (Virtual Private Networks)
LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORKS)

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORKS)

MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS)

SAN (STORAGE AREA NETWORK)

VPN VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORKS

INTRODUCTION TO OSI MODELS
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An
ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

OSI models is comprised of seven layers

 Physical (layer1), Data link (layer2), Network (layer3)

 Transport (layer4), Session (layer5), Presentation (layer6)

 Application (layer7)

LAYERS OF THE OSI MODELS

PEER-TO-PEER PROCESSES
Layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine - called
Peer-to-Peer Processes.

INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LAYERS OF THE OSI MODELS

LAYERS OF THE OSI MODELS
i. Physical Layer
ii. Data Link Layer
iii. Network Layer
iv. Transport Layer
v. Session Layer
vi. Presentation Layer
vii. Application Layer

PHYSICAL LAYER
Physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream
over a physical medium.

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from

one hop (node) to the next.
Physical layer is concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
 Representation of bits
 Data rate : transmission rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode

DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

MAJOR DUTIES DATA LINK LAYER

 Framing

 Physical addressing

 Flow control

 Error control

 Access control
NETWORK LAYER
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.

Logical addressing
Routing

TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.
PROCESS TO PROCESS DELIVERY

DUTIES OF TRANSPORT LAYER

 Service port addressing

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control

 Flow control

 Error control
SESSION LAYER
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

The fifty layer in the OSI Reference Modal is the session layer. As we proceed up the
OSI layer stack from the bottom, the session layer is the first

one where pretty much all practical matter related to the addressing, packaging and
delivery of layer four and below. It is the lowest of the three upper layer , which
collectively are concerned mainly with software application issues and not with the
details of network and internet implementation.

PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
 The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI Reference Model protocols stack,
and second form the top. It is different form the other layer

In two key respects. First, it has a much more limited and specific function

then the other layer, it is actually somewhat easy to describe ,hurray second ,it is
used much less often than the other, in many types of connections it is not required.

The name of this layer suggests its main function as well: it deals with the
presentation of data. More specifically, the presentation layer is changed with taking
care of any issues that might arise where data sent from one systems needs to be
viewed in a different way by the other systems .It also takes care of any special
processing that must be done to data from the time an application tries to send it until
the time it is sent over the network

APPLICATON LAYER
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

THE MAJOR DUTIES OF THE APPLICATION

 Network virtual terminal
 File transfer, access, and management

 Mail services

SUMMARY OF THE OSI LAYERS

IP ADDRESS (INTERNET PEOTOCOL)

 Every device connected to the public Internet is assigned a unique number

known as an Internet Protocol (IP) address.
 IP addresses consist of four numbers separated by periods (also called a 'dotted-
quad').
 An IP address can often be used to identify the region or country from which a
computer is connecting to the Internet. It gives general location of the User.
 The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this
system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 or IPv4, is still in use today.
 Due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the predicted depletion of
available addresses, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the
address.
 Such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6).

TYPES OF I.P ADDRESS

DYNAMIC STATIC

I.P ADDRESS I.P ADDRESS

DYNAMIC ADDRESS

 In situations when the computer's IP address is assigned newly each

time.
 Dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either by the computer
interface or host software itself.
 Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and
broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) servers.

STATIC ADDRESS
 Internet Protocol addresses are assigned to a host either anew at the
time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of its hardware
or software.
 Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an
administrator.
 Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as
when finding the Domain Name System(DNS) host that will translate
domain names to IP addresses.

CLASSES OF I.P ADDRESS

• Class A - large organizations , governments

• Class B - medium sized organizations
• Class C - small organizations.

IPV4 ADDRESSING
IPV4 VERSUS IPV6
ROUTER
 A router is a device that determines the next network point to which a packet
should be forwarded toward its destination

 Allow different networks to communicate with each other

 A router creates and maintains a table of the available routes and their
conditions and uses this information to determine the best route for a given
packet.

 A packet will travel through a number of network points with routers before
arriving at its destination.

 There can be multiple routes defined. The route with a lower weight/metric
will be tried first.

ROUTING
Routing is a process in which the best possible path calculate by the router by using
different matrix like( HOP, Bandwidth delay, Load ) to reach the data packets at
appropriate easily and fastly as possible .
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF ROUTING:

• Dynamic routing

• Default routing

• Static routing.

STATIC ROUTING

In this type of routing the administrator have to create routs manually in the routing
table. So it is not easy to create Static Routing in a large network. But this routing is
more secure than dynamic routing because as soon as the administrator create the
path for any new network the router can not ping the new network.

DEFAULT ROUTING

Default Routing is the part of Static Routing. We can configure the Default Routing
on the router which have only one exit path.

DYNAMIC ROUTING
In this type of routing the administrator do not have to create routs manually in the
routing table as it takes its route automatically. So it is easy to create Dynamic
Routing in a large network. But this routing is good & secure as compare to that of
the static routing. Under this the router can ping the new network.

TYPES OF PROTOCOLS

 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

 IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

 EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol).

DIFFERENCES
SWITCH
A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together
within one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer
two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model. Switch Receives the frame and read the
destination MAC Address and send it to the defined MAC address.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SWITCH
Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally
contains more intelligence than a hub. Unlike hubs, network capable of inspecting
data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination device of
each packet and forwarding them appropriately. By delivering messages only to the
connected device intend, a network switch conserves network bandwidth.
And offer a generally a better performance than a ‘Hub’ on busy network., Ethernet
network switches support either10/100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet
(10/100/1000) standards. A switch is effectively a higher performance alternative to a
hub. Switches are

Capable of determing the destination of each individual traffic element (such as

Ethernet frame). And selectively forwarding data to the computer that actually needs
it. By generating less network traffic in delivering messages, a switch performance
better than a ‘Hub’ on busy network.

WORKING OF A SWITCH

1. Switches work at Layer 2 of the OSI model, not Layer 1 like a Hub.

2. Switches switch Ethernet frames

3. Switches don’t look at IP address information, only Ethernet MAC addresses

4. Switches keeps a table of all MAC addresses traversing the switch and what port
they are on (this table is called the bridge forwarding table or CAM table)

5. Switches only send traffic to the devices that are the destination for that traffic,
saving bandwidth

6. Each device connected to the switch gets the full bandwidth of the switch port
because the switch prevents collisions

7. That information will be put in the bridge forwarding table so that, next time, the
switch won’t have to flood that traffic.

TYPES OF SWITCHES

1. Manageable Switches.

2. Non-Manageable Switches
Manageable switch

1. It supports SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol).

2. We can manage the Manageable switches.

3. Manageable switches create V-LANS.

4. It has consol port.

NON-MANAGEABLE SWITCHES

1. It does not support the SNMP protocol.

2. We cannot manage the Non-Manageable switches.

3. It does not support V-LAN and VTP configuration.

4. It does not have the console port.

5. Non-Manageable Switches are used for small business area and in small networks.

FORM FACTOR OF A SWITCH

1. Fixed Switches:

2. Modular Switches: In modular switches additional ports are added using card.

3. Stackable Switch: In stackable switches we can connect two or more switches to

work as single switch by connecting backplane cable.

TYPES OF SWITHCING

(a). Cut Through Switching.

(b). Store And Forward Switching.

(c). Fragment Free Switching.

FRAGMENT FREE SWITCHING

In this type of switching the switch accept the data and check the first 64 bytes of
data because the first 64 bytes considered more error prone. It is good from the three
type of switching. It is the most popular switching in the switches because it checks
for errors and does not provide delay.

CONCLUSION
As per of above discussion we conclude that these CCNA (Cisco Certified Network
Associate) serve as backbone for networking. This Cisco Certified Network
Associate is the set of communications of switches & routers used for the Internet
and other similar networks. In Cisco certified network associate we have learnt about
the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the upper layer
protocols networks based on using services from some lower layers.
Thank you