PH Environmental Laws

PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND
INTERNATIONAL PROTOCOL
Environmental Chemistry
REPUBLIC ACT TITLE SCOPE
PD 1181 Anti-smoke Bleaching Law --The increasing use of motor
vehicles is fast becoming a major
source of the growth in the
amount and complexity of air
pollution in the country,
particularly in urban areas.
-- this phenomenon is best

exemplified by the emission of
carbon monoxide, particulates,
sulfur dioxide and other
associated pollutants from about
400,000 registered vehicles of all
types in the Metro Manila
amounting to some 4,000 metric
tons a day, which accounts for
over 75 per cent of the total air
pollution in the area.
-- "Air Pollutant" Any harmful or

undesirable matter emitted in the
atmosphere, including smoke,
soot, solid particles of any kind,
undesirable gases, fumes and
obnoxious odors.
--Give virtues by Ferdinand E.

Marcos
PD 1369 Created the Human -- the expanding national
Settlement Ministry maritime fleet of the Philippines
in both domestic and foreign
trades consisting of cargo liners,
tankers, barges, tugboats, bulk
carriers and modern passenger
liners and the international
merchant fleets being served by
Filipino seamen requires and
ever-increasing number of
properly trained, skilled and
qualified seamen to man. Give
virtues by Ferdinand E. Marcos
LOI. 551 Letter of Instruction 551 -- Gave NPCC (National Price
Coordinating Council) the power
to close industries violating PD
1181 under PD 984 whereas
circular no. 1 prescribe the
pollutants emitted Give virtues by
Ferdinand E. Marcos by a motor
vehicle as follows: CO – 3.0 %,
HC (hemocyanin).
– 350 ppm, NO2 – 800 ppm and
smoke not more than 20%
dense.
Common Wealth Act Common Wealth Act -An act to punish the dumping
into any river or refuse
wastewater or substances of any
kind whatsoever that may bring
about the rise filling in of beds or
cause artificial alluvial
formations. Give virtues by
Ferdinand E. Marcos
PD 825 Providing penalty for -All garbages, filth and other
improper disposal of waste matters, shall be placed in
garbage and other forms of the proper receptacles for the
uncleanliness and for other disposition thereof by garbage
purposes. collectors. Give virtues by
Ferdinand E. Marcos. November
7, 1985.
PD 856 Code on Sanitation of the -Advance in the field of sanitation
Philippines in recent years, there arises the
need for updating and codifying
our scattered sanitary laws to
ensure that they are in keeping
with modern standards of
sanitation and provide a handy
reference and guide for their
enforcement.
-Water supply, food

establishment, health
certificates, Quality protection of
food, sanitary in floors, ceiling,
walls, lighting, ventilation.
Overcrowding and change
rooms, wash and wash basin
maintenance, food service
space, food handlers, vermin
control, toilet, disposal and
reduce etc.
PD 600 Prevention and Control and It is hereby declared a national
Marine Pollution policy to prevent and control the
pollution of seas by the dumping
of wastes and other matter which
create hazards to human health,
harm living resources and
marine life, damage amenities,
or interfere with the legitimate
uses of the sea within the
territorial jurisdiction of the
Philippines.
Discharge, dumping, oil, ocean,

public vessel, tank vessel, tank
barge, vessel and Person.
PD1586 Environmental Impact Pursuit of a comprehensive and
Assessment Law integrated environment
protection program necessitates
the establishment and
institutionalization of a system
whereby the exigencies of socio-
economic undertakings can be
reconciled with the requirements
of environmental quality
PD 274 Pertaining to the It has become imperative to
preservation, beautification, prevent the further deterioration
improvement and gainful of the Pasig River which has
utilization of the pasig river, resulted due to the indiscriminate
providing for the regulation disposal of wastes into the river,
and control of pollution of due to the lack of proper
the river and its banks in maintenance and due to the
order to enhance its inadequacy of systems of control
development, thereby over the use of the waterways of
maximizing its utilization for the river
socio-economic purposes
PD 281 Creating a Pasig river it is the declared policy of the
development council to Government to protect and
oversee the implementation transform the human
of the Pasig river environment in order to bring
development program and about accelerated socio-
providing the council with economic development as well
the power to administer the as the opportunity to enhance the
pasig river development quality of life of the greater
program trust account number of Filipinos;
PD 602 Establishing oil pollution Environmental pollution and
operations center in the contamination are increasing at
Philippine coast guard an alarming rate. the dangers of
headquarters major oil spills are increasing
with the increase of the size and
number of oil tankers traversing
waters close to the Philippines
PD 1067 Water Code of the Integrates all laws governing the
Philippines conservation and protection of
the country’s resources; answers
the need based on the rational
concepts of integrated and
multipurpose management of
water resources, and sufficiently
flexible to adequately meet future
developments; contains
measures to prevent flood and
other calamities caused by
abuse in the use of water.
PD 1160 Strengthening the Insurance Empowers barangay officials to
Industry arrest violators of laws for the
protection of the environment
RA 7924 MMDA Rules and An act creating the Metropolitan
Regulation RA 7924 Manila Development Authority,
defining its power and functions,
providing funds therefor and for
other purpose.
RA 6969 Toxic Substances and It is the policy of the State to
Hazardous and Nuclear regulate, restrict or prohibit the
Waste Act of (1990) importation, manufacture,
processing, sale, distribution,
use and disposal of chemical
substances and mixtures that
present unreasonable risk and/or
injury to health or the
environment; to prohibit the
entry, even in transit, of
hazardous and nuclear wastes
and their disposal into the
Philippine territorial limits for
whatever purpose; and to
provide advancement and
facilitate research and studies on
toxic chemicals.
RA 8749 Philippine Clean Air Act of The State shall protect and
1999 advance the right of the people to
a balanced and healthful ecology
in accord with the rhythm and
harmony of nature.
The State shall promote and

protect the global environment to
attain sustainable development
while recognizing the primary
responsibility of local
government units to deal with
environmental problems.
The State recognizes that the

responsibility of cleaning the
habitat and environment is
primarily area-based.
The State also recognizes the

principle that "polluters must
pay".
Finally, the State recognizes that

a clean and healthy environment
is for the good of all and should,
therefore, be the concern of all.
RA 9003 Ecological Solid Waste Set guidelines and targets for

Management Act solid waste avoidance and
volume reduction through source
reduction and waste
minimization measures,
including composting, recycling,
re-use, recovery, green charcoal
process, and others, before
collection, treatment and
disposal in appropriate and
environmentally sound solid
waste management facilities in
accordance with ecologically
sustainable development
principles.
Ensure the proper segregation,

collection, transport, storage,
treatment and disposal of solid
waste through the formulation
and adoption of the best
environmental practice in
ecological waste management
excluding incineration
Retain primary enforcement and

responsibility of solid waste
management with local
government units while
establishing a cooperative effort
among the national government,
other local government units,
non- government organizations,
and the private sector.
RA 9275 Clean Water Act of the The State shall pursue a policy of
Philippines economic growth in a manner
consistent with the protection,
preservation and revival of the
quality of our fresh, brackish and
marine waters. To achieve this
end, the framework for
sustainable development shall
be pursued.
a) Aquifer - means a layer of

water-bearing rock located
underground that transmits water
in sufficient quantity to supply
pumping wells or natural springs.
b) Aquatic life - means all

organisms living in freshwater,
brackish and marine
environment.
c) Beneficial use - means the use

of the environment or any
element or segment thereof
conducive to public or private
welfare, safety and health; and
shall include, but not be limited
to, the use of water for domestic,
municipal, irrigation, power
generation, fisheries, livestock
raising, industrial, recreational
and other purposes.
PD 984 Pollution Control Law Modify the organizational

structure of the NATIONAL
POLLUTION CONTROL
COMMISSION to make it more
effective and efficient in the
discharge of its functions and
responsive to the demands of the
times occasioned by the
accelerative phase of the
country's industrialization
program.
Pollution, Sewage, Industrial

Waste, Other waste, Sewage
system or sewerage system,
Treatment Works, Sewage
Works, Outlet, Commission and
Person.
PD 824 Creating the Metro Manila The rapid growth of population
and Metropolitan Manila and the corresponding increase
Commission and for other of social and economic
Purposes. requirements in the contiguous
communities referred to above
has brought into being a large
area that calls for simultaneous
and unified development
PD 1151 Philippine Environmental The individual and, at times,
Policy conflicting, demands of
population growth, urbanization,
industrial expansion, rapid
natural resources utilization and
increasing technological
advances have resulted in a
piecemeal-approach concept of
environmental protection
PD 1396 Creation of Human man and his community require
Settlement Ministry the fulfillment of the following
basic needs and requirements
such as water, power, food,
clothing, shelter, medical
services, education, sports and
recreation, economic base
(livelihood), mobility and
ecological balance embodied in
a humanistic ideology for the
realization of a New Society
PD 3931 National Water and Air Republic Act No. 3931 creating
Pollution Control Center the National Water and Air
Pollution Control Commission.
The Act declares as national
policy " to maintain reasonable
standards of purity for the waters
and of this country with their
utilisation for domestic,
agricultural, industrial and other
legitimate purposes.
PD 7942 Philippine Mining Act of All mineral resources in public
1995 and private lands within the
territory and exclusive economic
zone of the Republic of the
Philippines are owned by the
State. It shall be the
responsibility of the State to
promote their rational
exploration, development,
utilization and conservation
through the combined efforts of
government and the private
sector in order to enhance
national growth in a way that
effectively safeguards the
environment and protect the
rights of affected communities.
PD 8485 Animal Welfare Act It is the purpose of this Act to
protect and promote the welfare
of all animals in the Philippines
by supervising and regulating the
establishment and operations of
all facilities utilized for breeding,
maintaining, keeping, treating or
training of all animals either as
objects of trade or as household
pets. For purposes of this Act,
pet animal shall include birds.
It shall be unlawful for any

person to torture any animal, to
neglect to provide adequate
care, sustenance or shelter, or
maltreat any animal or to subject
any dog or horse to dogfights or
horsefights, kill or cause or
procure to be tortured or
deprived of adequate care,
sustenance or shelter, or
maltreat or use the same in
research or experiments not
expressly authorized by the
Committee on Animal Welfare.
The killing of any animal other

than cattle pigs, goats, sheep,
poultry, rabbits, carabaos,
horses, deer and crocodiles is
likewise hereby declared
unlawful except in the following
instances.
RA 9147 Wildlife Resources It shall be the policy of the State
Conservation and Protection to conserve the country’s wildlife
resources and their habitats for
sustainability. The provisions of
this Act shall be enforceable for
all wildlife species found in all
areas of the country, including
protected areas under Republic
Act No. 7586, otherwise known
as the National Integrated
Protected Areas System
(NIPAS) Act, and critical
habitats. This Act shall also apply
to exotic species which are
subject to trade, are cultured,
maintained and/or bred in
captivity or propagated in the
country.
RA 9367 Biofuels Act It is hereby declared the policy of
the State to reduce dependence
on imported fuels with due regard
to the protection of public health,
the environment, and the natural
ecosystems consistent with the
country's sustainable economic
growth that would expand
opportunities for livelihood by
mandating the use of biofuels as
a measure to:
a) Develop and utilize indigenous

renewable and sustainable-
sources clean energy sources to
reduce dependence on imported
oil.
b) Mitigate toxic and greenhouse

gas (GSG) emissions;
c) increase rural employment

and income; and
d) Ensure the availability of
alternative and renewable clean
energy without any detriment to
the natural ecosystem,
biodiversity and food reserves of
the country.
RA 9729 Climate Change Act Towards this end, the State

adopts the principle of protecting
the climate system for the benefit
of humankind, on the basis of
climate justice or common but
differentiated responsibilities and
the Precautionary Principle to
guide decision-making in climate
risk management. As a party to
the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change,
the State adopts the ultimate
objective of the Convention
which is the stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with
the climate system which should
be achieved within a time frame
sufficient to allow ecosystems to
adapt naturally to climate
change, to ensure that food
production is not threatened and
to enable economic development
to proceed in a sustainable
manner.1awphil As a party to the
Hyogo Framework for Action, the
State likewise adopts the
strategic goals in order to build
national and local resilience to
climate change-related
disasters.
1.2 Structure of the Atmosphere, Ozone, Photons and UV
Module 1.2.1 Structure of the atmosphere
1.2.2 Ozone
1.2.3 Photons and UV
Structure of the Atmosphere
Most of the atmospheric mass is confined in the lowest 100 km above sea level,
thickness of the atmosphere is only about 2% of Earth’s thickness (Earth’s radius =
~6500 km). Because the shallowness of the atmosphere, its motion over large areas
are primarily horizontal.
The typical, horizontal wind speeds are a thousand times greater than vertical wind
speed.
Fig 1. Atmosphere composition (Image sourced: ESS5 Prof Jin-Yi Yu Power point)
Permanent and Variable Gasses in the Atmosphere
Gases that form a

constant form a constant
portion of the
atmospheric mass
Gases concentration
changes from time to
time, place to place.
some gases of the
given gases are
important to weather
and clmate
Fig 2. Atmosphere composition (Image sourced: ESS5 Prof Jin-Yi Yu Power point)
Water Vapor
The most abundant variable gas that is supplied to the atmosphere by evaporation from the surface and is
removed from the atmosphere by condensation (ex. Rain clouds). Water vapor important to climate because
it is a greenhouse gas that can absorb thermal energy emitted by Earth and can release latent heat to fuel
weather phenomena. The concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere was substantially reduced.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is supplied into the atmosphere by plant and animal respiration, the decay of organic
material, volcanic eruptions, and natural and anthropogenic combustion. Carbon dioxide is removed from
the atmosphere via photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is an allowable pollutant in a minimal concentration
and an important greenhouse gas also.
Methane
A variable gas in small but recently increasing concentrations. Released to the atmosphere through fossil
fuel activities (ex. volcanic eruption, vehicles and etc.), livestock, digestion and agriculture cultivation (esp.
rice and corm). An effective absorber of terrestrial radiation from the space it plays a vital role in near
surface warming (can be considered as allowable pollutant).
Ozone
Fig 3. Ozone level in atmosphere (Image sourced: ESS5 Prof Jin-Yi Yu Power point)
Ozone is a gas made up of the three oxygen atoms (O3). It occurs naturally in small trace amounts in the
upper atmosphere (stratosphere). Ozone protects life on Earth from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation. In
the lower atmosphere (troposphere) near the Earth’s surface, ozone is created by chemical reactions
between air pollutants from vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and other emissions.
At ground level, high concentrations of ozone are toxic to

people and plants.
oxygen emerging as a major component of the atmosphere,

the concentration of ozone increased in the atmosphere
through a photodissociation process.
Fig 4. Ozone formation (Image sourced: ESS5 Prof Jin-Yi Yu Power point)
Aerosol
Small solid particles and liquid droplets in the air: they serve as condensation nuclei for cloud formation.
Frequently occurs as air pollutant gas produced by human activity whose concentration threatens living
organism or the environment.
Origin of the Atmosphere
 When Earth formed 4.6 Billion years ago, Earth’s atmosphere was probably mostly hydrogen and
helium plus hydrogen compounds such as methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).
 The release gases from rock through volcanic eruption (so-called outgassing) was the principal
source of the atmospheric gases.
 The primeval atmosphere produced by the outgassing was mostly carbon dioxide (CO2) with
some Nitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O), and trace amounts of other gases.
Chemical reaction in atmosphere frequently occurs in mesosphere and radio frequency are high in
ionosphere, as the altitude increases the temperature increases as well.
Vertical Composition of Atmosphere

Heterosphere
Dominated by lighter gases with increasing altitude, such hydrogen and helium.
Homosphere
This part of the atmosphere continually circulates, so that the principal atmospheric gases are well
mixed. As per study homosphere virtually the entire atmosphere.
Vertical Thermal Structure

Troposphere (overturning sphere)
 Contains 80% of the mass

 Surface heated by solar radiation
 Strong vertical motion where most weather events occurs
Tropopause
The tropopause is the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It is a
thermodynamic gradient stratification layer, marking the end of troposphere. It lies, on average, at 17
kilometres (11 mi) above equatorial regions, and about 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) over the polar regions.
Stratosphere (layer sphere)
 weak vertical motions

 dominated by radiative processes
 heated by ozone absorption of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation ƒ warmest (coldest) temperatures
at summer (winter) pole.
 The reasons for the inversion in the stratosphere is due to the ozone absorption of ultraviolet solar
energy.
 Although maximum ozone concentration occurs at 25km, the lower air density at 50km allows
solar energy to heat up temperature there at a much greater degree.
 Also, much solar energy is absorbed in the upper stratosphere and can not reach the level of
ozone maximum.
Stratopause
The stratopause (formerly Mesopeak) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers:
the stratosphere and the mesosphere. In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude, and
the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs.
Mesosphere (In-between sphere)
 heated by solar radiation at the base

 heat dispersed upward by vertical motion
 There is little ozone to absorb solar energy in the mesosphere, and therefore, the air temperature
in the mesosphere decreases with height.
 Also, air molecules are able to lose more energy than they absorb. This cooling effect is
particularly large near the top of the mesosphere.
Mesopause
The boundary in the earth's atmosphere between the mesosphere and the thermosphere, at which the
temperature stops decreasing with increasing height and begins to increase
Thermosphere (heated sphere)
 has a very little mass

 In thermosphere, oxygen molecules absorb solar rays and warms the air.
 Because this layer has a low air density, the absorption of small amount of solar energy can cause
large temperature increase.
 The air temperature in the thermosphere is affected greatly by solar activity.
Ionosphere
 The ionosphere is an electrified region

within the upper atmosphere where large
concentration of ions and free electrons
exist.
 The ionosphere starts from about 60km
above Earth’s surface and extends upward to
the top of the atmosphere. Most of the
ionosphere is in the thermosphere.
 The ionosphere plays an important role
in radio communication
Diabatic Process: Involves direct energy changes

ex. Heating or cooling of the air as it moves across a hot or cold surface
Adiabatic Processes: Heating by compression or cooling by expansion do not involve net energy
exchange heating or cooling is achieved by compression or expansion of the air
High temperature means that the molecule has high kinetic

energy, when compress air is getting warmer, when expand air
molecules flies in a lower speed means it cools down.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate = 10 C / 1000 m
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate = 5 C / 1000 m
Photons and UVs
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Types of magnetic spectrum:

1. Radio waves
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared
4. Ultraviolet ray
5. Gamma Ray
6. Cosmic Ray
Electromagnetic Spectrum
• As the arrow goes to the right the energy and frequency are increases
• As the arrow go to the left the wavelength increases
• Wavelength increases frequency will decrease and energy photon decreases as well
• Short wavelength corresponds to high energy photon and high frequency, a long wavelength
corresponds to low frequency and low energy.
Types of UV’s
• UVC refers to ultraviolet light with wavelengths between 200 – 280 nanometers (nm). Light in
the UVC wavelength can be used for disinfecting water, sterilizing surfaces, destroying harmful
micro-organisms in food products and in air.
• UVB and UVA Phototherapy is a treatment for skin eruptions using artificial ultraviolet light.
The initials UVB stand for the type B ultraviolet, the middle energy between the tanning rays
(UVA) and the intense germicidal UVC. UVB rays are the part of sunlight that gives one
sunburn.
1.3 Air Pollution in Human Health
Module 1.3 Air Pollution and Human Health

Air Pollution
 Presence in the atmosphere of substances whose concentration, quality and

duration affect the usefulness of air resources.
 When a healthy human lung exposed for 6-7 hrs. in a polluted air, lungWhen
a healthy human lung exposed for 6-7 hrs. in a polluted air, lung function
decreases and suffered from respiratory inflammation
 Pollutants mostly contain carcinogens living in a polluted area
 Vulnerable groups are mostly elderly, children and people with weak lungs
 function decreases and suffered from respiratory inflammation.
 Pollutants mostly contain carcinogens living in a polluted area.
 Vulnerable groups are mostly elderly, children and people with weak lungs.
AIR POLLUTION
OUTDOOR INDOOR
TYPES CONTROL
SOURCES
CONTROL
SOURCES NATURAL MAN-MADE

(Biogenic) (Anthropogenic)
MONITORING Industry
Pollen
Burning of
Bush Fire fossil fuel
Dessert Motor
Vehicles
Volcanic
eruption
A. Air Pollutant Classification

1. Primary Pollutant – emitted by an identifiable source
2. Secondary Pollutant – formed by chemical reactions
3. Criteria Pollutant – likely exist in all urban areas
4. Non-criteria Pollutant – industry specific
B. Major Air Pollutants

1. CO2
- Main product of fossil fuel combustion; major green house when it displaced O2 in
the air causes suffocation due to binomial
2. CO
- Product of incomplete combustion (low temperature) of fossil fuels
- Reacts with hemoglobin forming carboxyhemoglobin
- Strong affinity of hemoglobin for CO causes O2 to leave the tissue resulting in
anoxicity
3. SOx
- SOx compounds are acid rain precursors produced when they combined with water
droplets in the air to form sulfuric acid H2SO4
SO2 + O2  SO3
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
4. NOx
- NOx stands for an intermediate mixture of nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide,
NO2.
- Nitrogen oxides, NOx, are formed mainly from N2 and O2 during high temperature
combustion of fuels in cars.
- They cause the reddish-brown haze in the city which contributes to heart and lung
problems and may be carcinogenic.
- Nitrogen oxides are major contributors to the formation of ground level bad ozone.
5. Tropospheric Ozone
- Major constituents of photochemical smog
- Ozone is formed from the ozone precursors, VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
and nitrogen oxides.
- Alters vision which prevents the eyes from focusing properly and increases
calcification of bones resulting in premature aging and depletes body fat.
6. Chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs
- Artificial gases used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners.
- The most abundant CFC are CFC-11 (or CFCl3), and CF-12 (or CF2Cl2).
- Non-toxic non-flammable, non-biodegradable
- CFC are not water soluble, therefore, are not washed from the atmosphere by rain.
- Stable and can reach the atmosphere
7. Particulates (Particulate Matter)
- PM10, PM, Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
- PM (10) are particles with diameter less than 10 µ𝑚 (microns)
- Cause diverse health effects
- Contribute to urban haze, cause visibility reduction.
- Play a key role in the Earth’s radioactive budget and global change
C. Air Pollution Control Equipment

1. Settling Chamber – devices where particulate removal is by gravity;
recommended for particulate size in the range of 50 microns and higher.
2. Cyclone Collector – dirty gas is fed peripherally into the device. Particulate
removal by centrifugal impaction on the cyclone wall from where it falls to the
bottom; recommended for particulates of 20 to 45-micron size.
3. Scrubber – uses water to effect particulate separation from the gas stream. It may
also use a counter-current flow of gas in a spray tower, recommended for
particulates of 5 to 20 microns and must have high affinity for water.
4. Filter – separates the particulates from the main stream by direct interception; filter
medium is cloth (canvass or silicon-coated cloth) – 1 to 10 µ𝑚 or acetate membrane
filters – 0.1 µ𝑚.
5. Electrostatic Precipitators – most efficient method. Recommended for all sizes
of particulates especially those below 1 to 10 microns; gas is given an electrical
charge as it enters the device; the gas stream that passes between charged plates
which electrically attract the particulates.
Pollutants Sources and Standard Effects on Human Health
Carbon Dioxide Electricity and heat generation, 250 - 400 ppm: background (normal)
(CO2) Transportation sector, industrial outdoor air level.
sector residential, fossil fuels and
Others. 400 - 1,000 ppm: typical level found in
occupied spaces with good air exchange.
Standard: There are no indoor air 1,000 - 2,000 ppm: level associated with
standards for CO2; however, high complaints of drowsiness and poor air.
indoor air levels of carbon dioxide
could be an indicator the HVAC 2,000 - 5,000 ppm: level associated with
(heating, ventilation, and air headaches, sleepiness, and stagnant, stale,
conditioning) system is not working stuffy air. Poor concentration, loss of
properly. attention, increased heart rate and slight
nausea may also be present.
The amount of carbon dioxide in a
building is usually related to how 5,000 ppm: this indicates unusual air
much fresh air is being brought into conditions where high levels of other gases
that building. In general, the higher could also be present. Toxicity or oxygen
the CO2 level in the building, the deprivation could occur. This is the
lower the amount of fresh air permissible exposure limit for daily
exchange. Therefore, examining workplace exposures.
levels of CO2 in indoor air can reveal
if the HVAC systems are operating 40,000 ppm: this level is immediately
within guidelines. CO2 levels are harmful due to oxygen deprivation and can
usually measured in percent (%) of cause death
air or parts per million (ppm). High
CO2 levels, generally over 1000
ppm, indicate a potential problem
with air circulation and fresh air in a
room or building. In general, high
CO2 levels indicate the need to
examine the HVAC system. High
carbon dioxide levels can cause poor
air quality and can even extinguish
pilot lights on gas-powered
appliances.
Carbon Monoxide Indoor pollutants = Clothes dryer, Breathing CO can cause headache,
(CO) water heaters, furnace and boilers, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If CO
motor vehicles, power tool, levels are high enough, you may become
industrial unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate
and high levels of CO over long periods of
time has also been linked with increased
risk of heart disease. People who survive
severe CO poisoning may suffer long-term
health problems.
Scientists are not sure what the health
effects are when a person is exposed to low
levels of CO over a long period of time.
Better tracking of CO poisoning
and exposure can help us learn about the
effects of long-term exposures to low
levels of CO.
SOx (Sulfur dioxide) Point sources excluding electrical Short-term exposure to high levels of
utilities, fuel combustion, electrical sulfur dioxide can be life-threatening.
utilities, metal smelting, non-road Generally, exposures can cause a burning
process, industrial process. sensation in the nose and throat. Also,
exposure can cause difficulty breathing,
including changes in the body's ability to
take a breath or breathe deeply, or take in
as much air per breath. Long-term
exposure to sulfur dioxide can cause
changes in lung function and aggravate
existing heart disease.
People with asthma may be sensitive to

changes in respiratory effects due to SO2
exposure at even low concentrations.
Sulfur dioxide is not classified as a human
carcinogen (it has not been shown to
cause cancer in humans).
NOx (Nitrogen Non-road transport, Industrial

Breathing low levels of nitrogen dioxide
dioxide) process, energy production and can cause a slight cough, mild fatigue, and
distribution, residential, metal
nausea. Eye, nose, and throat irritation are
smelters, cement and concretes, also common symptoms. At high
transportation concentrations, NO2 can cause severe
coughing, choking, headache, nausea,
abdominal pain, and shortness of breath. If
the exposure is severe, symptoms may
continue after the exposure has ended,
causing difficulty in breathing for weeks.
Tropospheric Ozone General solvent, transportation, -Cause coughing and sore or scratchy
(Ozone, O3) printing surface and coating, throat.
industrial, household, road vehicles. Inflame and damage the airways.
-Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma,
emphysema, and chronic bronchitis.
-Increase the frequency of asthma attacks.
-Make the lungs more susceptible to
infection.
-Continue to damage the lungs even when
the symptoms have disappeared.
-Cause chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD).
Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of

health problems including chest pain,
coughing, throat irritation, and airway
inflammation. It also can reduce lung
function and harm lung tissue. Ozone can
worsen bronchitis, emphysema, and
asthma, leading to increased medical care.
Chlorofluorocarbons Foam insulation, Auto air published reports have indicated that
(CFCs) conditioning, commercial fluorocarbons can induce respiratory
refrigeration, solvent cleaning depression, bronchoconstriction, and death
aerosols, sterilization products. in exposed workers and individuals.
Types of CFCs A study with human volunteers who

inhaled CFC-113 for 1.25 to 2.75 hours
1. CFC- (hr) indicated that 2,500 parts of CFC-113
11 (trichlorofluoromethane - per million parts of air (2,500 ppm) may be
CFCl3) the threshold for impairment of
2. CFC-12 (dichloro- psychomotor functions such as manual
difluoromethane - CF2Cl2) dexterity, vigilance, and ability to
3. CFC-113 (trichloro- concentrate; such impairment disappeared
trifluoroethane - C2F3Cl3) within 15 minutes (min) after exposure
4. CFC-114 (dichloro- ceased [Stopps and McLaughlin 1967].
tetrfluoroethane - C2F4Cl2)
5. CFC-115 The lethal airborne concentration of CFC-
(chloropentafluoroethane - 113 for humans may be similar to that for
C2F5Cl) animals. The mean lethal concentration
(LC50) is the concentration at which 50%
of inhalation-exposed animals die during a
specific time period. In rats, the 4-hr LC50
for CFC-113 ranges from 52,000 to 68,000
ppm [ACGIH 1986].
Chemically induced cardiac (ventricular)

arrhythmia, fibrillation, and death have
been confirmed in experimental monkeys,
dogs, and mice exposed by inhalation to
CFC-113 and a number of other CFCs.
These responses were ascribed to
epinephrine hypersensitivity
Particulate Matter Building, transport, agriculture, Exposure to such particles can affect both
residential, industries, domestic your lungs and your heart. Numerous
combustion, Incombustible scientific studies have linked particle
production, smelters. pollution exposure to a variety of
problems, including:
 premature death in people with

heart or lung disease
 nonfatal heart attacks
 irregular heartbeat
 aggravated asthma
 decreased lung function
 increased respiratory symptoms,
such as irritation of the airways,
coughing or difficulty breathing.
People with heart or lung diseases,

children, and older adults are the most
likely to be affected by particle pollution
exposure.
Volatile Organic Indoor pollutant=paints, wood VOCs include a variety of chemicals that
Compounds (VOC) preservation, aerosol spray, cleanser can cause eye, nose and throat irritation,
and disinfectant, moth repellants and shortness of breath, headaches, fatigue,
air freshener, dry cleaned clothing nausea, dizziness and skin problems.
Higher concentrations may cause
irritation of the lungs, as well as damage
to the liver, kidney, or central nervous
system. Long-term exposure may also
cause damage to the liver, kidneys or
central nervous system.
Some VOCs are suspected of causing
cancer and some have been shown to
cause cancer in humans. The health
effects caused by VOCs depend on the
concentration and length of exposure to
the chemicals.
Most people are not affected by short-
term exposure to the low levels of VOCs
found in homes. Some people may be
more sensitive, such as people with
asthma. For long-term exposure to low
levels of VOCs, research is ongoing to
better understand any health effects from
these exposures.
Indoor Pollution
Indoor pollution is when pollutants from things such as gasses and particles contaminate the air
indoors. Indoor pollution is a very real and dangerous thing because indoor air is far more
concentrated with pollutants than outdoor air. Its estimated that 2.2 million deaths each year are
due to indoor air pollution (compared to 500,000 deaths from outdoor air pollution) many sources
of indoor pollution but they are different for developed and developing nations.
INDOOR
SOURCES 7 MAJOR INDOOR

POLLUTANTS
Carbon Monoxide
Tobacco smoke, Radon

chemical release from
the buildings (fumes), Nitrogen Dioxide
furnishing, household
products, pesticides, Second Hand smoke
asbestos, cleaning
products and, heat and
Lead particles
humidity can worsen
indoor pollution
Asbestos
Molds
AIR POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Reduce Air
Pollution
Government
Air Quality Monitoring
Industry Reduce the smoke

emission
Set Standards
Individual (Air Quality
Preventive measures Standard)
Reduce the usage of Technology

fossil fuels Innovation Environmental
Management
Limit the usage of
things that produce
smoke and indoor Criteria Pollutants
pollution (Pollutants that are
Political Social
allowed in the air)
1.5 Halogenated Hydrocarbons and Ozone Depletion
The Earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers: (a) the troposphere (the layer closest to the ground)
where most of the weather occurs (such as rain, snow, and clouds), (b) the layer above the troposphere (the
stratosphere), an important region in which effects such as the ozone hole and global warming originate.
Supersonic jet airliners fly in the lower stratosphere (a historical example was the French Concorde),
whereas subsonic commercial airliners are usually in the troposphere. The narrow region between these
two parts of the atmosphere is called the tropopause.
Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere, thinner in the tropics (around the equator) and denser toward the
poles. The amount of ozone above a given point on the Earth's surface is measured in Dobson units (DU)-
and is typically about 260 DU near the tropics and higher elsewhere, although there are large seasonal
fluctuations. Ozone is produced when ultraviolet radiation-generated in the Sunstrikes the stratosphere,
dissociating (or separating) dioxygen molecules (02) into atomic oxygen (0). Atomic oxygen quickly
combines with more dioxygen molecules to form ozone.
(1) O2 + hv  O + O
(2) O +O2  O3
(wavelength, λ 240 nm).
Up in the stratosphere, ozone absorbs some of the potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the
Sun (i.e., at wavelengths between 240 and 320 nm) that can cause skin cancer and damage vegetation,
among other effects.
Although the UV radiation dissociates the ozone molecule, ozone can reform through the following
reactions, resulting in no net loss of ozone:
(3) O3 + hv  O2 + O
(4) O + O2  O3
Ozone is also destroyed by the following reaction
O + O3  O2 + O2
The Chapman Reaction
The reactions 1to 4 are known as the Chapman reactions. Reaction 2 becomes slower with increasing
altitude, while reaction 3 becomes faster. The concentration of ozone is a balance between these competing
reactions. In the upper atmosphere, atomic oxygen dominates where UV levels are high. Moving down
through the stratosphere, UV absorption increases and ozone levels peak at roughly 20 km, as we move
closer to the ground, UV levels decrease and ozone levels fluctuate (with a general decreasing trend). The
layer of ozone formed in the stratosphere by these reactions is sometimes called the Chapman layer.
Molecular chlorine is easily photo dissociated (i.e., split by sunlight):
Cl2 +hv --+ Cl +Cl
This is the key to the timing of the ozone hole. During the polar winter, the cold temperatures that form in
the "vortex" lead to the formation of polar stratospheric clouds. Heterogeneous reactions convert the
reservoir forms of the ozone-destroying species (like chlorine and bromine) to their molecular forms. When
the sunlight returns to the polar region during the spring in the southern hemisphere (corresponding to the
northern hemisphere autumn), the Cl2 is rapidly split into chlorine atoms, which lead to the sudden loss of
ozone. This sequence of events has been confirmed by measurements before, during, and after the ozone
hole.
There is still one more ingredient to consider in the broad picture of the ozone destruction. We still have
most of the ozone, but we have not explained the chemical reactions in which atomic chlorine actually
participates to destroy ozone.
Fig 1. Chapman Cycle
Photolysis of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFCs, the substances discussed in the background section, release chlorine by absorbing light. To
demonstrate this reaction, we will be looking at CCl2F2 (also called CFC-12), where the C-F bond
(dissociation energy 110 kcal mol-1) is much stronger than the C-Cl bond (dissociation energy 76 kcal mol-
1
), which allows the C-Cl bond to break at longer wavelengths.
The significance of this reaction is that it produces chlorine atoms. CFCs alone are harmless to the ozone
layer: it is the chlorine atoms released by photolysis that are harmful.
Types of CFCs
1. CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane - CFCl3)

2. CFC-12 (dichloro-difluoromethane - CF2Cl2)
3. CFC-113 (trichloro-trifluoroethane - C2F3Cl3)
4. CFC-114 (dichloro-tetrfluoroethane - C2F4Cl2)
5. CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane - C2F5Cl)
Formula Common Name IUPAC Name Important Use

Derived from CH4
CH3Cl Methyl Chloride Chloromethane refrigerant; the
manufacture of
silicones, methyl
cellulose, and synthetic
rubber
CH2Cl2 methylene chloride dichloromethane laboratory and
industrial solvent
CHCl3 chloroform trichloromethane industrial solvent
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane dry-cleaning solvent
and fire extinguishers
(but no longer
recommended for use)
CBrF3 halon-1301 bromotrifluoromethane fire extinguisher
systems
CCl3F chlorofluorocarbon-11 trichlorofluoromethane foaming plastics
(CFC-11)
CCl2F2 chlorofluorocarbon-12 dichlorodifluoromethane refrigerant

(CFC-12)
Derived from CH3CH3
CH3CH2Cl ethyl chloride chloroethane local anesthetic
ClCH2CH2Cl ethylene dichloride 1,2-dichloroethane solvent for rubber
CCl3CH3 methylchloroform 1,1,1-trichloroethane solvent for cleaning
computer chips and
molds for shaping
plastics
Table 1. List of Sample Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Alkanes substituted with both fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl) atoms have been used as the dispersing gases
in aerosol cans, as foaming agents for plastics, and as refrigerants. Two of the best known of these
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are listed in Table 1.
Chlorofluorocarbons contribute to the greenhouse effect in the lower atmosphere. They also diffuse into
the stratosphere, where they are broken down by ultraviolet (UV) radiation to release Cl atoms. These in
turn break down the ozone (O3) molecules that protect Earth from harmful UV radiation. Worldwide action
has reduced the use of CFCs and related compounds. The CFCs and other Cl- or bromine (Br)-containing
ozone-destroying compounds are being replaced with more benign substances. Hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), such as CH2FCF3, which have no Cl or Br to form radicals, are one alternative. Another is
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), such as CHCl2CF3. HCFC molecules break down more readily in the
troposphere, and fewer ozone-destroying molecules reach the stratosphere.
Fig 2. Ozone in the upper atmosphere shields Earth’s surface from UV radiation from the sun, which can cause skin
cancer in humans and is also harmful to other animals and to some plants. Ozone “holes” in the upper atmosphere
(the gray, pink, and purple areas at the center) are large areas of substantial ozone depletion. They occur mainly over
Antarctica from late August through early October and fill in about mid-November. Ozone depletion has also been
noted over the Arctic regions. The largest ozone hole ever observed occurred on 24 September 2006.
Catalytic Destruction Ozone
Measurements of chemical species above the pole show high levels of active forms of chlorine. However,
we still have many more atoms of ozone than we do of the active chlorine, so how it is possible to destroy
nearly all of the ozone? The answer to this question lies in what are known as "catalytic cycles." A catalytic
cycle is one in which a molecule significantly changes or enables a reaction cycle without being altered by
the cycle itself. The production of active chlorine requires sunlight, and sunlight drives the following
catalytic cycles thought to be the main cycles involving chlorine, responsible for destroying the ozone:
CIO+CIO+M --+ Cl202 +M (6)

Cl202+ hv --+ Cl +CI02 (7)
CI02+M --+ Cl +O2+M (8)
where M represents any mediator atom or molecule needed to absorb the excess energy of the intermediate
formed.
Then:
2x (Cl + O3)  2 x (ClO + O2) (9)
Net reaction:
2O3  3O2 (10)
When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC* (CFCl3) molecules in the upper atmosphere, a carbon-
chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The chlorine atom then reacts with an ozone (O3)
molecule breaking it apart and so destroying the ozone A single CFC molecule can destroy
100,000 ozone molecules.
Fig 2. Catalytic Destruction of Ozone by Chlorine
Generalization:
1.6 Photocatalytic Remediation of Pollutants
Introduction
Clean air is essential to people’s health and that of the environment. Since the industrial revolution,
however, the quality of the air that people breathe has deteriorated considerably - mainly as a result of
human activities. Rising industrial and energy production, the burning of fossil fuels and the dramatic rise
in traffic all contribute to air pollution in our towns and cities which, in turn, can lead to serious health
problems.
What is Photocatalysis?
The photoactivity of semiconductor metal oxides has long been known. Earlier examples include the self-
oxidation of early house paints wherein the near UV solar photoactivation of titania (TiO2) pigments
generated oxidizing species which attacked the organic binder of the paint, leading to discoloration and
eventual pigment loss from the surface
Figure 1. Mechanism of Photocatalysis
Conduction Band – Band of electron orbital that can jump up from the valence band when excited, when
the electrons are in these orbitals, they have enough energy to move freely.
Valence Band – Band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump out of, moving into conductive band
when excited. The outermost electron orbital of an atom of any specific material that electrons actually
occupy.
Reduction - Chemical reaction that involves the gaining of electrons by one of the atoms involved in the
reaction between two chemicals. as the oxidation state of the element that gains electrons is lowered.
Oxidation - Oxidation is the loss of electrons during a reaction by a molecule, atom or

ion. Oxidation occurs when the oxidation state of a molecule, atom or ion is increased. The
opposite process is called reduction, which occurs when there is a gain of electrons or the oxidation state
of an atom, molecule, or ion decreases.
These commercial products are based on the photo-catalytic properties of a thin layer of TiO2 deposited at
the surface of the material (such as glass, pavement) or embedded in paints or concrete. The use of TiO2
photocatalysts as an emerging air pollution control technology has been reported in many European areas.
However, it seems that both the effectiveness and the real impact on air quality of these relatively new
technologies up to now have been demonstrated only in a very limited manner before going into the
European market. Heterogeneous photocatalysis has been reported for gas and liquid phase remediation.
Classically, the overall process can be decomposed into five independent steps:
1. transfer of the reactants in gas or liquid phase to the surface;
2. adsorption of at least one of the reactants;
3. reaction in the adsorbed phase;
4. desorption of the product(s);
5. removal of the products from the interface region.
Application
Air handling in buildings and exhausts usually requires low pressure drop flow configurations [38]. The
use of ceramic honeycombs, ceramic monoliths, and glass fiber filters as photocatalyst supports has been
reported; developments continue in this area.
Kinetic models of two types have been developed to date. The first one involves batch kinetics and
demonstrates the ability to model the entire course of photocatalyzed reaction from reactant disappearance
through one or several intermediates, to final products of carbon dioxide and water.
Titanium Dioxide role in Photocatalytic Remediation of Pollutants
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been extensively studied with regard to its application as the physical sunblock
in sunscreens or other cosmetic products and in environmental remediation processes because of its high
degree of photocatalytic activity, chemical stability, nontoxicity, and commercial availability.
Heterogeneous photocatalysis over UV-illuminated semiconductors constitutes a very promising technique
for air purification. However, the valence band holes and conduction band electrons, which are produced
with the UV irradiation, easily recombine and liberate light or heat, which are responsible for low
degradation efficiency. In order to enhance degradation efficiency, modifications of TiO 2 have been
conducted with metal or nonmetal substances.
Air handling in buildings and exhausts usually requires low pressure drop flow configurations [38]. The
use of ceramic honeycombs, ceramic monoliths, and glass fiber filters as photocatalyst supports has been
reported; developments continue in this area.
Kinetic models of two types have been developed to date. The first one involves batch kinetics and
demonstrates the ability to model the entire course of photocatalyzed reaction from reactant disappearance
through one or several intermediates, to final products of carbon dioxide and water.
Fig 2. Process of Photocatalyst Action

1.7 Treatment of Gas Pollutants
Electrochemical Treatment of Gas Pollutants
Electrochemical remediation methods require an ion-conducting medium to perform their function of
oxidizing or reducing polluting species. For this reason, gaseous mixtures must be normally absorbed first
in aqueous solutions to be treated.
This can be accomplished either by using an absorption medium inside an electrochemical cell (inner-cell
process) or by first absorbing the gas and then transferring the absorption medium in to the electrochemical
cell for treatment (outer-cell process). Also, in such methods the polluting species can either undergo
electron transfer on an electrode surface (direct electrolysis), or electron scan be shuttled to/from the
electrode by an electron carrier or mediator (indirect electrolysis).
Hydrogen sulfide is a well-known pollutant produced in considerable amounts by sulfate reduction in
organic-rich (anaerobic) environments, from heavy oil desulfurization processes, oil recovery operations,
coal gasification/liquefaction processes, etc.
It is frequently treated by absorption in basic scrubbing solutions of different amines where by the scrubbing
liquor can be regenerated, providing a concentrated stream of H2S that unfortunately requires further
treatment. Alternatively, the Claus process can be used:
3
H2S(g) + 2 O2(g)  SO2(g) +H2O(g) (1)
H2S(g) +SO2(g)  2S(s) + H2O(g) + ½ O2(g) (2)
Note: Dihydrogen sulfide is a very poisonous gas. It binds to hemoglobin were dioxygen should be bound
thus prevents its uptake and transport, it can lead to intoxication. (In extreme cases, even to death).
This presents the following disadvantages:
1) hydrogen is essentially wasted, because H2Ois produced from it,

2) the high temperatures and catalysts required do not offer flexible adjustment to varying concentrations
of H2S,
3) a pre-treatment for the separation of companion hydrocarbons and H2 is required, and
4) a post-treatment is required since the Claus process converts only 90-98% of the initial H2Scontent.
Fig. 1 Electrolyte Sensor for Indoor and Outdoor Gas Pollutants

Anode is where the electrode oxidation occurs.

Cathode is the electrode where reduction occurs.
Fig 2. Anode and Cathode in water
Air Pollution Control Equipment
1. Settling Chamber is solid-gas separation system removing dust from gas streams using a
combination of gravitational and inertial forces. These forces move the dust to an area where the
forces exerted by the gas stream are minimal which allow the dust to settle into a hopper under the
effect of gravity.
Fig 3. Polluted air passing through the Settling Chamber then by a barrier inside, solid particles are drag
down by the use of gravity
2. Cyclone Collector A cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas
or liquid stream, without the use of filters, through vortex separation. dirty gas is fed peripherally
into the device. Particulate removal by centrifugal impaction on the cyclone wall from where it
falls to the bottom; recommended for particulates of 20 to 45-micron size.
Fig 4. Dirty air that passes through the Cyclone collector, whereas solid particulate matter was remove
through vortex force of the wind
3. Scrubber – uses water to effect particulate separation from the gas stream. It may also use
a counter-current flow of gas in a spray tower, recommended for particulates of 5 to 20
microns and must have high affinity for water.
Fig 5. Part of fractional distillation which is removing the harmful particulates for the emission of clean
air
4. Filter – separates the particulates from the main stream by direct interception; filter
medium is cloth (canvass or silicon-coated cloth) – 1 to 10 µ𝑚 or acetate membrane filters
– 0.1 µ𝑚.
Fig 6. Dirty Air passes through the filer and comes out as fresh air
5. Electrostatic Precipitators – most efficient method. Recommended for all sizes of

particulates especially those below 1 to 10 microns; gas is given an electrical charge as it
enters the device; the gas stream that passes between charged plates which electrically
attract the particulates.
Fig 7. Polluted Air passing through the Electrostatic Precipitators

Water Chemistry
Module 1.1 Introduction to Water Chemistry
1.2 Water Characterization
Water Chemistry
Introduction
About 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by water. Breaking it down, 96.5 percent of the water in
the Earth's crust is found in oceans, 1.7 percent in ice caps and glaciers, 1.7 percent in ground water, a small
fraction in rivers and lakes, and 0.001 percent in clouds, water vapor, and precipitation. Water is the third
most abundant molecule in the universe, after hydrogen gas (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO). Water has an
extraordinarily high specific heat capacity [4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C] and also a high heat of vaporization
[40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point]. Both of these properties are a result of hydrogen
bonding between neighboring water molecules. Water is nearly transparent to visible light and the regions
of the ultraviolet and infrared spectrum near the visible range. The molecule absorbs infrared light,
ultraviolet light, and microwave radiation.
Water Classification
Depends on the uses of water, namely for domestic water supply, industrial purpose, irrigation,
transportation, habitat for marine life and fish, and recreational and how on the standards may contribute to
the environment making a community more pleasant to live in.
Streams are classified according ti the highest beneficial use that can be obtain from them.
Water Usage and Classification

(source: DENR administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990, Revised Water Usage and Classification
/Quality Criteria Amending Section Nos. 68 and 69, Chapter 3, of the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulation)
(a) Fresh Surface Waters (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)

Classification Beneficial Use
Class AA Public Water Supply Class I. This class is
intended primarily for waters having watersheds
which are uninhabited and otherwise protected and
which require only approved disinfection in order
to meet the National Standards for Drinking Water
(NSDW) of the Philippines (Potable)
Class A Public Water Supply Class II. For sources of
water supply that will require complete treatment
(coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW.
Class B Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact
recreation such as bathing, swimming, skin diving,
etc. (particularly those designated for tourism
purposes).
Class C 1) Fishery Water for the propagation and growth
of fish and other aquatic resources;
2) Recreational Water Class II (Boatings, etc.)
3) Industrial Water Supply Class I (For
manufacturing processes after treatment).
Class D 1) For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering,
etc.
Water Chemistry
2) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling,
etc.) Minimum for discharges
3) Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to
this classification.
Table 1. Fresh water classification and Usage
(b) Coastal and Marine Waters

Classification Beneficial Use
Class SA 1) Waters suitable for the propagation, survival
and harvesting of shellfish for commercial
purposes;
2) Tourist zones and national marine parks and
reserves established under Presidential
Proclamation No. 1801; existing laws and/or
declared as such by appropriate government
agency.
3) Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law
and concerned authorities.
Class SB 1) Recreational Water Class I (Areas regularly
used by the public for bathing, swimming, skin
diving, etc.);
2) Fishery Water Class I (Spawning areas for
Chanos chanos or "Bangus" and similar species).
Class SC 1) Recreational Water Class II (e.g. boating,
etc.); 2) Fishery Water Class II (Commercial
and sustenance fishing);
3) Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish
and wildlife sanctuaries;
Class SD 1) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g.
cooling, etc.);
2) Other coastal and marine waters, by their
quality, belong to this classification.
Table 2. Coastal and Marine water classification and Usage
Characteristics of Wastewater
A. Physical Characteristics
1. Color – generally an indication of the age of sewage (e.g. fresh: grayish, septic: Black)
this color parameter indicates the freshness of sewage also.
Measurement
 Visual Comparison Method
Nessler Tubes – color comparison of tubes containing water of different colors and
assigned a color unit ranging from 1 to 70 where 1 color unit Pt = ½ m/L Co.
 Photoelectric Colorimeters
Water Chemistry
2. Odor – comes from septic decomposition at organic wastes and is due to the presence of
gases such as:
Compound Odor Structure

Amines Fishy CH3NH2(CH3)3N
Ammonia Ammoniacal NH3
Diamines Decayed fish NH2(CH2)4NH2, NH2(CH2)5NH2
Hydrogen Sulfide Rotten eggs H2S
Mercaptans Skunk CH3SH, CH3(CH2)3SH
Organic Sulfides Rotten cabbage (CH3)2S, CH3SSCH3
Skatole fecal C8H5NHCH3
Measurement
 Olfactometer
 Sensory Method – Panels of Human Subjects are initially exposed to odor free air
and then the sampled air which has been diluted with-odor free air to give the
MDTOC. The number of dilutions give TON
MDTOC / TON
Where MDTOC = minimum detectable threshold odor concentration and
TON = threshold odor number
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟+𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑖𝑟

TON =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟
3. Turbidity – the amount of suspended matter in water/waste water and is obtained by
measuring its light scattering ability. It is also a measure of the ability of sunlight to pass
through the water and the ability of water to disperse different materials disposed into it. A
typical clear lake has a turbidity of about 25 units while muddy water exceeds 100 units.
Measurement
 Jackson Turbidity Meter – JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
1 unit = 1 mg/L silica in H2O
 Secchi Disk Depth – depth in which secchi disk may still be visible to the naked
eye when submerged into the water.
4. Temperature – lowers the solubility of oxygen in water and increases the rate at which
oxygen-consuming microbes attack the organic waste.
5. Total Solids – Solid residue when water is evaporated at 103 – 105 ֯C
Water Chemistry
B. Chemical Characteristics
1. pH- a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water
2. Calcium and Magnesium Salts – cause hardness in water and the formation of scales and
deposits on the pipeline and fittings in the industry
3. Nitrogen and Phosphorus- basic components of fertilizer serves as nutrient for microbial
growth in particular algae. Excessive amounts can lead to algae blooms which cause
eutrophication or the overabundance in the growth of algae giving water a pea-soup
appearance.
4. Trace Metal – refers to the heavy metal which are toxic even in a small concentration.
 Biomagnification – involves the accumulation of trace metals through each
species of the food chain
 Mercury – easily converted to the toxic methyl mercury which causes Minamata
disease which is neurological disease characterized by trembling, inability to walk
and speak and even serious convulsions that can lead to death.
 Cadmium – responsible for the itai-itai disease (ouch-ouch) disease which is an
extreme and painful disease that cause the disintegration of bones.
 Silver – causes argyria the blue-gray discoloration of the skin and mucous
membrane.
 Arsenic – recognized poison, carcinogenic.
 Chromium – causes neurological disease.
 Lead – leads to fetal malformation, mental disability, irritability, loss of appetite
and reduction of sex drive.
5. Proteins – principal constituents of animal organisms and in a large quantity causes
extremely foul odors.
6. Carbohydrates – include sugars, starches, cellulose and loss fibers.
Sugar + bacteria –--ferment alcohol + CO2
7. Oil, fats, greases - prevent natural aeration reducing the use of the street for fishing.
8. Surfactants – substances that cause foaming in water.
9. Phenols – cause taste problems in water particularly when the water in chlorinated.
10. Pesticide and Agricultural Chemicals – have the capacity to biomagnify and at certain
concentration, are carcinogenic.
C. Biological Characteristic
𝑀𝑃𝑁
Measurement: where MPN = most probable number
100 𝑚𝑙
Uses: Escherichia Coli
1. Measurement of Organic Content
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – actual quantity of free O2 present in the water. Factors affecting
the DO are temperature and total dissolved solids.
 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) – a measure of the amount of oxygen needed to
oxidize completely an organic matter whose chemical formula is known.
Water Chemistry
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) – a measurement of the oxygen needed by the
microorganism to decompose biodegradable organics at a specified time (5 days),
temperature (20 ֯C) and pH (7) (amount of oxygen required).
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) – a measure of the amount of O2 needed to oxidize
organics using strong oxidizing agents (KMnO4 or K2Cr2O2) in an acid media.
 Total Organic Demand (TOD) - organics are covered in a stable end product in a Pt-
catalyzed combustion chamber and is determined by monitoring the O2 content present in
the products.
 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) – organic matter is oxidized in a high temperature furnace
to convert C to CO2.
2. Kinetic of BOD
BODt = LO (1 – e-Kt )
Where L = amount of O2 present in H2O at any time, t;
LO = amount of O2 present in water at t = 0; BODt = BOD at any time; t and k = deoxygenation
constant, time-1
For polluted and waste water k20 ֯C = 0.10/day
For sewage k20 ֯C = 0.23/day
At different temperatures kT = k20 ᶿ(T-20)
ᶿ = 1.056 (T = 20 -30 ֯C)
1.135 (T < 20 ֯C)

1.047 (T > 30 ֯C)
Table 3. Significant Parameters for Selected Types of Industries
Type of Industry Significant Waste Water Parameters

A. BEVERAGE INDUSTRY BOD5, pH, Suspended Solids, Settleable
Solids, Oil and Grease
B. CEMENT, CONCRETE, LIME & pH, Suspended Solids, Dissolved Solids,
GYPSUM Temperature
C. DAIRY PRODUCT PROCESSING BOD5, COD, pH, Suspended Solids,
Dissolved Solids Settleable Solids
D. FERRO ALLOY MFG. (electric furnace Suspended Solids, Chromium (hexavalent)
with wet air pollution control) Oil and Grease, Phenols, Phosphates
E. FERTILIZER INDUSTRY Nitrogen Chloride, Chromium, Dissolved Solids,
Fertilizer Industry Phosphate Fertilizer Nitrate, Suspended Solids pH, Phosphorus,
Industry
Water Chemistry
Suspended Solids, Temperature, Cadmium,
Arsenic
F. GRAIN MILLNG INDUSTRY BOD5, Suspended Solids, Temperature
G. INORGANIC CHEMICALS, ALKALIES pH, Total Suspended Solids, Total Dissolved
AND CHLORINE INDUSTRY Solids, Chlorides, Sulfates, COD,
Temperature
H. LEATHER TANNING & FINISHING BOD5, COD, Chromium, Oil and Grease, pH,
INDUSTRY Suspended Solids, Color, Dissolved Solids
I. LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY BOD5, COD, Total Suspended Solids, pH,
Color, Total Coliforms
J. MEAT, FISH AND FRUIT CANNING BOD5, COD, Suspended Solids, pH, Oil &
Grease, Dissolved Solids
K. MEAT PRODUCTS INDUSTRY BOD5, pH, Suspended Solids, Settleable
Solids, Oil and Grease, Total Coliforms,
Toxic Materials
L. METAL FINISHING INDUSTRY Oil and Grease, Heavy Metals (Cr, Cd, etc.).
Suspended Solids, Cyanide
M. MINERAL ORE PROCESSING (Mining Suspended Solids, Heavy Metals (Hg, Cn, Cd,
Industry) etc.), Arsenic
N. ORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRY BOD5, COD, pH, Total Suspended Solids,
Total Dissolved Solids, Oil (Free-Floating)
O. PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY BOD5, Heavy Metals, COD, Oil (Total) pH,
Phenols, Suspended Solids, Temperature,
Total Dissolved Solids
P. PLASTIC MATERIALS & SYNTHETIC BOD5, COD, pH, Total Suspended Solids,
INDUSTRY Oil and Grease, Phenols
Q. PULP & PAPER INDUSTRY BOD5, COD, pH, Total Suspended Solid, E.
Coli, Color, Heavy Metals, Dissolved Solids,
Oil & Grease, Phenols
R. STEEL INDUSTRY Oil and Grease, pH, Cyanide, Phenol,
Suspended Solids, Temperature, Chromium
S. SUGAR CANE PROCESSING BOD5, pH, Suspended Solids, Oil and grease
INDUSTRY
T. TEXTILE MILL INDUSTRY BOD5, COD, pH, Suspended Solids,
Chromium, Phenols, Color, Oil and Grease
U. THERMAL POWER GENERATION BOD5, Color, Chromium, Oil and Grease,
pH, Phosphate, Suspended Solids,
Temperature
Water Chemistry
2.3 Total Water Hardness
Objective:
To determine the total hardness of the given samples by EDTA titrimetric method.
Principle:
Originally, the hardness of water was understood to be a measure of the capacity of water for
precipitating soap. Soap is precipitated chiefly by the calcium and magnesium ions commonly
present in water, but may also be precipitated by ions of other polyvalent metals, such as
aluminium, iron, manganese, strontium and zinc, and by hydrogen ions. Because, all but the first
two are usually present in insignificant concentrations in natural waters, hardness is defined as a
characteristic of water, which represents the total concentration of just the calcium and the
magnesium ions expressed as calcium carbonate. However, if present in significant amounts, other
hardness producing metallic ions should be included.
When the hardness is numerically greater than the sum of the carbonate alkalinity and the
bicarbonate alkalinity, the amount of hardness, which is equivalent to the total alkalinity, is called
carbonate hardness; the amount of hardness in excess of this is called non-carbonate hardness.
When the hardness is numerically equal to or less than the sum of carbonate and bicarbonate
alkalinity all of the hardness is carbonate hardness and there is no noncarbonate hardness. The
hardness may range from zero to hundreds of milligrams per litre in terms of calcium carbonate,
depending on the source and treatment to which the water has been subjected.
Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid and its sodium salts (EDTA) form a chelated soluble complex
when added to a solution of certain metal cations. If a small amount of a dye such as Eriochrome
black T is added to an aqueous solution containing calcium and magnesium ions at a pH of 10 ±
0.1, the solution will become wine red. If EDTA is then added as a titrant, the calcium and
magnesium will be complexed. After sufficient EDTA has been added to complex all the
magnesium and calcium, the solution will turn from wine red to blue. This is the end point of the
titration.
Experimental Sequence
1. Measure the pH of the sample with a pH meter or pH indicator paper. Fill the microburet
with the concentrated EDTA solution, and adjust to a known volume.
2. In order to measure the total hardness value (i.e., the Ca2+ + Mg2+ concentration), place
a 2-rnL, solids-free water sample (measured with a volumetric pipet) in an Erlenmeyer
flask. Add 23 mL of the pH 10 buffer, swirl and add one or two crystals (or a small amount
of powder) of the Eriochrome black solid indicator. Swirl until total dissolution. The
mixture should now appear with ared wine color. Titrate this with the EDTA solution to
adark-blueendpoint. If the amount of titrant needed to reach the endpoint is too small to be
measured, repeat the titration with another sample using a more dilute titrant (e.g., 0.001
M EDTA). Note: If the blue color appears from the start, this means there is no measurable
hardness in the sample.
2.3 Total Water Hardness
3. With a volumetric pipet, put 2 mL of the sample (free of solids) in a25-mL Erlenmeyer
flask. Add 1 mL of 2 M NaOH to ensure that the pH is frankly basic (pH rv 11); add one
or two crystals of solid murexide indicator (or a small amount of its powder), and swirl
softly until they dissolve. Titrate with 0.01 M EDTA to a violet endpoint. If the amount of
titrant needed to reach the endpoint is too small to measure, repeat the titration with another
sample using a more dilute titrant (e.g., 0.001 M EDTA). This value will let us know the
calcium ion concentration in the sample. Repeat this method with each water sample.
4. One mole of EDTA is consumed for each mole of Ca2+ or Mg2+. Because the MW of
calcium carbonate is virtually equal to 100, then the concentration of Ca or Mg (expressed
as mg/L of calcium carbonate) can be calculated with the following equation:
Total or Ca^2+ Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3 =

𝑔
(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑥 (𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑥 100 𝑥 1000 𝑚𝑔/𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
Scenario: 100 mL of water sample was given, the titration volume is 10 mL

Total Water Hardness
Mr. Perseval S. Pineda
January 10, 2020

FEU Alabang
Learning objectives
• To determine the hardness of water and its purpose
• Types of water hardness
• Calculate the equivalent of the hardness producing substance
• Calculate the hardness as the equivalent calcium carbonate
Water Hardness
• Water hardness which refers to the level of unwanted minerals, principally

calcium and magnesium, found in ounce water supply.
• Hardness is the inherent characteristics of water to prevent lathering of
soap.
• Soft water – produces lather with soap
• Hard water – does not produced lather
2 Types of Water Hardness
Temporary Hardness or Permanent Hardness or Non-

Carbonate Hardness Carbonate Hardness
Due to the presence of

bicarbonates of Calcium and Due to the presence of
Magnesium, and carbonates of chlorides and sulphates of
iron and other heavy metals calcium and magnesium
Temporary Hardness
Can be removed by boiling and filtering

Which
Ca(HCO3)2  CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Mg(HCO3)2  Mg(OH)2 + CO2
The soluble bicarbonates gets converted to insoluble

calcium and magnesium salts
• Hardness is commonly expressed in terms of equivalent amount of
CaCO3.
• CaCO3 is insoluble in water and does not contribute to the hardness.
• The molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100 and its equivalent weight is 50.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑥(𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Equivalent of CaCO3 =
(𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Calculation of chemical equivalents of Hardness
Producing Substance
• Calculate the molar mass (molecular weight) of the hardness producing

substance. (E.g molar mass of CaSO4 = 40+32+(16x4) = 136 g/mol
• If the metal is a calcium or magnesium in the given substance divide the
molar mass by 2 (e.g. Chemical equivalent of CaSO4 = 136/2 = 68).
• If the substance is a cation or anion, divide the molar mass with the
charge on the ion. Ca^+2 = 40/2 , CO3^-2 = 60/2 = 30
Calculation of Calcium of Equivalents of
Calcium Carbonate
Scenario 1. A given water sample contains 180 mg/L of MgSO4
1st step: Molar mass of MgSO4 = 24 + 32 (16x4) = 120
2nd step: Chemical equivalent of MgSO4 = 120/2 = 60
3rd step: chemical equivalent of CaCO3 = 50
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑥(𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3)
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Equivalent of CaCO3 = (𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
180 𝑥(50)
Equivalent of CaCO3 =
60
Hardness of the sample = 15 mg/L or ppm

Calculation of Calcium of Equivalents of
Calcium Carbonate
Scenario 2: Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness for the water
containing MgSO4 (25 mg/L), Mg(HCO3-) (32 mg/L), CaCl2- (55 mg/L).
25 𝑥 50 𝑚𝑔
1. Equivalents of CaCO3 for MgSO4 = = 20.83 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑚
60 𝐿
32 𝑥 50
2. Equivalents of CaCO3 for Mg(HCO3) = = 21.91 mg/L or ppm
73
55 𝑥 50 𝑚𝑔
3. Equivalents of CaCO3 for CaCl2 = = 49.55 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑚
55.5 𝐿
Temporary Hardness=21.91 mg/L or ppm

Permanent Hardness = (20.83 + 49.55) = 70.38 mg/L or ppm
Activity
1. Calculate the CaCO3 equivalents for the following samples
• Sample 1 contains Mg(OH)2 = 160 mg/L
• Sample 2 contains OH = 80 mg/L
• Sample 3 contains Ca^2+ = 45mg/L
• Sample 4 contains CaCl2 = 65 mg/L
2. Calculate the carbonate and non-carbonate hardness for the water

containing MgCl2 (16 mg/L), Mg(HCO3)2 (14 mg/L), Ca(HCO3)2
(28mg/L) and CaSO4 (22mg/L)
EDTA Titration
(Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid)
A chelating agent that bind and to remove ions from
solution
Scenario: Determine the CaCO3 in the given water sample in 10 mL volume.
That has a concentration in ppm of Ca2+ ions that present in the given water
sample.
Using the following equation, determine average the concentration (moles
per liter = Molarity) of Ca2+ ions present in your water sample. Record the
concentration in the data table that will be created.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎2 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 𝑥(𝑚𝐿 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴)

=
𝐿 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
0.01 𝑀 𝑥 .7
=
10
=0.0007 M
mole Ca2+ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 100.06 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 1000 𝑚𝑔
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = ppm of CaCO3
1𝐿 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎2+ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 1𝑔
=0.0007 x 1 x 100.06 x 1000

=70 ppm
Approximately how much calcium would you ingest by drinking eight 8 oz of
you local water (1 oz (fluid) = 29.57 mL
Ppm=mg/L
29.57 𝑚𝐿
= .02957 𝐿 𝑥 64 = 1.892 𝐿
1000
If your hardness is 75 ppm (75 mg/L)…
Then 75 mg/1L x 1.892 L = 142 mg of Calcium
Assume an average minimum daily requirement for calcium is 1150 mg.
Calculate what percentage of your daily requirements could be met by
drinking 1.0L of your local water?
1.0 L x 75mg/1.0 L = 75 mg
Percent of daily requirement of calcium in drinking 1L of water =
75/1150 mg x 100 = 6.5%
pH, Odor and
Temperature in Water
January 10, 2020

FEU Alabang
pH in Water
February 12, 2020

FEU Alabang
Learning objectives
• To determine the pH, color, odor and temperature in water
• Testing application of parameters
• Types of method that was used in measuring the pH of water
• Calculation of odor in the given sample
• Determining the temperature in water
pH indicates the sample's acidity
but is actually a measurement of
the potential activity of hydrogen
ions (H+) in the sample. pH
measurements run on a scale
from 0 to 14, with 7.0 considered
neutral. Solutions with a pH below
7.0 are considered acids.
Solutions with a pH above 7.0, up
to 14.0 are considered bases. All
organisms are subject to the
amount of acidity of stream water
and function best within a given
range.
pH indicates the sample's acidity but is actually a
measurement of the potential activity of hydrogen
ions (H+) in the sample. pH measurements run on a
scale from 0 to 14, with 7.0 considered neutral.
Solutions with a pH below 7.0 are considered acids.
Solutions with a pH above 7.0, up to 14.0 are 𝟏
𝒑𝑯 =
considered bases. All organisms are subject to the
amount of acidity of stream water and function best
within a given range.
𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+]
The pH scale is logarithmic, so every one-unit
change in pH actually represents a ten-fold change
in acidity. In other words, pH 6.0 is ten times more
acidic than pH 7.0; pH 5 is one hundred times
mores acidic than pH 7.0.
In general, a water with a low pH (< 6.5) could be
In general, a water with a pH < 7 is considered acidic
acidic, soft, and corrosive. Therefore, the water could
and with a pH > 7 is considered basic. The normal
leach metal ions such as iron, manganese, copper,
range for pH in surface water systems is 6.5 to 8.5 and
lead, and zinc from the aquifer, plumbing fixtures, and
for groundwater systems 6 to 8.5. Alkalinity is a
piping. Therefore, a water with a low pH could contain
measure of the capacity of the water to resists a
elevated levels of toxic metals, cause premature
change in pH that would tend to make the water more
damage to metal piping, and have associated
acidic. The measurement of alkalinity and pH is
aesthetic problems such as a metallic or sour taste,
needed to determine the corrosivity of the water.
staining of laundry, and the characteristic
Ways to measure pH in Water
Ways to measure pH
Electrochemical Method Colorimetric Method
Electrometric Method pH strips method
Potentiometric Method Litmus paper

Electrometric Method
• electrometric pH measurement is determination of the activity of the hydrogen
ion by potentiometric measurement using a standard hydrogen electrode and a
reference electrode.
• pH is used in alkalinity and CO2 measurement and many other acid-base
equilibrium. Principle: The basic principle of the electrometric pH
measurement is determination of the activity of the hydrogen ion by
potentiometric measurement using a standard hydrogen electrode and a reference
electrode.
• Most accurate and simple method for determining the soil and water pH
Potentiometric Method
Potentiometric pH meters measure
the voltage between two electrodes
and display the result converted into
the corresponding pH value. They
comprise a simple electronic
amplifier and a pair of electrodes, or
alternatively a
combination electrode, and some
form of display calibrated
in pH units.
Principle: When pair of
electrodes is placed in the
sample solution it shows
the potential difference by
addition of the titrant or by
the change in the
concentration of ions
Measurement by pH strips
pH strips are a cheap and relatively accurate way of measuring the pH of any
liquid, in our case urine. A strip of filter paper is soaked with
different pH indicators (more on that later), allowed to dry and voila: pH
strips. Most common pH strips are designed to test urine, water and saliva.
Litmus paper
• Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens.
It is often adsorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of
pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity.
• The main use of litmus is to test whether a solution is acidic or basic.
Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions and red litmus
paper turns blue under basic or alkaline conditions, with the color change
occurring over the pH range 4.5–8.3 at 25 °C (77 °F). Neutral litmus
paper is purple.
Beginner
Use a paper strip coated in a pH

indicating dye. Dip the strip into
the water and wait for the strip to
change color. Then compare the
color against a pH color chart to
determine the corresponding pH
level number.
Intermediate
Use a pH testing kit for liquids.

This is a dye that you drop into the
water which will change color.
Again, use a pH color chart to get
a reading of the pH level.
Advanced
A digital pH meter can be used to

obtain the most accurate reading
of the pH level. These digital
meters are available at your local
indoor gardening supplier.
Calculation for pH values
• pH is the negative base 10 logarithm ("log" on a calculator) of
the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. To calculate it,
take the log of a given hydrogen ion concentration and
reverse the sign.
• There are several ways to define acids and bases, but pH

specifically only refers to hydrogen ion concentration and is
applied to aqueous (water-based) solutions. When water
dissociates, it yields a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide. See this
chemical equation below.
H2O ↔ H+ + OH-
 When calculating pH, remember that “[ ]” refers to molarity, M.
Molarity is expressed in units of moles of solute per liter of
solution. If you are given concentration in any other unit than moles
(mass percent, molality, etc.), convert it to molarity in order to use
the pH formula.
 The relationship between pH and molarity can be expressed as:
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1x10-14 at 25°C

for pure water [H+] = [OH-] = 1x10-7
• Kw is the dissociation constant of water

• Acidic Solution: [H+] > 1x10-7
• Basic Solution: [H+] < 1x10-7
pH is the negative log of the molar hydrogen ion
concentration or the molar hydrogen ion
concentration equals 10 to the power of the
negative pH value.
pH(acid) + pOH (alkaline) = 14

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Calculate the pH for a specific [H+]. Calculate pH given [H+] = 1.4 x
10-5 M
Answer:
pH = -log10[H+]
pH = -log10(1.4 x 10-5)
pH = 4.85
2. Calculate [H+] from a known pH. Find [H+] if pH = 8.5

Answer:
[H+] = 10-pH
[H+] = 10-8.5
[H+] = 3.2 x 10-9 M
1. Find the pH if the H+ concentration is 0.0001 moles per liter.
pH = - log (0.0001) = 4
2. Find the pH of a 0.03 M solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl.

[H+ ]= 0.03 M
pH = - log (0.03)
pH = 1.5
Binary Acids Ternary Acids Common Bases
Hydrofluoric Acids - HF Nitric Acid - HNO3 Sodium Hydroxide - NaOH
List of Common Acids and Bases

Hydrochloric Acid - HCl Nitrous Acid - HNO2 Potassium Hydroxide - KOH
Hydrobromic Acid – HBr Hypochlorous Acid - HClO Ammonium Hydroxide -
NH4OH
Hydroiodic Acid - HI Chlorous Acid - HClO2 Calcium Hydroxide - Ca(OH)2
Hydrosulfuric Acid - H2S Chloric Acid - HClO3 Magnesium Hydroxide -
Mg(OH)2
Perchloric Acid - HClO4 Barium Hydroxide - Ba(OH)2
Sulfuric Acid - H2SO4 Aluminum Hydroxide - Al(OH)3
Ternary Acids Sulfurous Acid - H2SO3 Ferrous Hydroxide or Iron (II)

Hydroxide - Fe(OH)2
Oxalic Acid - H2C2O4 Phosphoric Acid - H3PO4 Ferric Hydroxide or Iron (III)
Hydroxide - Fe(OH)3
Boric Acid - H3BO3 Phosphorous Acid - H3PO3 Zinc Hydroxide - Zn(OH)2
Silicic Acid - H2SiO3 Carbonic Acid - H2CO3 Lithium Hydroxide - LiOH
Acetic Acid - HC2H3O2
Taste and Odor in Water
February 12, 2020

FEU Alabang
Taste and Odor in Water
• Natural Organic matter at the ends of mains
• Plumbing repair or upgrades
• Algae, Sulfur and Minerals
• Chlorine presence in water by the disinfection process of the distribution
system.
Threshold Odor Numbers are whole numbers that indicate how many
dilutions it takes to produce odor-free water. As described in Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
𝑨+𝑩
𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝑶𝒅𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 =
𝑨
A. the volume of sample water
B. the volume of odor-free water
SAMPLE CALCULATION!
The given water sample has a 200 mL of volume while the odor free water (standard) has a
volume of 300 mL. Find the TON of the given water sample.
200 + 300 / 200 = ?

Olfactometric Method
Usually a number of testers are involved in determining odor for a particular
sample due to the fact that people’s olfactory senses are not uniform. Instead
of finding the arithmetic mean (average) of different TON values, the
geometric mean is calculated. The formula for this process is:
𝟏
𝑮𝒆𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝒙𝟏 ∗ 𝒙𝟐 ∗ 𝒙𝟑 … . . 𝒙𝒏 /𝒏
Sample Question:
A series of calculations have produced the following TON

values: 1.5, 3, 2, 2, 1, and 1. What is the geometric mean
of these numbers?
(1.5) (3) (2) (2) (1) (1) /1/6 = 1.62
𝟏
𝑮𝒆𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝒙𝟏 ∗ 𝒙𝟐 ∗ 𝒙𝟑 … . . 𝒙𝒏 /𝒏
Flavor Profile Analysis Intensity Scale
Word Scale Numerical Scale Example

Taste/Odor Free 0 Pure water
Threshold T Detect a trace of taste or odor but
cannot describe
Very Weak 2 Detect a very weak taste or odor
and can provide description
Weak 4 Detect and describe one or more
weak tastes or odors. “Weak” is
analogous to sweetness of canned
fruits
Moderate 8 Detect and describe one or more
moderate intensity tastes or odors.
“Moderate” is analogous to the
sweetness of soda pop.
Strong 12 Detect and describe one or more
strong tastes or odors. “Strong” is
analogous to sweetness of jelly.
Temperature in Water
January 10, 2020

FEU Alabang
Temperature in Water Quality
Why Temperature is Important
In water quality?
Temperature is an important factor to consider when assessing water
quality. In addition to its own effects, temperature influences several
other parameters and can alter the physical and chemical properties of
water. In this regard, water temperature should be accounted for when
determining.
• Metabolic rates and photosynthesis production

• Compound toxicity
• Dissolved oxygen and other dissolved gas concentrations
• Conductivity and salinity
• Oxidation reduction potential (ORP)
• pH
• Water Density
From To Fahrenheit To Celsius
Fahrenheit F (F-32)*5/9
Celsius (C*9/5)+32 C
Kelvin (K-273.15)*9/5+32 K-273.15

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PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND

-- this phenomenon is best

-- "Air Pollutant" Any harmful or

--Give virtues by Ferdinand E.

-Water supply, food

Discharge, dumping, oil, ocean,

The State shall promote and

The State recognizes that the

The State also recognizes the

Finally, the State recognizes that

RA 9003 Ecological Solid Waste Set guidelines and targets for

Ensure the proper segregation,

Retain primary enforcement and

a) Aquifer - means a layer of

b) Aquatic life - means all

c) Beneficial use - means the use

PD 984 Pollution Control Law Modify the organizational

Pollution, Sewage, Industrial

It shall be unlawful for any

The killing of any animal other

a) Develop and utilize indigenous

b) Mitigate toxic and greenhouse

c) increase rural employment

RA 9729 Climate Change Act Towards this end, the State

Structure of the Atmosphere

Gases that form a

At ground level, high concentrations of ozone are toxic to

oxygen emerging as a major component of the atmosphere,

Origin of the Atmosphere

Vertical Composition of Atmosphere

Vertical Thermal Structure

 Contains 80% of the mass

Stratosphere (layer sphere)

 weak vertical motions

Mesosphere (In-between sphere)

 heated by solar radiation at the base

 has a very little mass

 The ionosphere is an electrified region

Diabatic Process: Involves direct energy changes

High temperature means that the molecule has high kinetic

Types of magnetic spectrum:

Module 1.3 Air Pollution and Human Health

 Presence in the atmosphere of substances whose concentration, quality and

SOURCES NATURAL MAN-MADE

A. Air Pollutant Classification

B. Major Air Pollutants

C. Air Pollution Control Equipment

People with asthma may be sensitive to

NOx (Nitrogen Non-road transport, Industrial

Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of

Types of CFCs A study with human volunteers who

Chemically induced cardiac (ventricular)

 premature death in people with

People with heart or lung diseases,

SOURCES 7 MAJOR INDOOR

Tobacco smoke, Radon

AIR POLLUTION ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Industry Reduce the smoke

Reduce the usage of Technology

Ozone is also destroyed by the following reaction

The Chapman Reaction

Cl2 +hv --+ Cl +Cl