Engineering Geology for Civil

Engineering (CEng2132)
 CHAPTER ONE
Fundamental concepts and
geotechnical view of Earth materials
 1.1 Introduction
 What is geology?
 Geo -Earth and logy - study or reasoning. So, Geology is " the study
of the whole Earth ". The earth can also be studied by Astronomy,
Meteorology, Oceanography etc.

 So Geology can be defined as the science which deals with the

description and understanding of the Earth from its origin to
present day.

 Generally, Geology studies the Earth - how it was born, how it

evolved, how it works, how we can help preserve it.

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 Branch of geology
1. Pure Geology

Deals with the origin of the Earth,processes which form and

change it
Some of the areas of specialization in pure Geology include:
-Mineralogy - deals with minerals
-Petrology - deals with rocks
-Historical Geology (Paleontology, stratigraphy,)
-Structural Geology and Tectonics

2 . Applied Geology
Applies the principles of pure geology and other sciences to
understand the nature of the earth.

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 Some of the most common and important applied fields:

-Economic Geology - deals with economic minerals and rocks

-Mining Geology - deals with the techniques of extraction of
the economic minerals and rocks
-Hydrogeology - deals with surface and underground water
-Engineering Geology - applies the principles of Geology to
Civil Engineering works such as dams, roads, Foundation of
Buildings, Bridges,.. Etc
-Geochemistry - studies the composition of the earth by
applying the principles of Chemistry
-Geophysics - Studies Earth's internal structure and processes
by applying the principles of physics.

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 Origin of the Earth and solar system
 Questions remained unanswered about the universe:

Hypothesis can be included into 2 groups.

A. The Catastrophic Theories: states that the sun and the planets have a
bi-parental (two different) origin.
 Planets were not formed at the same time as the sun but from the
material that was torn away from the sun. e.g. collision theory.

B. The Gradualistic Theories: States that the formation planets & sun
at the same time, e.g of such theories Nebular Hypothesis.

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 Composition and internal structure of the Earth
Internal layering based on Chemical Composition
1. Crust it is the outermost layer
I. Continental crust:
- is thicker: reaches up to 70 km
- average density of 2.7g/cm3
-made up of light weight materials (silicate rocks)
II. Oceanic crust
- is thinner, about 8 km thick
- is dark, dense volcanic rock (basalt)
- younger and relatively un deformed
- average density is 3.0 g/cm3

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2. Mantle
• making up 82% of the volume and 68% of the mass of the
Earth.
• it is largely composed of magnesium and iron silicates
• it extends from 50km to 2900 km in to the inner Earth
• its density ranges from 3.4 to 5.5g/cm3
3. Core
• extending from 2900km up to the center, 6400km (diameter)
• mostly made of iron with some nickel
• average density is 10.79 g/cm3
• constitute 16% by volume and 32% by mass of the Earth

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 Internal Layering based on Physical Properties
1. Lithosphere
• solid, strong and rigid outer part of the Earth
• crust and the upper most part of the mantle. It extends 100 km
from the surface
2. Asthenosphere
 zone where T & P are just right balance  part of the material
melts. zone of easily deformed mantle
3. Mesosphere:
stronger and much rigid than the asthenosphere b/c the high P at
this depth offsets the effect of high T.
4. Core
• Outer Core (which exists at a depth beginning at 2900km
is molten)
• Inner Core (from about 5200 to 6400 km, is solid)
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 The deepest part of the earth that directly accessed so far is 13 km.
Q) If Data were collected from drilled bore holes (only less than 13
km deep), How do geologists determine the earth internal layers
composition? ANS) using indirect evidences.
1. Density Evidence:
The average density of the earth is determined to be 5.52 g/cc,
while surficial rocks have an average density of 2.7 g/cc, which is
less than half the value for the entire earth . This indicates that the
interior of the earth should be composed of materials, which are
heavier than the surficial materials. Based on this simple evidence,
the earth was modeled to be composed of three layers of different
density:
• From the surface to about 40 km depth with an average density of
2.7 g/cc; from 40 km to about 3000 km depth with an average
density of 6 to 7 g/cc; and from 3000km to the center, with an
average density of 9 to 10 g/cc.
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If these different densities are
manipulated, the average density of
the earth will fall at 5.52 g/cc which
is the density already determined
Astronomically.
– 2. Meteoritic Evidence:
– Comparison with meteorites
Meteorites are wandering
fragments of planetary matter that
are representatives of the
asteroids. The Asteroids are
similar in nature to the in
planetary group to which the
Earth belongs. The meteorites are
of three types representing three
different layers of the aborted or
disintegrated planet. Meteorite from Marse
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 These three types of meteorites are:
• Stony Meteorites-which are composed of silicates
similar to the rocks on the surface of the earth and are
inferred to represent the surface of the asteroids.
• Iron Meteorites- which are composed of iron-nickel
alloys and are different from any type of material on the
earth’s surface and are assumed to represent the interior
of the asteroids.
• Stony-Iron meteorites - which are composed of both
silicates and iron nickel alloys representing the
intermediate part of the asteroids. The presence of these
three different types of meteorites indicates that the
inner planets are made of different layers of materials.

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3. Volcanic Evidence
materials known as xenoliths
that directly come from the depth
(100 km) of the earth enclosed
with in magmas, which are not
contaminated by surfacial rocks.

The composition of the xenoliths

represents the composition of the
materials at that depth and it is
found out to be heavy silicates of
Volcanic eruption, Bringing materials from
magnesium and iron.
deeper earth (letting us have direct evidence
of earth’s interior)

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 4. Earthquake (Seismic Waves) Evidence:
 Earthquake waves commonly called seismic waves pass through the
earth’s interior and then emerge at the surface where they can be
recorded by wave sensitive devices called Seismographs at seismograph
stations.

 The seismic waves do not travel at a uniform velocity through the earth’s
interior. Rather the velocity of the waves (which is directly related with
the density of the materials, being high in solids and low in fluids)
increases with depth and shows particularly sharp changes at depths 40
km and 2900 km. these seismic discontinuities (called Mohorovicic and
Gutenberg Discontinuities respectively) indicate fundamental changes in
the property of the materials, and they show that the earth’s interior is
made up of three layers differing in density and their overall nature

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 Ethiopian Seismic Station Networks (ESSN)
 Fig.2 Seismic wave’s velocity versus depth of the earth.
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 • 1- Lithosphere
• 2- Asthenosphere (the
Low-Velocity Zone)
• 3- Upper Mantle
• 4- Velocity Curve of S-
waves
• 5- Velocity Curve of P-
waves
• 6- Density of the
mantle (5.5 gm./cm3)
• 7- S-waves cannot
penetrate liquid outer
core
• 8- Density of the Outer
Core (10 - 12 gm./cm3)
• 9- Density of the Inner
Core (12 - 13 gm./cm3)
• 10- Solid Inner Core.
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 What is Engineering Geology?
• Engineering geology is a branch of geology that applies
geological principles of rocks, soils and water to the appropriate

 location,
 design and
 construction of a wide variety of engineering structures.

• Engineering Geology uses as a bridge stone between Geology

and Civil Engineering.
 Engineering Geology studies,,,

Soil
Rock

Water

the interaction among these three constituents, as well as with

engineering materials and structures.

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Importance of Engineering Geologist (Geological
Engineer) to Civil Engineers
 What are Earth Materials?

Importance of Earth Materials to Civil Engineering

 1.2 Geologic/Engineering Geological overview of Earth
Materials (Minerals, Rocks and Soil)
Definition of rocks and soils
The engineering definition of rock is hard, compact, naturally
occurring aggregate of minerals (Judd, 1957).

Soil for a Geologist is disintegrated earth material which is a product

of rock weathering.

According to engineers soil is disintegrated material which could be

excavated by blasting.
 Rock Properties for Engineering
Rocks are significant for two major reasons in engineering:
1. As construction material
2. As foundation on which the construction will be set

For the consideration of rocks as construction material &

foundation the geological engineers concern about the rock’s:
a. Density
b. Strength
c. Compressibility
d. Durability
e. Workability
f. Stability etc.;

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 Engineering consideration of different rocks
The three types of rocks;
a. Igneous
b. Sedimentary
c. Metamorphic;

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General: Rock Cycle

Fig. Schematic illustration of Rock Cycle

 I. Igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of magma with in or
above the earth's surface.
• Based on the mode of occurrence, they are grouped into two;
• Intrusive (Plutonic) igneous rocks
 Cool down slowly inside crust
 Coarser in textures (E.g. Granite, gabbros…)
• Extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks
Cool down on the earth’s surface quickly
Smaller crystals (fine grained) rocks (E.g. Basalt, rhyolite…)
These extrusive rocks can be sub-divided in to two:
1. Lava flow extruded from a volcanic flow over the adjacent land
surface (E.g. Basalts, rhyolites etc…)
2. Pyroclastic that ejected (explosive eruptions) from the volcanoes
and settle out in the form of volcanic ash deposits and fragments
(boulders). E.g. Ash, tuff, ignimbrite etc..
 Engineering Considerations of Igneous Rocks
1. Fine-grained silica rich igneous rocks cannot be used as aggregates
in Portland cement due to volume expansion caused by the Alkali-
silica reaction. This can be controlled by:
Can be used in low alkali cement
Non-reactive aggregates go with the high alkali cement
Add pozzolans, coal-ashes, etc. in the aggregate-cement
mixture to minimize the reaction.

2. Coarse-grained igneous rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, etc.) are not

good for aggregates because of their low abrasion resistance; but
fine-grained igneous rocks (e.g., basalt) are good for aggregates
(e.g., basalt as paving aggregates goes with asphalt.)

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 II. Sedimentary rocks
sedimentary rocks are grouped into Two broad categories;
1. Clastic sedimentary rock - are those that are composed of fragments of
other rocks (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary).
2. Chemical and Biochemical sedimentary rocks- originate by
precipitation of minerals from water through various chemical or
biochemical processes.
Limestone - which are composed of carbonates secreted from animals
and plants, and accumulated from calcareous skeleton.
Chert - accumulation of plant remains
Engineering Considerations of Sedimentary Rocks
1. The use of siliceous rich sedimentary rocks like opal, chert,
greywacke etc as aggregates with Portland cement concrete cause
Alkali Silica Reaction problem.
2. Fine-grained sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite are
the best for being used as aggregates; but siltstone, shale,
conglomerate, and quartz sandstone are not acceptable
 Cont’d
5. Any Civil Engineering structures to be constructed on
carbonate rocks needs a very careful study as they can have
sinkholes, karstic features and different solution structures
6. When conglomerates are found in dam abutments &
foundation, they need special treatment to increase their
strength and reduce permeability.
7. Sedimentary rocks containing anhydrite/ gypsum are
troublesome to Engineering Structures such as dams, high
ways, tunnels etc.
8. Primary & secondary structures reduce rock-mass strength
and may contribute to slope instability.

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 III. Metamorphic rocks
Are the result of transformation of rocks by metamorphism ( due to
increment of Pressure and Temperature) processes that mostly occur
beneath the earth's surface.
Metamorphism causes textural, structural, and mineralogical
changes in the original rock and modify physical properties of rocks.
The modifications may improve some engineering properties, while
other changes may result in reduction in strength, slope stability, and
abrasion resistance.
Metamorphic rocks grouped based on the presence or absence of
Foliation.
Foliated (E.g. Slate, schist, phyllite, gneiss)
Non-foliated (E.g. Marble, quartzite)
 Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Metamorphic rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction
problem when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The
metamorphic rocks with this problem are argillite, phyllite,
impure quartzite, and granite gneiss;
2. Coarse-grained gneiss can be abraded severely when used as
aggregates(riprup);
3. For metamorphic rocks the stability of rock mass greatly
affected by the foliation orientation;
4. Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary
rocks can cause similar problems, e.g., leakage of reservoirs,
sinkhole collapse, solution cavities, and channels.
6. The stability of rock slopes is affected by the attitude of
foliation with respect to rock slope direction.

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 1.2.2 Engineering Soils
 Engineers define soil as any natural material that lacks strength.

• The rate of soil development is dependent on

Grain size of the parent material
Mineral composition of the parent material
Temperature during weathering and
Presence or absence of water

A basic understanding of soil formation relationships will aid

the Engineering Geologist in evaluating foundation of
structures.
 Introduction to phase relationship and physical properties
of soils & classification of soils

• Soils generally contain soil three phases

• The relative proportions of these three phases play an important role

in Engineering behavior of the soils

•Two extreme cases are dry & saturated soils

Dry soils do not consist water, and all the void spaces are filled
with air.
Saturated soils do not consist air, and the void spaces are filled
with water.
Very often, in Geotechnical investigation works (E.g. Earth works)
and laboratory tests, it is necessary to compute the mass (or weight) &
volume of these three phases

Fig. (a) Imaginary soil skeleton (b) Block diagram

Basic Concepts and Formulas for the Phases of Soils volume –
weight relationship
(A) Volumetric Relationships
The void content of a soil is expressed through two simple terms, void
ratio (e) & porosity (n), defined as:
1. Void ratio e,
e = Vv/Vs = ranges from 0 to infinity(∞)
Typical values of sands are very dense 0.4 to very loose 1.0
Typical values for clays are firm 0.3 to very soft 1.5

2. Porosity (n): the volume of voids to the total volume

n = (VV/Vt) x100% = Ranges from 0% to 100%
The porosity provides a measure of the permeability of a soil

3. Saturation (S): the volume of water to the volume of voids

S = (VW /VV)x100% = Ranges from 0% to 100%
Completely dry soil S = 0%, and when completely saturated
soil = 100%
(B) Weight Relationships
4. Water content (moisture content).
W = (Ww / WS)x 100%

5. Unit weight of a soil, γ

γ = W/V = (Ww+Ws)/(Vs+Vw+Va)

6. Dry unit weight of a soil, γd

γd = WS /V = γ/(1+W)

7. The unit weight of water, γw

γ = Ww/Vw , where γ = 1g/ml = 1kg/liter = 9.81KN/m3
w w

8. Saturated unit weight of a soil, γsat

γsat = (Ws+Ww)/(Vs+Vw)

9. Specific gravity of the solids of a soil, Gs

G = γS/ γ
S w
Were
w= water content
Ww = weight of water
WS= weight of solid
W= total weight of the soil sample
V= total volume of the soil sample
γ = bulk unit weight of a soil
γd= dry unit weight
γw= unit weight of water
γsat= saturated unit weight of a soil
GS= specific gravity of the solids of a soil
γS= unit weight solid soil
γw= unit weight of water
 1. 3 Groundwater and Geotechnical Considerations in
Engineering Structures
 Groundwater:
 Contribute to the failure of slopes, building foundations, and
dams.
 It may be an erosional agent that degrades a structure, &
 It may be critical to the functioning of a structure.
 In any Engineering project it is very crucial to obtain information
about:
The position of water table
Flow direction
Type and condition of aquifer &
Hydraulic characteristics of rocks
There are two distinct zones
1. Zone of aeration = vadose water
2. Zone of saturation = groundwater or phreatic water

The boundary between the two zones is water table or phreatic

surface  rises or falls.
Most engineering geological considerations is on the water within
the zone of saturation.

Applications of permeability of soils & rocks

Engineering projects require knowledge of permeability of soil and
rock
Such as
Seepage through earth dams & levees,
Losses from irrigation canals
Yield of wells infiltration,
Construction dewatering,
 Test methods to Determine K
 Laboratory Methods
 Constant-Head Permeameter;
 Falling- & rising-Head Permeameter;
 Indirect method (e.g. grain size analysis, porosity, joint parameter
measurement.)

 Field method;
 Ground water velocity method ,
 Pressure (Packer) Test
 Pumping Tests (drawdown and recovery test)
 Slug Tests
Methods for determining permeability of water bearing materials
 Slug Tests

General Procedure for Slug Test in as Screened Borehole.

 3. Groundwater flow to foundations and excavations
• Moving water affects the properties and behaviour of soil and can
influence both construction operations and the performance of
completed construction.
Excavation of trenches in dam foundation
– Groundwater flow is difficult to hinder by bulldozer used in
excavation.
– Water flowed into excavation too quickly after pumping ceased to
permit proper compaction.
– One solution is to excavate other excavation upstream to intercept
the groundwater flow.
– By pumping this excavation, the trench can remain dewatered long
enough to permit material to be compacted by hand-operated or
mechanical compactors.
 Drainage and Dewatering Methods
• Removal of water from saturated soil mass.
• Groundwater table lowered by the following methods:
1. Ditches and sumps
2. Well point system
3. Shallow well system
4. Deep well system
5. Vacuum method
6. Electro-osmosis method
 1. Ditches and sumps
– Shallow pits called sumps are dug along the periphery of the
area-drainage ditches.
 2. Well point System
More complicated dewatering system based on gravity is
installation of well points Single and multiple well point
system
 3. Shallow well system
A hole of 30cm diameter or more is bored into the ground to a
depth of not exceeding 10m.

4. Deep well system/Drainage

When depth of excavation >16m below the water table
A 15 to 60cm diameter Hole is bored & casing with long screen (5
to 25cm) provided
 5. Vacuum method/Forced Flow
Is important for fine-grained soils, well point system
When vacuum is drawn on the well point unbalanced
atmospheric pressure is subjected.
This unbalanced atmospheric pressure consolidates the sub-soil-
stiff enough to carry out excavations.
 6. Electro-Osmosis Method
• Direct current is passed between two electrode in to saturated soil
mass.
• Soil water travel from positive to negative Cathode made
• Natural flow of water is reversed away from the excavation
• Thereby increasing shear strength of the soil and stability of the
slope
• It is very costly
 Control of Subsurface water

Barriers and liners

Barriers-are generally used to reduce both quantity and velocity of

subsurface water.
• E.g. earth dams may incorporate in their foundation
• Cutoff wall or
• Grout curtain
• Sheet piles.
• Liners - E.g. bentonite and related clays are used for this purpose.