ASSIGNMENT No.

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Course: Foundation of Education Code (831)
Semester: spring -2019 Level: MA/M.Ed

Q.1
Elaborate the following Islamic foundations of education
i. Quran
ii. Hadith
iii. Qiyas
iv. Fiqh

Ans part i

Quran

Holy Quran is the amazing book which is not written by any human, its author is God

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(Allah) himself. It is the book of Islam which has been written in Arabic and was

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reveled on the final Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). It is such a unique and wonderful

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book that even after centuries, a single word of it has not changed. It is in its original
form even today. It is not an easy task to write about each and every characteristic of
Quran as no man can actually describe how wonderful and great this book is. But here
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are a few verses of Holy Quran in which Allah himself has mentioned its
characteristics.
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 It is the right guidance or way or course or direction or manner or mode or

conduct for the whole mankind (hudan lilnnas).
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 It is clear and manifest as far as the guidance is concerned (bayyinatin mina

alhuda).
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 It makes a separation or distinction between truth and falsity (alfurqan).

 It has no discrepancies or contradictions.
 It has no crookedness, deceit or deviation from rectitude.
 There is nothing in it that may cause any doubt, suspicion, evil opinion, disquiet,
disturbance, or agitation of mind (larayba feehi).
 It is the Divine Prescript, Appointment, Ordinance, or Judgment that
is explained in detail making it clear, plain and manifest (tafseela alkitab).
 It guides to the way or course or direction or manner or mode or conduct that is
the most stable, even, straight, right and direct.
 It puts forth examples of every manner or model [of conduct] so that people
take admonition and be mindful.
 The purpose of its revelation is not to cause hardship or distress of any sort.

These are only a few verses of Holy Quran which mention the characteristics of Quran,
there are so many other similar verses which discuss about the Characteristics of Holy
Quran. One can know about these characteristics by learning and following Quran.

This Quranic way has distinction of connecting all disciplines of the mind with the
higher principles of the Islamic creed, morals, social and economic policy as well as
with legal practice. The system of the Islamic education is based upon the notation
that every discipline and branch of knowledge which is of benefit to society and
necessary and for it should be given attention by the Muslim community or Ummah as
a whole in order to educate or some of its members in those disciplines.

This Book is the word of Allah. He has revealed it to the seal of his prophet and
quintessence of messengers as guidance from him to mankind and pledged so to
speak, to keep it instinct so that it should remain the lighthouse of perennial and
continuous Derive guidance for at the successive generations after prophet . After the
prophet‟s death any new revelation which had been the way of knowing the behest
from heaven would never come again hut the Bokk that had been vouchsafed heaven
Muhammad Sallallahu alaihi wassalam was preserved to keep the stream of revelation
alive for all time.

1. Lo we, even we, reveal the reminder, and Lo we verity are its guardian.
2. And thus have we inspired in thee (Muhammad) a spirit of our command. Thou
knewest not what scripture was, nor what was faith. we have made it light

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where by we guide whom we will our bondmen .

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The Quran is the same book for all Muslims . In order to maintain its positions in the
community we must insist upon unity of the purpose the faith and cultural integrity.
Such unity springs from the Quran and upon it depend the continued support for the
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Quran as the fountain head of that unity . But we can not maintain of educational
programmed in organization, in purpose and in basic structure.
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Ans part ii
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Hadith
Islam has two primary sources. First is the Qurʾān which is the direct word of God
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inspired to the Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him. The second source is the
Prophet‟s teachings. These teachings include his words, actions, and things he
approved of. The Prophet‟s teachings are called Sunna. The Sunna is found in texts
called ḥadīth. A ḥadīth is a statement of the Prophet peace be upon him which was
narrated by his companions and subsequently narrated to the next generation until
these sayings were compiled in ḥadīth collections.

The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, was sent as the final messenger to
mankind. With his death, the message of Islam was completed. The preservation of
scripture is not limited to the text of the Qur‟ān, but its meaning as well. If the
Prophet‟s explanation is needed in order to understand the Qur‟ān, then it is
necessary that his sayings be preserved as well, not only the words of the Qur‟ān. In
other words, without the Sunna the Quran is not preserved, what will only remain is
the text without its meaning.

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Imagine for instance trying to discover the manner of prayer based only the command
to “establish prayer” with few references to bowing and prostration. The number of
prayers, times per day, and what to recite would remain unknown. Therefore, the
Sunna is part of the Qurʾān‟s preservation. Without the Sunna the meaning of the
Qurʾān would be lost and by extension not preserved.

. All Muslims, be they Sunni or Shia, agree that ḥadīths are essential to understanding
Islam. Ḥadīth are important because without them the Qurʾān does not make sense.
They provide a context to the verses in the Qurʾān. The Qurʾān is a rather concise
book and therefore contains many general statements. For instance, the Qurʾān
commands Muslims to pray, but it does not provide the details of how one is to
perform prayer.

The Qurʾān also commands Muslims to perform pilgrimage and give charity, but it
does not provide the details. These details are found in the ḥadīth where the Prophet
peace be upon him explained the details and mechanics of prayer. There are dozens

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of verses in the Qurʾān that command Muslims to follow the Prophet. Without knowing

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his teachings one cannot possibly fulfill this command

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Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) is the last prophet of Almighty Allah. He (SAW) was sent for
all mankind as a mercy. Quran is the divine Book of Almighty Allah and sent to
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Prophet Muhammad (SAW) so that He teaches Muslims what Allah has said in Quran.
We should not take help from one source only rather we have to combine both the
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Wisdom of Quran-e-Kareem and Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW) of Allah together in

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order to benefit from them more effectively.

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The two fundamental sources of Islam are the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet
(SAW). By Sunnah, we mean the actions, sayings and silent permissions (or
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disapproval) of the Prophet (SAW). Hadith is considered to be second to the Quran. It

is impossible to understand the Quran without reference to the Hadith, and it is
impossible to explain a Hadith without relating it to the Quran. So we should
understand both Quran and Hadith in order to get benefits.

Ans part iii

Qiyas
In Islamic law, the deduction of legal prescriptions from the Quran or Sunnah by
analogic reasoning. Qiyas provided classical Muslim jurists with a method of deducing
laws on matters not explicitly covered by the Quran or Sunnah without relying on
unsystematic opinion (ray or hawa). According to this method, the ruling of
the Quran or Sunnah may be extended to a new problem provided that the precedent
(asl) and the new problem (far) share the same operative or effective cause (illa).

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The illa is the specific set of circumstances that trigger a certain law into action. For
example, the operative cause for the prohibition against alcohol is that it intoxicates
the mind. Therefore, anything that intoxicates the mind, such as narcotics, is also
prohibited by the use of analogy. Although various schools of thought in Islamic
history have vigorously debated the legitimacy of the use of analogy, qiyas has played
a central role in the development of Islamic law.

The four main Sunni schools of law consider it one of the four main sources of law, the
other sources being the Quran, Sunnah, and consensus (ijma). The Jafari Shii of
school of law, however, counts aql (reason) as a separate source of law instead of
qiyas. Other methods of deducing the law, such as mafhm al-nass (the clear
implication of the text), tamthil (similarity or likeness), istihsan (juristic preference),
or istislah (consideration of public interest), either explicitly rely on qiyas or use
methods of analysis that are similar in their approach to qiyas.

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Ans part iv

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Fiqh
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Fiqh is often described as the human understanding of the sharia, that is human
understanding of the divine Islamic law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnah (the
teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and His companions). Fiqh
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expands and develops Shariah through interpretation (ijtihad) of the Quran

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and Sunnah by Islamic jurists (ulama) and is implemented by the rulings (fatwa) of
jurists on questions presented to them. Thus, whereas sharia is considered immutable
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and infallible by Muslims, fiqh is considered fallible and changeable. Fiqh deals with
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the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation in Islam as well as political
system. In the modern era, there are four prominent schools (madh'hab)
of fiqh within Sunni practice, plus two (or three) within Shi'a practice. A person
trained in fiqh is known as a faqīh (plural fuqaha).
Figuratively, fiqh means knowledge about Islamic legal rulings from their sources and
deriving religious rulings from their sources necessitates the mujtahid (an individual
who exercises ijtihad) to have a deep understanding in the different discussions of
jurisprudence. A faqīh must look deep down into a matter and not suffice himself with
just the apparent meaning, and a person who only knows the appearance of a matter
is not qualified as a faqīh.
The studies of fiqh, are traditionally divided into Uṣūl al-fiqh (principles of Islamic
jurisprudence, lit. the roots of fiqh), the methods of legal interpretation and analysis;
and Furūʿ al-fiqh (lit. the branches of fiqh), the elaboration of rulings on the basis of
these principles.[5][6] Furūʿ al-fiqh is the product of the application of Uṣūl al-fiqh and

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the total product of human efforts at understanding the divine will.
A hukm (plural aḥkām) is a particular ruling in a given case

islamic jurisprudence may be defined as a process by means of which jurists derive

sets guidelines, rules and regulations (the Shari'ah) from the principles of the Qur'an
and the Sunnah. Over the centuries, these have been formulated and elaborated upon
by successive generations of learned jurists, through interpretation, analogy,
consensus and disciplined research.

While the principles of the Qur'an and the Sunnah are permanent, it is the nature of
Islamic jurisprudence to facilitate for human beings the application of those principles
to their activities and dealings.

Q.2
Explain the salient features of each main philosophy with reference of

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education.
Ans

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1. No society tolerates a type of education that undermines its own stability. Pakistani

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philosophy of education also aims at strengthening its society.
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2. Educational philosophy of a country depends upon the concept of man and the
values it considers worthy of human pursuit.
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3. Education is key to man‟s fulfillment; education is an all inclusive process.

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4. Education means four things as illumination, as an agency of improvement, as

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physical development and as not merely book learning.

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Philosophy is generally regarded as a great synthesizing and speculative discipline.

The philosophy of education is, thus, also philosophizing of educational experience
rather than a body of conclusion. It is a philosophical process of solving educational
problems through the philosophical method, from a philosophical attitude to arrive at
philosophical conclusions and results. It is the criticism of the general theory of
education. It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values. John Dewey
believes all philosophy as the philosophy of education. Dewey emphasized all
philosophy as philosophy of education because when philosophy deals with the
skeptical problems it cannot come to a definite conclusion. Therefore philosophy
should be involved only with social problems which are also educational problems. But
Dewey‟s view is criticized by most of the philosophers as it is a very narrow
assumption to say that philosophy is nothing but „philosophy of education‟.

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The philosophy of education is a branch of social philosophy. On the other hand
philosophy is an autonomous discipline. The former is a part of the latter, which is the
whole. According to Bertrand Russell, philosophy of education is a new branch or a
new subject which discusses educational problems from a philosophical point of view.
It is a branch of applied philosophy. Of the three divisions of philosophy viz.,
epistemology, metaphysics and axiology, philosophy of education comes under the
division of axiology. Therefore it is generally concerned with the value of education. O
‟Connor defines the philosophy of education as “those problems of philosophy that are
of direct relevance to the educational theory.

Most of modern and contemporary philosophers of education in both the East and the
West accepted the aim of philosophy of education as to be the all-round development
of personality. All round development consists of all the aspects physical, mental,
moral, social, emotional and spiritual. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi has admitted it as
„harmonious development‟ and for Herbert Spencer, it is the „whole life' or „complete
living‟. Spencer has ignored the spiritual aspect as the aim of education. Plato aimed

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in producing a citizen of the right type who is socially, economically, intellectually and

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politically useful and fit.

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Both Plato and Aristotle laid stress on physical health and mental strength. As such,
both prescribed certain patterns of education for the gymnastics of the body and
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music for the soul. Therefore it should be remembered that in determining the aims of
education no thinker is exclusively an idealist or a pragmatist. Corresponding to
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different aspects of life, different philosophies and ideologies are provided and all
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these ideologies are complimentary rather than contradictory. To emphasize one at

the cost of the other “is to see the part and identify with the whole.‟
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The philosophy of education as an independent study has its own scope and function.
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The scope of the philosophy of education includes the critical evaluation of aims, ideas
and education, analysis of human nature, educational values, the theory of knowledge
and the relationship of education and social progress. It seems to perform three
functions:

1) Speculative,
2) Normative,
3) Critical.

The speculative function of philosophy of education consists in pursuing and enquiry,

forming theory about education, its causes and nature. While doing so it tries to make
a survey of the whole field. Normative functions are related to the formation of goals,
norms and standards. The Critical function consists in scrutinizing rigorously the terms
and propositions involved in educational thought and practice.

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One of the main and most significant functions of philosophy is the worldview.
Philosophy shapes people's ideas about the world and its structure, about man and
society, about the principles of relationship with the surrounding world and the place
of man in it, thereby forming his worldview. Philosophy clarifies the views of man, his
goals, interests and needs and their connection with the surrounding reality, develops
a universal philosophical picture of the world and reveals the nature of man as a result
of comprehension and systematization of scientific knowledge, as well as the content
of other forms of social knowledge.

In the categories of philosophy there is a reflection of world outlook problems, a

conceptual tool is being developed to analyze and compare different types of
worldviews. Thus, this function contributes to the construction of a single and
generalized system of human knowledge and the development of ideological ideals

Philosophy of education is a field of applied philosophy, drawing from the traditional

fields of philosophy (ontology, ethics, epistemology, etc.) and its approaches

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(speculative philosophy, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions regarding

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education policy, human development, and curriculum theory, to name a few. Put

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another way, philosophy of education is the philosophical study of the purpose,

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process, nature and ideals of education. For example, it might study what constitutes
upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and
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educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic
discipline, and the relation between educational theory and practice.
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Philosophy of education can be considered a branch of both philosophy and

education. The multiple ways of conceiving education coupled with the multiple fields
and approaches of philosophy make philosophy of education not only a very diverse
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field but also one that is not easily defined. Although there is overlap, philosophy of
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education should not be conflated with educational theory, which is not defined
specifically by the application of philosophy to questions in education.

Although philosophers around the world have asked questions regarding education for
millennia, as an academic discipline with its own place in the university it is relatively
new. Nonetheless, it is an internationally well-established field, with departments and
programs around the world.
Today, scholars spend lot of time on seminars and debates dealing with developments
of new materials, machines and applications of energy. In fact, the ancient scholars
were highly wise and the modern scholars are highly foolish. The results of the
present research in Science are leading to the improvement of several amenities of
the humanity. But, these amenities are now realized to be the ways of destruction of
the environment leading to global calamity in a very short period of time. Our ancient
scholars did not encourage such research in science since the advanced knowledge of
energy and materials will lead to the destruction of humanity. Moreover, they
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concentrated on the logical understanding of the existence of God so that the resulting
balanced society without corruption and chaos will give immense happiness to the life
of the humanity. We now realize that the ancient materials and technologies were far
better for health and environmental balance of the world. Added to this happiness, a
strong fear for God and hell were well established in the mind of every human being
through long period of spiritual education.

The present human being is well versed in the concepts of profit and loss and is a
master of business administration. Everybody wants to improve the personal
amenities even through corruption. Corruption has become a spontaneous global
phenomenon. Metals undergo corrosion and the human beings undergo the process of
corruption. The government has become corrupt. The government officials are
corrupt. Even the judiciary system has become corrupt. In such atmosphere of
powerful corruption and corrupt human beings, can you expect a system like lokpal to
work perfectly to control the corruption? When all the human beings are corrupt, the
members of the lokpal also become corrupt. You cannot bring the angels from heaven

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to appoint them as members of lokpal. After sometime, you will have to bring another

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control in the system to control the lokpals! There will be no end to this and the

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desired aim can never be fulfilled.
Q.3
Justify with arguments that psychological foundations of education help
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teachers to develop effective teaching learning process
Ans
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Imagine we are a newly employed assistant professor at a school of education or
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teacher educating university and you are asked to give a lecture in educational
psychology or, more specifically, on psychological aspects of learning in the
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classroom. To develop our syllabus, we may consult different sources: standards that
are part of some certification process either for individual teacher candidates or for
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teacher education programs in general; textbooks that either cover educational

psychology as a broad science or are more focused on learning; or, finally, some of
your colleagues‟ pre-existing syllabi. we will surely be confronted with an
overwhelming amount of content which might be more or less detailed, and sooner or
later you may very likely come to the conclusion that you cannot know for sure
whether your agenda covers the essential content teacher candidates should acquire
in order to successfully manage their daily work (i.e., fostering learning in their
students).

Reviews on the history of educational psychology clearly highlight its close connection
to psychology as the mother science. Stanley Hall a student of William James who
founded psychology in the USA at Harvard College collected data for his Ph.D. on
pupils with the help of teachers and later founded the American Psychological
Association (APA). Edward Thorndike, another of James‟ students, transferred the
research on learning from the classroom to the laboratory and later became APA
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president. However, educational psychology returned to its origins and has developed
over the last century from a science mostly located in laboratories to a science located
more and more in practical settings. Therefore, we refer to O'Donnell and Levin
(2001) who define educational psychology as “the development and application of
psychological principles to education, as well as the adoption of psychological
perspectives Aspects of educational psychology relevant to teachers.

Thinking about learning and teaching, general aspects like individual differences,
development, the nature of the subject being taught, problem solving, assessment,
and transfer often come to mind. However, in order to define the important aspects of
educational psychology for prospective teachers that enable them to properly teach
and support students at school, one may consider different sources: scientific articles
textbooks for teacher‟s interviews with practicing teachers or standards for licensing
individual teachers (e.g., Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support
Consortium) and teacher education programs in general.

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Educational psychology has the potential to provide relevant knowledge for the

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professional training of teacher candidates. In most European countries it is part of

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the minimal requirements. However, due to the relative autonomy of universities
concerning teacher education both across and within countries, credit hours defining
the amount of time devoted to professional training in general and to psychology in
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particular also vary across and within countries. As an example, Terhart et al. (2010)
conducted a curriculum analysis and showed a high variability of credit points even
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within one single federal state in Germany. Furthermore, universities not only differ
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concerning credit point distribution but also concerning content-related aspects.

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Educational psychology is the applied branch of psychology and is the combination of

education and psychology. The psychological principles, laws and techniques are
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applied to the development of educational strategies, teaching-learning situations,

results/findings are applied in the field of education and it is concerned with the
scientific study of human learning, including both cognitive and behavioral aspects.

According to Skinner “educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals

with teaching and learning”. It is a scientific in approach that uses psychological
constructs and tools to understand the various characteristics of learners, teachers,
learning tasks, learning environment and educational settings interacting to modify or
change behaviors of learners in school settings. According to Peel “educational
psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range
and limits of their capacities, the process by which they learn and their social
relationships”. It provides information about the many factors that affect teaching-
learning and offers useful and tested ideas for improving instruction. It is educational
psychology which makes teachers effective. Give positive verbal/non verbal

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reinforcement and corrective feedback to the learners. Communicate to students
about expectations.
Educational psychology is the scientific study of human behavior in educational
situation and concerned with the factors, principles, concepts, methods and
techniques which relates to the various aspects of learners‟ growth and development.
It is concerned with learning environment and process by which learning can be more
active, joyful and effective. It is a science of education dealing with how, when and
what of education.

Educational psychology gives importance to learners in making classroom as social

platform where exchange of ideas and healthy discussions among students and
teachers takes place. It focuses on making the classroom environment conducive,
conducive classroom is a catalyst in promoting a favorable learning environment to
ensure effective teaching-learning. Teachers should strive to build a positive learning
atmosphere where focus is on cooperation and collaboration rather than competition.
Teacher should motivate learners to share their ideas and to seek clarification until

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they understand it properly. To achieve this kind of learning environment, teachers

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need to establish an atmosphere of mutual trust, support, empathy and mutual

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respect. In such an environment, learners understand that while learning they may
fail sometimes, but they have to stand up and continue their struggle, this attitude
encourages them to participate actively in teaching-learning process.
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Educators could watch themselves and their own behavior to become self-aware of
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new understandings about motivation. Ames (1990) showed that motivation as an
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outcome is important to all students in the classroom. Verma (1998) revealed that
conflict can be healthy if it is managed or directed effectively. To resolve conflict
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permanently the teachers must address the cause of conflict and not the just
symptoms of it.
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Jones (2004) explored that conflict resolution education provides critical life skills
necessary for building constructive relationships and developing safe environment in
schools. Kember and Leung (2006) revealed that teaching-learning environment can
motivate learners to work hard without feeling stressed.

Blake and Pope (2008) incorporated Piaget‟s and Vygotsky‟s theories into teaching
strategies in elementary classroom. Findings showed that students‟ learning is likely
to increase. The use of both theories in classrooms is advantageous. Dunlosky,
Rawson, Marsh, Nathan and Willingham (2013) investigated easy to use learning
techniques developed by cognitive and educational psychologists that could help
students to achieve their learning goals.
Educational psychology has contributed considerably in the creation of teaching-
learning environment. It helps the teacher in the following ways:
1. Stages of Development:
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As we know that human life passes through different stages of development before it
reaches adulthood. They are: infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Each
stage has its own characteristics. Psychologists have thoroughly studied the
characteristic behavior patterns of these different stages of life. Identification of these
stages with different sets of characteristics, attributes and features regards physical,
mental and emotional development greatly help educationists to design curriculum
and determine appropriate methods of teaching-learning for learning at different
stages. It is duty of teachers in bringing balanced growth and development in child‟s
personality. One aspect of direction of growth should not be developed at the cost of
others. There should be perfect harmony and balance between the different stages of
growth. Knowledge of conflict management help teachers in providing effective
instruction according to developmental stages is helpful to mould behavior of learners.
2. Know Your Learner:
Psychologists are concerned to establish the behavior pattern of human behavior so
that they are able to know, predict and modify. Learner is central in the teaching-
learning process. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know about learning

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capacity, interest, attitudes, aptitudes, creativity, intelligence, covert-overt behaviour,

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motivation and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities of the learners. It

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also helps to know the stages of development linked with social, emotional,
intellectual, physical, mental and aesthetic needs, to know level of aspiration,
conscious and unconscious behavior, individual and group behavior, conflicts, desires
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and other aspects mental health and hygiene. In this way guidance can be provided
and positive attitude towards the learner on the part of the teacher can be developed.
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3. Dealing with Diverse Learners:
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Educational Psychology helps the teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according
to the level and need of the diverse learners. For effective teaching-learning the
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teacher must have the knowledge of the various approaches, methods, principles,
laws and factors affecting it. Then only he/she can apply diagnostic and remedial
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measures in the teaching-learning situation. Conducive teaching-learning environment

can be achieved in this way.

4. Knowledge of Individual Differences:

No two persons are exactly alike. Learners differ in their level of intelligence,
aptitudes, attitude, interest, creativity etc. There are gifted, under achievers, slow
learners, backward, differently able learners. Thus, educational psychology helps the
teacher to know the individual differences among the learners in the class and the
procedures accordingly, methodology and techniques can be adopted for them to deal
with differences.

5. Dealing with Special Needs Learners:

Special education means instructions that are specially designed to meet the unique
needs of learners or the special needs children. The special needs children are the
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ones who need adapted teaching instructions, adapted learning environment or
adapted learning process. They may be physically differently able or children with
delinquency (juvenile delinquent). These children are identified and help teachers in
selecting pedagogy which is suitable for them. Educational psychology helps these
learners by providing educational services to these.
Q.4
The provision of conducive learning environment to students is not possible
with out the study of psychological foundations of education .Discuss in
detail.
Ans
The primary motivation for integrating ICT in education is that it supports pupils in
their own constructive thinking, allows them to transcend their cognitive limitations,
and engages them in cognitive operations they may not have been capable of
otherwise. Many large-scale studies have documented the positive learning outcomes
of using ICT in schools. These studies claimed that ICT develops a culture of thinking;
one that engages students with challenging yet personally meaningful problems,

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draws on student‟s conceptual and cultural world of experiences, and promotes active

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and independent learning among student‟s. However, the focus of these studies is on

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how ICT facilitates the development of higher order thinking skills in a conducive
learning environment, where classroom management issues are assumed to have
been addressed.
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In reality, conducive learning environments do not just happen, they are the result of
effective classroom management that establish and maintain work systems for pupils
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to engage in their learning. A conducive learning environment is one that is task-
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oriented and predictable, where pupils know what is expected of them and how to
succeed. Pupils in these classrooms are consistently engaged in the learning tasks
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that their teachers have set for them and very few pupil behaviors interfere with those
tasks. Research studies have shown a positive correlation between engaged time,
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appropriate academic activities, and high academic achievement, and the need to
structure classrooms to promote on task behaviors Therefore, a conducive learning
environment is a necessary condition for the effective integration of ICT to engage
pupils in higher order thinking.

Based on a collective case study of two primary schools in Singapore, this article
discusses classroom management issues that create a conducive learning
environment to support the effective integration of ICT in schools.
Some discipline-specific procedures that were observed in both schools included the
following:
 Pupils entered and exited the computer room in an orderly fashion according to
their class index number. Each of them knew their assigned seats and there was
no rushing. The computers were indexed with the index number of the pupil.
Indexing facilitated the procedure of seat assignment and the monitoring of the
ICT tools. One teacher from the school elaborated during the interview:
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 Every computer is labeled with an index, and the pupil of that index number will
use that particular computer even the CD-ROMs are also tagged with numbers,
so that we can check any breakdown, or any mischief done to the computer.
And before they [the pupils] leave, they have to turn the mouse over, so that
the track ball is to can see that the track ball is still inside.
 Some teachers grouped or paired pupils with ICT skills with those who needed
more support using ICT. Such an arrangement facilitated the learning process of
pupils who were weak in ICT skills as they were able to better engage in the
task. It also eliminated the need for these pupils to frequently interrupt the
teacher for help. For example, one teacher in East Primary School paired pupils
who were weak in typing with those who could type well. She also made sure
that no playful pupils were put together.
 Pupils turned on the computers only when the teacher gave instructions to. In
both schools, some teachers would get the pupils to turn off their monitor or
move to the front of the computer room (away from the computers) when they
were explaining a concept or giving instructions. These procedures ensured that

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the pupils paid attention to the instructions and explanations.

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Classroom management is a critical part of effective and successful instruction.
Effective classroom management, which initiates with well-organized and efficient
lesson planning preparation, helps a teacher to teach and students to learn.
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Students perform well in an optimistic classroom atmosphere and an environment
in which they feel secure, safe, cared for and involved. From a student point of
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view, effective and successful classroom management provides students with
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opportunities to socialize while learning interesting content. From a teacher point of

view, effective classroom management involves preventive discipline and
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interesting instruction. To ensure a favorable classroom environment, it should be

well equipped and facilitated. The classroom physical arrangement provides
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students with effective instruction and promotes smooth teaching learning process.
Physical facilities should be provided as they are helpful in improving the overall
performance of the school.

Physical environment refers to physical characteristics of the room. Physical

classroom environment is a combination of different things i.e., lighting,
temperature, ventilation system, size of the room, floor, walls, desks, chairs, rugs,
whiteboards, computers etc. Teacher and students are considered the main
elements of the classroom environment. Favorable physical environment has a
significant positive effect on the efficiency of any organization and acts as
catalyzing agent to provide a straight way for achieving predetermined objectives
of an organization. But unfortunately, physical environment in our classroom is not
conducive for smooth teaching learning process resulting fatigue and frustration
among the students. According to Halstead the physical environment is designed in
such a way that obstructs the learning process although researches have
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 established a close correlation between the amount of work individual do and its
physical environment. It stands to reason that a student sitting in an insufferably
hot, airless room listening to a lecture on cryogenics would not learn as much as he
would in a cool, comfortable space.

Physical environment plays a central role in any activity and makes it more
conducive, successful and achievable. According to Oni (1992) and physical
facilities compose a strategic factor in the operation and functioning of an
organization as they determine the excellent performance of any social
organization or system including education. Physical facilities are one of the
stimulating factors that play a fundamental role in improving academic
achievement in the school system. These include; school buildings,
accommodation, classrooms, libraries, furniture, laboratories, recreational
equipments, apparatus and other instructional materials. Furthermore, their
availability, relevancy and sufficiency affect academic achievement positively. On
the other hand, poor school buildings and overcrowded classrooms affect academic

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achievement negatively. Taylor and Vlastos (2009) found the relationship between

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environment and design within the classroom from a theoretical perspective. They

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found that physical environment of the classroom acts as “Silent curriculum”. It
means that classroom environmental design can facilitate and improve the learning
process like the overt curriculum.
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Proper arrangement of furniture also plays a vital and crucial role in classroom
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functioning. Furniture is arranged with the intention that students may feel
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comfortable and they may be adjusted to the primary sources or different sources
of information e.g., the teacher, instructional materials, while at the same time
having accessibility to other sources or the activities e.g., work areas, computers
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without creating disturbance in the classroom. Higgins, et al (2005) noted that

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desk arrangement can affect students‟ achievement and attention. Halstead (1974)
states, “A student in the classroom is properly seated if he has a clear view of the
instructor, is provided with suitable writing surface and a place for book storage, is
reasonably comfortable and is so situated that persons going to and from adjacent
seats will not disturb him”.
Instructional technology plays a vital role in teaching learning process and makes it
more successful, interesting and fruitful. Therefore it is imperative to arrange
instructional technology in classroom to ensure effective and conducive environment
for teaching learning process. Iqbal (2005) stated that the arrangement of classroom
educational facilities and instructional spaces might be selected for learning rather
teaching. Besides, it should ensure to facilitate teacher in making an atmosphere
where quality learning may be promoted. Audio visual aids i.e., charts, graphs, maps,
globes, radio, mock up, multimedia, computers, overhead projectors and internet are
the part of classroom environment.
Q.5
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Explain the need and significance of studying socioeconomic foundations of
education for teachers.
Ans
It is conventional in many countries of the world to link the status of a family with the
family‟s income, parents‟ educational level, parents‟ occupation and social status.
Many factors have been found to influence the educational outcome of children.
Among them, a parents‟ socio-economic status plays a significant impact. In other
words, a parent‟s social class can help explain the relative educational outcome of
children.
Status is measured as a combination of education, income and occupation.
Conceptually, it is the social standing or class of an individual or group. Consequently,
privilege, power, and control are emphasized when the status of an individual or
group is seen through the lens of society. The role of a parent‟s circumstances
economically and socially in determining the educational outcome of their child cannot
be overemphasized, as the poorer their economic and social circumstances, the more
difficult it is to support a child‟s educational development and vice versa.

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A parent‟s economic and social status can impact on their child‟s educational outcome

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in several ways. These include the impact on parental involvement in their child‟s
academic activities, the ability to procure relevant educational materials, as well as
the nature and type of education given to the child. Even the nature and type of
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institution to which the child is sent to receive education is positively correlated to
parental socio-economic standing.
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Many scholars hold the view that children from high and middle socio-economic status
parents are better exposed to a learning environment at home because of the
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availability of extra learning facilities which are provided to aid the learning of their
children. In addition, well-educated parents ensure their children‟s future earning by
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providing them a better education. On the other hand, because children from low
socio-economic backgrounds lack access to extra learning facilities, climbing the
educational ladder may be fraught with a multitude of difficulties.

The implication of this is that children who come from low socio-economic status earn
lower test scores and have greater tendency to drop out of school than their
counterparts from high socio-economic status. One explanation given for the
discrepancy between the educational outcomes between children from high and low
socioeconomic status is that the latter are prevented from access to vital resources
required by the students such as textbooks, qualitative schools, computers and the
like. This is in addition to low socioeconomic backgrounds in which stress is created at
home where parents increasingly face difficulties in meeting the financial needs of the
children. Economic hardships induced by low socioeconomic status lead to parental
disruptions, rising cost of family conflicts, parental depression and greater probability

15
of single parenthood, all of which indicate the quality of home life in which the child is
brought up.
It has been observed that children from low socioeconomic status households develop
academic skills more slowly, in comparison with those from higher socioeconomic
status groups. This is because initial academic skills are heavily linked with the home
environment. Thus where there is low literacy connected to parents‟ low academic
level, it negatively affects a child‟s pre-academic skills. Studies are in support of the
view that pupils from households where parents‟ status is low acquire language skills
more slowly as well as display delayed letter recognition and phonological awareness.
Children with higher socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to be proficient on
tasks of addition, subtraction, ordinal sequencing, and math word problems than
children with lower socioeconomic status backgrounds.

Even the feelings associated with low socioeconomic status by students have been
found to be responsible for low educational outcomes. Thus students who identify
themselves as part of a lower class are associated with feelings of not belonging in

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school and exhibit greater probability to drop out of school before graduation. The

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conclusion is that that family economic stress and personal financial constraints affect

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emotional distress and depression in their children, negatively impacting their
academic outcomes.
It is imperative to stress that some children succeed in school despite having parents
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whose socio-economic status is low. What is incontrovertible however is that parental
involvement as captured by a parent‟s status which significantly influences academic
-
choices for their children do impact the educational outcomes of their children.
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Basically, socio-economic status is the term embracing the totality of an individual‟s

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standing in society as seen in such variables as occupation, income and education.

However, there is usually ambiguity in what constitutes socio-economic status or even
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a class. In essence the concepts are seen on a relative basis.

Many debates have taken place regarding the place of student role performance in the
determination of students‟ academic outcomes. Student role performance is defined
as how well an individual or student fulfils the role expected in an educational setting.
Variables such as sex, race, school effort and distribution, extracurricular activities
and deviance, have been found to impact student role performance.

The academic life of a student has been shown to be influenced by race. Studies
conducted in the United States of America indicated that non-white minority students
are at a disadvantage academically and achieved below their white counterparts.
Although research showed that African-American students tend to invest less in
school, leading to their relative underperformance, it is suggested however that
minority students have generally come to expect discrimination through racial
prejudice, believing that such negative tendencies will undermine whatever efforts
16
they exert to prove themselves academically. This is in addition to the conclusion that
lower investment in education is not a function of inability but a direct response to
discrimination which minority students are subjected to in a white-dominated class.

School effort also plays crucial role in students‟ educational outcome, in terms of the
energy and time put in with a view to meeting the formal academic requirements as
established by a school or a teacher. Carbonaro (2005) identified three types of school
effort, namely rule-oriented effort, procedural effort and intellectual effort. Rule
oriented effort encompasses a student‟s tendency to show up in class as well as put
up good behavior in the learning process. While procedural effort entails meeting
specific demands of the class such as doing and submitting a test within the
prescribed time, intellectual effort involves student‟s critical thinking about the
curriculum as well as its understanding. School effort has been demonstrated to be a
good indicator of educational outcome, greater academic values and higher grade
point average.

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The school environment encompasses the structure, composition and climate of the

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school, all of which set the parameters of a child‟s learning experience Two of the

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structural components of a school are the sector in which it operates such as whether
it is private or public and class size. Crosnoe (2004) maintained that because of the
relative better investment in private schools, coupled with smaller class sizes and
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better learning resources such as computers and functional laboratories and libraries,
attending private schools leads to better educational outcome than public schools.
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Intimacy is enhanced in smaller class sizes in private schools, with the result that
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those who come from low socio-economic backgrounds and consequently attend
poorly funded schools with large class sizes and ill-equipped structures perform less
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academically than their counterparts from high socio-economic background.

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From the foregoing, it can be seen that the type of school a child attends can
influence the child‟s educational outcomes. Whether a child would be sent to a good,
average or low quality school would largely depend on their parents‟ ability to afford
it. It was found that socio-economic status variables continue to influence educational
attainment, even after controlling for different school types. Hence, the school context
tends to affect the strength of the relationship between socio-economic status and
educational outcomes.

Majoribanks observed that the home, being an important agent of socialization is

instrumental in the interest that a child forms in school, in addition to the child‟s
future aspirations. Family background encompasses factors such as socio-economic
status of parents, family size, neighborhood, maternal characteristics, one-parent
versus two-parent households and divorce. Rumberger (1995) maintained that a
student‟s family background is widely recognized as the most significant important
contributor to success in schools. Jacobs and Harvey (2005) established that many
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variables in the family background have strong direct and indirect associations with
students‟ success throughout school up to occupational attainment. Such variables
include family structure, parent education level, parental involvement and parenting
style.

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