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The Role of Leader-Follower Relationships in Leader PDF
The Role of Leader-Follower Relationships in Leader PDF
The Role of Leader-Follower Relationships in Leader PDF
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this study, a methodological description, 1998; Sharbrough et al. 2006) and further
analysis results, and study conclusions and tested by many other researchers (Zorn, Jr.
recommendations for future work. and Ruccio 1998; McMeans 2001;
Sharbrough et al. 2006). The theory is well
II. Background grounded in speech act theory, a widely
accepted and utilized communication model
This section provides details on the (Sullivan 1988). As such, ML provides a
leader communication and leader behavior robust theoretical framework for
frameworks used in this study: the understanding how leader communication
motivating language and leader-member can affect and improve worker outcomes. In
exchange theories. Although motivating addition the ML model is parsimonious
language is a well- established leader enough that it provides a stable platform for
communication theory (Sharbrough, analysis and further development. In short,
Simmons and Cantrill 2006; J. Mayfield and ML theory is a well-grounded and validated
M. Mayfield 2006; McMeans 2001), much model of leader communication that can be
of how actual leader communication easily adapted and applied to daily leader
translates into worker outcomes changes communication implementation.
remains unclear. Specifically for this paper’s In essence, ML theory proposes that all
purpose, the theory still has major leader-to-follower work speech communication
assumptions that need to be tested about the can be categorized into one of three speech
role leader behaviors play in supporting types. These speech types are direction-giving
leader communication. The LMX theory language, empathetic language, and meaning-
provides a useful framework for analyzing making language. Each of the three speech types
the leader communication-behavior link composes non-overlapping, comprehensive
since it is a highly regarded theory of leader categories. Although each speech type plays
behavior with a dyadic nature that is separate roles in leader communication, ML
congruent with ML theory (Cashman, theory holds that a leader must use all three
Dansereau, G. Graen and Haga 1976; G. B. types synergistically in order to improve
Graen and Cashman 1975; Liden and G. B. worker outcomes. Also, the communication
Graen 1980; J. Mayfield and M. Mayfield process is dyadic rather than a simple
1998; J. R. Mayfield, 1993; M. R. Mayfield expression of inherent leader ability. The
1994; Rosse and Kraut 1983). The following original theory proposes that each leader-
paragraphs provide specifics on motivating worker communication relationship will be
language theory itself, pertinent findings unique, and the follower outcomes will be
from ML research, an overview of LMX influenced by this dyadic relationship.
theory and how it relates to this current The first ML component is direction-
research, and proposed models of how ML giving language. Leaders use direction-giving
operates within a leadership context. language to provide workers with specifics on
Motivating language theory provides a expected workplace performance activities
comprehensive, easily applicable model of and outcomes. These specifics can include
leader-to-follower work communication. quantity and quality performance components.
The theory was originally proposed by The language should also detail any time
Sullivan (1988), greatly developed by frame performance requirements. Such
Mayfield and Mayfield (J. Mayfield and M. language is expected to improve worker
Mayfield, 2009(b); J. Mayfield and M. performance through means similar to goal-
Mayfield 2007; J. Mayfield et al. 1995, setting theory. In addition this language
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 67
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
ML’s theoretical validity but one of the many work types, worker settings, and
theory's major assumptions still remains measurement methods. LMX relationships
largely unexplored. A central tenet of ML have also been shown to be strongly linked
theory is that leader behavior must be with worker performance, turnover, job
congruent with ML communication in order satisfaction, and other relevant worker
for leader communication to be able to outcomes (K. Carson and P. P. Carson 2002;
positively affect worker outcomes. In short Gerstner and Day 1997; Ilies, Nahrgang and
ML theory has posited that if leader behavior Morgeson 2007; Lapierre and Hackett 2007;
does not support leader communication, then M. Mayfield and J. Mayfield, 2008). Also,
outcomes will be negatively affected (J. experimental design research has given
Mayfield and M. Mayfield 1998, 1995; J. R. strong indications that LMX’s relationship
Mayfield 1993; M. Mayfield and J. Mayfield to worker outcomes is of a causal nature,
2004; Sullivan 1988). Some support for this and not simply correlational (Miner, 2005).
hypothesis has been provided by Mayfield Importantly for this study, LMX
(1993). However, it is still unclear how this relationships are dyadic in nature rather than
process occurs, and even the early ML simply based fully in leader skills. Leaders
theory foundations (Sullivan 1988) remained and followers negotiate their work
silent on potential mechanisms. One relationship early on, and this relationship
potential mechanism is that leader behavior tends to remain stable throughout the
mediates the relationship between leader existence of the dyad (Miner, 2005). The
communication and worker outcomes, but dyadic nature of the relationship means that
this potential mechanism has not been it is congruent with and on the same level as
tested. ML relationships. This congruency means
LMX theory provides a useful that LMX will be useful to test the ML-
framework for testing as a potential mediator leadership-worker outcome relationship.
between ML use and worker outcomes. LMX Based on the preceding background,
theory is considered to be one of the most four potential models can be constructed.
valid leadership (and management) theories The first model is a fully independent
(Miner 2005), and therefore, is a good model. The second is a covariance model.
theory for leadership testing. It also provides The third is a partially mediated model. The
a concise measure of the relationship fourth is a fully mediated model. (Although
developed between a leader and an it is expected that these relationships will
individual subordinate. Also important for hold for all worker outcomes, for testing
this study, LMX has been shown to be purposes the models are confined to worker
strongly linked to leader communication (G. performance and job satisfaction.) Full
B. Graen and Cashman 1975; G. B. Graen details on these four models and the
and J. A. Graen 2006; Liden and G. B. implications of each model on ML theory
Graen 1980; J. Mayfield and M. Mayfield will be detailed in the following paragraphs.
1998; M. Mayfield and J. Mayfield 2004). The fully independent model supposes
As such, it is a good leadership framework that leader communication and leader
to test the role that leader behavior plays in behavior are completely independent of each
the ML leader-follower relationship. other. This model is not expected to be
LMX theory posits that a leader's supported, but needs to be included for
relationship with an individual worker has a completeness in the testing process. This
significant effect on the worker's outcomes. model assumes that leader behavior can occur
This theory has been well supported across independently of leader communication. If
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 69
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
Figure 1
Independent Variables
Independent Variables
this model is supported, then serious flaws both ML and LMX, but that each set leader
will be evident in ML theory as currently activities are not dependent on the other.
conceptualized. In addition, support would Support for this model would also create
also call in to question previous research questions about ML validity, but not
indicating the necessity of congruence necessarily invalidate previous statistical
between leader communication and behavior findings. Rather, it would indicate that
(Mayfield, 1993). This model is presented in previous research findings must be re-
Figure 1. interpreted as showing a merely correlational
The second model assumes that leader relationship, or indicating a missing third
communication and behavior are correlated, variable that influences both leader
but behavior does not mediate leader communication and leader behavior. This
communication and worker outcomes. Such proposed model is presented in Figure 2.
a model would indicate overlapping skills for
Figure 2
Covaring Variables
70 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS INQUIRY 2009
The next model posits that leader conclusions. This proposed model is presented
communication is partially mediated by leader in Figure 3.
behaviors. This model would provide support There is also a fully mediated model. In this
for existing ML theory but would also raise model, ML use is fully mediated by leader
new questions. Under this model, ML behaviors (as captured through LMX
communication efficacy would be partly theory). This model is congruent with
dependent on leader behavior, but would current ML conceptualizations. It is also
also have an effect independent of leader supportive of prior research findings, though
actions. With this variable ordering, ML it expands theoretical understanding of
efficacy would only be partly dependent on previous research. If this model is supported,
leader behaviors. Therefore, leader behaviors then there will be further evidence
would not have to be congruent with leader that leader behavior must be in line with
communication in order for ML to improve leader communication in order for the
worker outcomes. However, such congruency leader communication to be effective, and
would partly influence worker outcomes. there will also be a justifiable theoretical
Therefore, this model would be in-line with backing for why such a congruence must
previous research findings, but also require a occur. This proposed model is presented in
new conceptualization of previous study Figure 4.
Figure 3
Partially Mediated Model
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 71
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
Figure 4
Fully Mediated Model
Kacmar, Witt, Zivnuska and Gully 2003; methods for evaluating model quality and
Schyns and Wolfram 2008; Varma and comparing models for fit adequacy (Bollen
Stroh 2001; Wang, H., Law and Chen 2008). and Long 1993).
Unlike most statistical analysis
H4A: LMX mediates the methods, testing SEM model fit
relationship between motivating adequacy relies on evaluating several
language and worker performance and diagnostic measures. A chi-square test was
job satisfaction. the earliest measure of model fit. The chi-
square test provides information on how
This hypothesis is based on previously close a fit exists between the proposed
developed theory (J. Mayfield, 2009; J. model and the observed data. Significant
Mayfield and M. Mayfield, in press; J. results indicate a worse fit. However, the
Mayfield and M. Mayfield, 1995; J. chi-square significance test is generally
Mayfield et al. 1995, 1998; J. R. Mayfield, considered to be overly sensitive to trivial
1993; McMeans, 2001; Sullivan, 1988; model-data discrepancies and less reliable
Zorn, Jr. and Ruccio, 1998) that indicates than other fit measures. Another use of the
leader behavior should be a mediator of chi-square test is to check the ratio of chi-
leader communication and worker outcomes. square statistic to degrees of freedom. If this
This theory has not been tested with the number is less than three, the model is
motivating language construct, but existing generally considered to fit the data well.
literature supports this supposition. Goodness of Fit indices have been
All variables were captured using well- developed that are considered to be better
established scales. A leader's motivating measures of model-data congruence. The
language use was measured through the GFI provides a good measure, and any score
motivating language scale (J. Mayfield et al. over 0.90 indicates a good model-data fit
1995; J. R. Mayfield 1993). Leadership with measures over 0.85 being acceptable.
skills were captured using the LMX-7 scale More modern fit measures have been
(Cashman et al. 1976; G. B. Graen and developed as well with similar score
Cashman 1975; Liden and G. B. Graen requirements. Using multiple measures
1980). Worker performance was evaluated provides a better view of model fit
by the leader using the employee rating adequacy, and a model is generally
scale (Cashman et al. 1976; G. B. Graen and considered to fit the data well when most of
Cashman 1975; G. B. Graen et al. 1982). these measures indicate model-data
Finally, worker job satisfaction was congruency (Bollen and Long 1993; Raftery
examined through the Hoppock (1935) job 1993; Schumacker and Lomax 1996).
satisfaction scale. Finally, the RMSE (root mean square
Structural equation modeling (SEM) error) provides another indication of model-
was used to capture the variable data fit. This measure ranges between 0 and
relationships and compare the potential 1, with lower scores indicating better fits
models. SEM is a useful technique for between the data and a proposed model.
comparing complex models with latent Models are generally considered to have an
variables. Latent variables are those that acceptable fit with the data when the RMSE
cannot be directly measured but can be is below 0.10, and to have very good fits
estimated through their effects on manifest when the RMSE is below 0.05. There is an
variables (such as questionnaire items). alternative RMSE measure (SRMR−
SEM also provides many diagnostic standardized root mean residual) that
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 73
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
provides other model insights and has acceptable guidelines for adequate
similar score properties. reliability. Also, measure reliabilities
With SEM models, many potential seemed to be in line with previous research
models may fit the observed data. Although using these measures. Scale inter-
each of these models may provide a relationships, and descriptives are presented
potentially adequate fit, some models will fit in Table 1. Scale reliabilities are presented
better than others. Initial model selection in Table 2.
should be guided by theory. Once a Additional analyses were performed to
theoretically, sustainable set of models have test for scale convergent and divergent
been selected, direct model fit comparisons validity based on Fornell and Larcker's
can be made. The BIC (Bayesian Inference (1981) recommendations, and these results
Coefficient) provides a readily usable indicated good scale properties. For positive
comparison method. Lower BIC scores indications of convergent validity,
indicate better model fits. A difference of 5 individual manifest items showed high
points shows strong evidence for model reliabilities (all above 0.95), and latent
difference, and a 10-point difference construct reliabilities were similarly high
indicates near incontrovertible evidence of (all 0.98 or higher). The average variance
model difference (Bollen and Long 1993). extracted (AVE) for each latent variable was
also well above the author's recommended
IV. Results 50 percent level, indicating that the latent
variables were showing true construct
Study respondents were drawn from a validity. Furthermore, the results indicate
southeastern U.S. health-care facility. This good divergent validity in addition to the
subject pool consisted of 475 workers with previous convergent validity properties.
151 providing usable responses–generating Each latent variable's construct reliability
a 32 percent response rate. Female and AVE was substantially higher than its
respondents were in the majority (reflecting associated Gamma2. Specifically, the ratio
the facilities demographic balance) with of these quantities exceeded 1.5 in all cases.
68.9 percent of the sample group being Information on these tests is presented in
female. The average work team consisted of Table 3.
11.6 workers. The mean organizational As hypothesized, the fully mediated
tenure was 11 years, and the mean team model proved to be the best fit with the
tenure was 4.8 years. observed data. The fully mediated model
All measures showed acceptable had a BIC score of -527.19, with the next
reliability levels. Scale reliability ranged best fitting model (the partially mediated
from a high of 0.91 for direction-giving model) having a BIC of -520.88. The
language to a low of 0.71 for job difference of 6.31 between the two models
satisfaction. Although the Hoppock scale's provides a substantial indication of differences
reliability was lower than the other between the two models. Model BIC scores
measures, it still fell within generally are presented in Table 4.
74 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS INQUIRY 2009
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 75
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
Table 2
Measure Reliabilities
Once the fully mediated model was variables' variance. The R2 equivalent of
established as being the best fitting model, these numbers would be 0.18 for worker
the quality of this model's fit was tested and performance, 0.37 for worker job
found to be acceptable. The chi-square test satisfaction, and 0.87 for the relationship
was significant, but the ratio was 1.79, well between the latent variables and the manifest
within acceptable guidelines for this variables. Such R2 results can be considered
measure. The GFI score was a bit low at to be quite respectable (J. Cohen & P. Cohen,
0.83, but the alternative GFI scores could be 1983; J. Cohen, P. Cohen, West, & Aiken,
considered acceptable, ranging from 0.94 to 2003; Fox, 1991, 1997, 2002).
0.88. In addition the RMSE score was 0.07,
and the SRMR was 0.05; both; scores V. Conclusion
indicating a good fit between the model and
the observed data. Model fit statistics are This research provides evidence that
presented in Table 5. appropriate leader behaviors are needed in order
The results also indicated significant to support leader-follower communication.
links between all tested variables, and these Results indicate that the fully mediated
findings supported our proposed hypothesis model is the best fit with the observed data.
and sub-hypotheses. Such significant linkages This finding indicates that leader-
are necessary in order to support the follower communication occurs within
hypothesized model since a model may show the context of a given leader-follower
a good fit with data but have hypothesized relationship – not simply as an independent
links that are non-significant. These results process of leader information transmission.
are presented graphically in Figure 5 and As such, these results provide new
numerically in Table 6. insights into the motivating language theory
Furthermore, the model does an and leader communication in general.
adequate job of explaining the data's An important aspect of this work is
variance. The model explains 18 percent of that it provides evidence for one of the
the variance in a worker's performance and largely untested ML theory assumptions.
37 percent of the variance in a worker's job These results underline the necessity of
satisfaction. In addition to the variance leader behavior congruence with leader
explained in the model's latent variables, the communications. Since ML communications
model explains 86 percent of the manifest appear to be fully mediated by leader
76 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS INQUIRY 2009
behavior, poor leader behavior can neutralize cannot take place without a good leader-
good leader communications. Even more subordinate relation-ship. This last interpretation
strongly stated, one interpretation of the would give greater weight to the necessity
results is that good leader communication
Table 3
Convergent and Discriminant Validity Test Results
__________________________
1 Reliability is construct reliability for the latent variables and item reliability for the manifest variables.
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 77
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
Table 4
BIC Comparison and Fit Statistics
Model BIC
Independent Variables -395.58
Covaring Variables -520.88
Partially Mediated Model -520.88
Fully Mediated Model -527.19
Table
Figure55
Latent Variable RelationsFully
with Mediated
Standardized
Model
Coefficients
Fit Statistics
for the Fully Mediated Model
Model BIC Chi- Chi- GFI Bentler- Tucker- Bentler RMSEA SRMR
Square Square to Bonnett Lewis CFI
df ratio NFI NNFI
Fully -527.19 296.64, 1.77 0.83 0.88 0.93 0.94 0.07 0.05
Mediated df=166
Model
Figure 5
Latent Variable Relations with Standardized Coefficients for the Fully Mediated Model
78 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS INQUIRY 2009
Table 6
Fully Mediated Model Path Relationships
Unstandardized
Path Standardized Coefficient
Coefficient
ML ---> Direction Giving Language 0.92 1.001
ML ---> Empathetic Language 0.92 1.16
ML ---> Meaning Making Language 0.67 .79
LMX ---> LMX.01 0.75 1.03
LMX ---> LMX.02 0.79 1.06
LMX ---> LMX.03 0.80 1.20
LMX ---> LMX.04 0.71 1.25
This last interpretation would give greater
LMX ---> LMX.05 0.85 1.001
weight to the necessity for congruent leader
LMX ---> LMX.06 behavior and communication
0.71 than detailed
0.92
in the original theory.
LMX ---> LMX.07 0.79 1.14
The results also provide a better
Performance ---> ERS.01 0.76
understanding of general leader 0.89 behavior.
Performance ---> ERS.02 They provide information 0.98
0.92 on how leader
behavior mediates leader communication.
Performance ---> ERS.03 0.93 1.15
Insights can also be drawn for how leader
Performance ---> ERS.04 0.91
communication affects 1.03 leader-follower
Performance ---> ERS.05 relationship
0.96 outcomes. As such,
1.001these results
also provide useful information for training
Performance ---> ERS.06 0.88 0.88
and human resource purposes. The findings
Job Satisfaction ---> JS.01 0.75 0.74 training
indicate that leader communication
Job Satisfaction ---> JS.02 must be supported by leader1.00
0.81 skills
1
training.
Job Satisfaction ---> JS.03
It can
0.68
also provide information
0.74
for leader
selection purposes. Drawing from these
Job Satisfaction ---> JS.04 0.66 0.60 based on
results, leaders should be selected
ML ---> LMX communication and relationship
0.85 0.75 building
LMX ---> Performance skills
0.30 as well as receiving
0.41 appropriate
training throughout their careers.
LMX ---> Job Satisfaction 0.46 0.68 underscore
For leaders these findings
Performance <--> Job Satisfaction the
NA importance of ensuring 0.10 congruence
between actions and spoken words. Based
on our results, leader communication can
only be successfully translated into higher
worker performance and job satisfaction
through appropriate leader behavior. In short
___________________________
2 Path coefficient set to 1.00 for model identification purposes.leaderbehavior and communication than
detailed in the original theory.
for congruent
VOL. 8 MAYFIELD AND MAYFIELD: THE ROLE OF LEADER-FOLLOWER 79
RELATIONSHIPS IN LEADER COMMUNICATIONS
for congruent leader behavior and of attention. This study helps provide such
communication than detailed in the original attention by adding valuable information on
theory. the crucial role leader behavior plays in
The results also provide a better linking leader communication to worker
understanding of general leader behavior. outcomes. Similarly, this study can help
They provide information on how leader researchers better understand LMX
behavior mediates leader communication. theory. These findings aid placing leader
Insights can also be drawn for how leader behaviors in the nomological net of worker
communication affects leader-follower performance and leader communication.
relationship outcomes. As such, these results As such it assists theory development by
also provide useful information for training expanding understanding of the leadership
and human resource purposes. The findings process.
indicate that leader communication training While this research has provided
must be supported by leader skills training. useful insights into ML theory, more work
It can also provide information for leader needs to be done in this area. Future work
selection purposes. Drawing from these needs to examine other worker outcomes
results, leaders should be selected based on to determine if these results hold across
communication and relationship building different worker outcome variables.
skills as well as receiving appropriate Alternate leadership measures should also
training throughout their careers. be introduced to determine which
For leaders, these findings underscore leadership skills are necessary to facilitate
the importance of ensuring congruence leader communication. In addition, training
between actions and spoken words. Based methods need to be developed and tested to
on our results, leader communication can utilize these results so that appropriate
only be successfully translated into higher intervention methods can be developed and
worker performance and job satisfaction implemented.
through appropriate leader behavior. In
short, it is not enough to simply talk a good References
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80 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS INQUIRY 2009