Freemasonry Survival and Compromise - F

Tianmeng Feng
FREEMASONRY: SURVIVAL AND COMPROMISE
FREEMASONRY IN THE THIRD REICH
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like gratefully and sincerely to thank Professor William Niven for his guidance,
understanding, patience, and most importantly, his friendship during my graduate
studies at Nottingham Trent University.
I would also like to thank Mr Geoffrey Bond for the assistance and guidance in archive
and primary material.
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ABSTRACT
The Nazi’s oppression against particular social powers had not been consistent. Unlike
the fascists, Nazi Party played a comparatively more political role, dealing with a
particular group of people. The local Nazi regime also had shown interest in cooperating
and collaborating with these targeted groups. Considering a few essential elements, the
Nazi Party negotiated with the targeted groups even when the groups were targeted
owing to their racial status. These essential elements are willingness to comply,
excellence and more fundamentally their value for Nazism. More significantly, these
essential elements are for the targeted groups to survive the persecution. The most
typical case being the Masonic lodges in the Third Reich region; the cooperation and
collaboration between the targeted skilled groups and Nazi Party offered an option for
survival. The Freemasons is a group consist of professional and highly skillful members.
Before the outbreak of the World War II, the Freemasons being the supporter of Hitler,
was favoured by the Nazis. Moreover, among those Mason supporters, many of them
possessed essential skills, for example, they are doctors, bankers and lawyers. The
Mason supporters were significant to the achievement of Hitler’s Nazi regime.
Therefore, a mutual beneficial relationship between the Nazis and the Freemasons was
established, regardless of the different understanding towards National Socialism.
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The persecution of the true believers of Freemasonry was strict. Since the Freemasonry
was not a group based in biology, race or religion, the masons were able to convert or
just fake their belief on Nazism to escape the persecution. After a serious of negotiations,
the Nazis had eventually found the critical point that could benefit the regime the most.
Thus, the persecuted became the loyal whilst the persecutors became the benefactors.
Keywords: Freemasonry, the Third Reich, Nazism, Compromise, Collaboration,
Opportunism
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CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. I
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................II
CONTANT .................................................................................................................................. IV
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER I THE TRUE BRETHRENS AND THE APOSTATES .......................................... 14
CHAPTER II THE CLOSE OF LODGES .................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER III A DANCE OF COMPROMISE.......................................................................... 44
CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 55
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 61
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INTRODUCTION
The Nazis’ hostility towards the Freemasonry was based on the Führer’s hatred of the
ideology of Freemasonry. He was convinced that the Freemasonry was a conspiracy of
the Jewish people. He was also convinced that the Masonic lodges somehow eventually
prevented the process of marginalisation of Jews in the society of Europe.1 Therefore,
when seized power, Hitler ordered to shut the lodges down immediately, and in two
years, the lodges in Germany were all closed. In 1939, at the outbreak of the Second
World War, with the wide expansion of power, Hitler expanded his anti-Masonic
persecution to new regions of the Europe. In 1941, Sven Lunden, a correspondent of the
American Mercury claimed that the Freemasonry was the only group of people whom
the Nazi regime and the Fascists hated more than the Jews.2 Technically, the statement
was not accurate: the Nazi still hated Jews more than the Freemasons. In fact, it was
more a hatred of the Freemasonry, the institution, rather than a hatred of the masons.
The Nazis hated only the Freemasonry’s ideology, not its members. The German Lodges
consisted of highly educated people who were attracted to the regime in the Weimar
Republic period, and then, continued their support after the Nazi came into power. The
Freemasonry membership was the only thing that kept the Nazi from admitting these
1
Hitler, A., 2010. Mein kampf. Bottom of the Hill.
2
Lunden, S.G., 1941. The Annihilation of Freemasonry. American Mercury.
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masons. The ideology of brotherhood and fraternity in the Freemasonry were also
claimed as “work for the loosening of state, national and social bonds.”3
Unlike the study of the World War II or Nazism, the study of Freemasonry was less
systematic. It was ignored and neglected for an extended period due to the
confidentiality of its membership and the secrecy of lodge meetings. Although, the
Freemasonry nowadays revealed itself by opening its lodges and libraries to the public,
but the conspiracy theories have fictionalised and even deified the existence of a secret
society and its power. Now, there are a large amount of materials with record of the
studies of Freemasonry, and even more, the studies of Nazi Germany. However, there
hardly are any studies that examined these two together. Freemasonry was only
mentioned briefly in the studies of Holocaust or the Third Reich.4 For example,
Micheal Burleigh spent only two paragraphs on the Freemasonry in Germany and
France in his nearly one-thousand-page book.5 Ian Kershaw wrote more, two-volume
length about Freemasonry in the study of Hitler, but the study was mainly focused on
the Jews, and the reference was rough and there was a lack of analysis. Most
information about the Freemasonry in the Third Reich can be found was in secondary
materials and were from the Churches in the Nazi regime. The materials were strongly
3
Rosenberg, A., 2004. The myth of the twentieth century: An evaluation of the spiritual-intellectual confrontations
of our age. Historical Review Press.
4
"Freemasonry: Reality, Myth, and Legend™: April 2009." Insert Name of Site in Italics. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec.
2014 <http://themasonicblog.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html_br>. "Freemasonry: Reality, Myth, and
Legend™: April 2009." Insert Name of Site in Italics. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014
<http://themasonicblog.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html_br>.
5
Burleigh, M., 2000. The Third Reich: a new history. Pan.
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biased by the positionality of the church. Some were unfair and even deceptive.6
Although a membership of the Freemasonry requires a belief in the existence of God,
the Freemasonry was never a religion.
The same had happened to the German Masonic researchers. In 1962, Friedrich John
Böttner, a member of the Freemasonry, published his work on the history of German
Freemasonry from its foundation to 1958. He mentioned the Third Reich in the length
of one page.7 Robert Freke Gould devoted nearly a hundred pages of his book to the
history of Freemasonry in Germany before 1932 and ended with Hitler’s suppression of
German Freemasonry in haste.8 Of all the available material about Freemasonry in Nazi
Germany, there were hardly ant first-hand materials in English, and the materials were
either not scholarly or not objective. In addition, except for Ralf Melzer’s Konflikt und
Anpassung, everything else was published by the members of the Freemasonry.9 Other
than Melzer, Helmut Neuberger’s Freimaurerei und Nationalsozialismus was written by
a non-masonic author, however, eventually, his work was published by a Freemasons
publisher.10 These two scholars had laid the foundation for the study of the
Freemasonry in Nazi Germany, and none of them wrote in English. There were about
6
Helmreich, E.C., 1979. The German Churches under Hitler: Background, Struggle, and Epilogue. Wayne State
University Press Detroit.
7
Böttner, F.J., 1962. Zersplitterung und Einigung: 225 Jahre Geschichte der deutschen Freimaurer. An Hand von
Dokumenten dargest. Loge Absalom zu den drei Nesseln.
8
Gould, R.F., 2007. The concise history of Freemasonry. Courier Dover Publications.
9
Melzer, R., Pelinka, A. and Reinalter, H., 1999. Konflikt und Anpassung: Freimaurerei in der Weimarer Republik
und im" Dritten Reich". Braumüller.
10
Neuberger, H., 1980. Freimaurerei und Nationalsozialismus: die Verfolgung der deutschen Freimaurerei durch
völkische Bewegung und Nationalsozialismus 1918-1945. Bauhütten.
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thirty English articles from 1945 and all written by lodge members of the Freemasons or
published in Masonic journals. Moreover, illustrative works on the subject were
published in the last 70 years. However, they were either actively driven by positionality
or not in English.
Due to a lack of materials, there has been a debate among all the scholars conducting
research about the Freemasonry: Should the Freemasonry be considered as victims or
conspirators? It is widely believed that the German Freemasonry was suppressed and
persecuted by the Nazis.11 However, Bernheim and Melzer pointed out that the majority
of German Freemasons tried to align with the Nazi regime both institutionally and
individually. However on the individual level, there are a majority of masons ended up
joining the Nazi, yet, the institution of the Freemasonry did not stand in the Nazi
persecution.
My presumption is that the both sides are correct. The German Freemasonry as an
institution, it indeed was attacked and suppressed by The Nazis, before and after the
Nazis seize power. Some masons lost their previous occupation, and some were even
sent to concentration camps. Meanwhile, there were also many Freemasons aligned with
the Nazi regime by joining the party or its cause. For example, one lodge brethren
joined the Schutzstaffeln and helped shutting his former lodge down; others became
11
University Press Detroit. Helmreich, E.C., 1979. The German Churches under Hitler: Background, Struggle, and
Epilogue. Wayne State University Press Detroit.
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informers of Gestapo and Sicherheitsdienst. Many lodges adopted the Aryan clauses to
please the regime, and banned Jews from lodges. Hitler even appointed a former
Freemason, Hjalmar Schacht, as the Minister of Economics. Unlike the other Masonic
lodges, the Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland kept on criticising Nazism openly.
However, they were not recognised officially and despised by the mainstream of the
German Freemasonry at that period. The Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland was
disputed by lodges in other regions.12
Rather than taking sides, this dissertation aims to examines the history of Freemasonry
under the regime of the Third Reich in a new perspective. The object of dissertation is
to try to identify the motivation for thousands of masons to betray their old lodges
seeking for alliance with the Nazi Party who intended to marginalise and annihilate
them. For a few who did not, what made them choose to risk the persecution and not to
compromise to Nazism? Finally, this dissertation will argue that in order to guarantee
their interests and welfare, some of the Freemasons sought an alliance with the Nazi
regime during that period. Due to the essential speciality and powerful positions of the
Freemasons, the Freemasonry became unique to the Nazi regime.
The Nazi targeted people that have a sense of belonging to a group or institute, rather
than the Third Reich. For example, communists were targeted due to their political
12
Anderson, J., Ars Quatuor Coronatorum. Transactions of Quatuor.
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differences, Jehovah’s Witnesses was targeted due to their religion, and for the
Freemasons, the differences lie in the code of Freemasonry. All these former Masons
joined the Freemasonry out of their free will, which made it easy for them to convert to
National Socialism. Like Freemasons and Communists did, some of them even joined
the Nazi eventually.13 What made the Freemasonry unique was the level of education
and the specialities its members possessed. Communists were mainly working class
while the Freemasons were doctors, lawyers and businessmen. The Freemasonry to
some extent was a perpetrator of Nazism since they shared the same resentment of
communism as the Nazis. Thus, in order to maximise their political interests, the Nazi
regime had to treat the Freemasons differently on the execution of their policies.
Therefore, the dance of compromises between the Freemasons and the Nazi government
started. The Nazi government eventually found a way to annihilate the Freemasonry and
absorbed the Freemasons.
The study of Freemasons under the Nazi regime will also contribute to solving another
question – were the members of targeted groups choose to take specific necessary
actions just to avoid the persecution from the Nazi? This study will illustrate the
compromise between the target groups and the Nazi regime exemplified by the German
Freemasons’ actions.
13
Bauer, Y., 2002. Rethinking the holocaust. Yale University Press.
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Therefore, “Freemasonry” at this period should be re-defined. As soon as the Nazi
seized power, they started to inspect on not only the Freemasons, but also other similar
organisations, such as, Schlaraffia, Rotary Club and Independent Order of B’nai
B’rith.14 However, it is also common for the members of these organisations to hold the
membership of the Freemasons. Since these Freemason-like organisations were not
recognised by the nine Grand Lodges of Freemasonry in Germany, this dissertation will
focus on the ones that recognised by the Grand Lodges. In 1933, there were 700 lodges
scattered in Germany with almost 70,000 members.15
The archives and other primary sources of this study came primarily from the
Bundesarchiv and Library and Museum of Freemasonry. The files of the departments of
the Nazi regime was mostly provided and published by the United States Holocaust
Memorial Museum.
This dissertation is divided into five parts. The first part is an introduction, which gives
a literature review, a brief introduction on the theme of each chapter and the expected
outcomes of the study.
In Chapter I, the history of the Freemasonry in Germany will be introduced briefly. It
also presents the members of the fraternity and their reasons for joining. Then, Chapter I
14
15
Gellately, R., 1990. The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933-1945. Oxford University
Press.
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will show the culture of the members who joined as part of the bourgeoisie, and
illustrate the reasons that made it easy for them to abandon their former ideologies after
dozens of years’ membership.
Chapter II and Chapter III will then explore the reactions of the Masonic lodges since
the Nazi’s seizure of power to the German Freemasonry’s annihilation in 1935. And the
attempts that the Germany Freemasons trying to align with the regime institutionally.
The Nazis attempted to annihilate the institution of the Freemasonry and its ideology.
On the contrary, because of the highly professional skills and abilities that the
Freemasons possessed, the Nazis wanted to absorb the former Freemasons individually
and convert them into perpetrator of Nazism. Thus, the Nazi rejected the Freemasonry
to keep out the opponent of National Socialism while it accepted the former Freemasons.
There were difficulties for the Nazis to distinguish the Masonic opportunists from the
true Freemasons who joined the lodges and adopted the ideology of Freemasonry. By
examining the former Freemasonry in Nazi party, this chapter will elaborate how the
Nazis balance their ideology and political actions.
Chapter IV is the conclusion of the dissertation. This chapter aims to show how the
former Freemasons who abandoned their membership and collaborated with the Nazis
returned to the Freemasonry claimed to be victims of the persecution once the Third
Reich broke down. It also aims to elucidate that the former Freemasons’ were not
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entirely compelled to cooperate with Nazi regime. Instead, they were willing to comply.
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CHAPTER I. THE TRUE BRETHRENS AND THE APOSTATES
From the perspective of the Nazi Party, especially the Führer, the Freemasonry was a
symbol of exceptionalism, elitism, humanism, internationalism and liberalism. It all
came from the ideology of the Freemasonry – “all that has a human face is equal”.16 In
order to remould the social relations and promote National Socialism, the Nazi created
Volksgemeinschaft. However, the Freemasonry, according to the Nazi Party, rejected the
Volksgemeinshaft and continued on advocating the ideology of “brotherhood of all
men”. Because the Freemasonry accept all religions and set no racial limit, which was
severely contrary to the racial and religious discrimination of Nazism.17 Therefore, the
Nazi regime claimed that the Freemasonry was full of Jewish infiltrators and invaders.
There was no obstacle for the Nazi propaganda to accuse the masons as humanitarian
since the Freemasons were always willing to admit that their purpose was to tear down
the barriers of nations, races, religions and social status within the lodges. The Nazi
propaganda phrased “Jew and Freemasons” instead of “Jew” and “Freemasons”. This
was actually used firstly in France before the World War I. In 1880, in France, where the
influence of Catholicism was strong, E.H. Chabout, a Catholic priest claimed that the
16
Varga, W.P., 1981. The number one Nazi Jew-baiter: A political biography of Julius Streicher, Hitler's chief
anti-Semitic propagandist. Carlton Press New York.
17
Schumacher, J.N., 1954. Rizal and Blumentritt. Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints, 2 (2),
85-101.
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goal of the Freemasonry was the same as the Jews. He proclaimed that these two groups
of people were intimately connected and intended to take over the world.18 Before the
World War I, this phrase was not accepted widely in Germany until after the World War
I. After losing the war against the nations where Jews and Freemasonry rooted deeply,
the fury against the Jewish community and the Masonic lodges swept the wounded
Germany. The conspiracy of “Stab Germany in the back” became the mainstream of
German post-war attitude. The publishing of German version of the Protocols of the
Learned Elders of Zion had eventually generated the Dolchstosslegende. The Protocols
seemed answered every question rose after the World War I, especially why the war
broke out, and the reasons that Germany lose the war. Furthermore, the Protocols also
accused the Freemasonry of being behind all the conspiracy. Even the Kaiser used the
Protocols as a proof to claim that the Freemasonry and Jews stole his throne. The
Protocols had led the fury and agony to the Freemasonry and Jew.
The conspiracy theory of Jews and Freemasons controlling the world illustrated in the
Protocols was also popular during the Weimar Republic period. Chancellor Gustav
Stresemann was a Freemason who had connections with the Jewish society. This fact,
made the logic of the Protocols seems even more compelling. He tried to replace the old
Kaiserreich with the democratic government and he also strongly advocated Germany to
join the League of Nation. Since other Freemasons proposed the same as Stresemann,
18
Katz, J., and Oschry, L., 1970. Jews and Freemasons in Europe 1723-1939. Harvard University Press Cambridge
(Mass.).
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most anti-Masonic propaganda accused the Freemasons of plotting to build a world
government controlled by the Freemasonry. Hitler also declared that “all of Germany…
is being delivered to the Freemasons through the League of Nations.”19
To the Freemasons, they were models of morality. According to Johann Gottlieb Fichte,
a German philosopher, the Freemasonry was a forum where men gain knowledge by
communicating and associating with others possessed various backgrounds and skills.20
At the same time, the Nazis listed prominent Freemasons, such as Stresemann, as proof
of the conspiracy of Masonic control over the globe. Thus, these prominent Freemasons
brought not only value but also danger to the Freemasonry. Nazi propaganda pointed out
that Freemasons, such as, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Voltaire, Marquis de
Lafayette and Gustav Stresemann had always been serving the enemies of German
people. On the contrary, the Freemasons responded with Mozart, Frederick the Great,
and Alfred von Tirpitz showing that Freemasons had always been serving the people as
sentinels and vanguards. However, both Nazis and the Freemasons missed mentioning
that all these people represented exceptionalism rather than Volksgemeinschaft.
However, even after Nazi’s seizure of power, only a few out of all 70,000 Freemasons
were influential social figures in Germany. Therefore, in order to study the reasons
some Freemasons became apostates when they faced the Nazi persecution, it is
important for researchers to analyse the images of the Freemasonry portrayed by both
19
Hitler, A., 1994. Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen: Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933. Von der Reichstagswahl bis zur
Reichspräsidentenwahl Oktober 1930-März 1932. Oktober 1930-Juni 1931. Saur.
20
Abbott, S., 1991. Fictions of Freemasonry: Chapter 7, Hesse to Grass.
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the Nazi Party and the Masonic lodges. It is significant to understand the roles of the
Germany Freemasons in German society and their relations to other European
Freemasons.
Since the establishment of modern Freemasonry in1717, the original members of the
lodges were social elites and educated professionals. These lodges were more
speculative than operative. Thirteen years later, in 1730s, the number of speculative
members grew and eventually exceeded the number of operative members. Due to the
fact that the modern Freemasonry was first developed in Post-Civil War England, the
Freemasons were mostly Protestants.21 In the eighteenth century, modern Freemasonry
was introduced to the continent of Europe. It was then introduced to the Low Countries
through trade route, and introduced into France through the connections of aristocracy.
Due to the high membership dues, the farmers and lower classes were excluded.
Since the Catholic Church suppressed the Freemasons harshly, lodge members were
also majorly Protestant.22 Although officially, there was no limit of religion joining the
Freemasonry as long as one believes in God, Freemasons were mostly Protestant. Jews
were also able to join the lodges, but only in small numbers. There were also occasions
that in the colonies of the United Kingdom, Muslims and Hindus were able to join the
21
Jacob, M.C., 2007. The Origins of Freemasonry: Facts and Fictions. Univ of Pennsylvania Press.
22
Viot, M., 1996. Clement XII issues the first bull against the Freemasons in 1738 History of the papacy, history of
Freemasonry. Historia, (597), 56-60.
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lodges.23 Freemasons in the Low Countries followed similar tendency as their British
brethren and opposed absolute monarchy. However, in France, many English nobles and
Jacobites, turned to support a strong monarch.
The Freemasonry was introduced into Germany soon after it arrived in the continent. In
1737, the first German Masonic Lodge was established in Hamburg by merchants from
England, Netherlands and Sweden, named Absalom. In one year, more lodges were
established in other port cities, such as Hanover and Frankfurt am Main. Since the
Prussian lodges were new and weak, the lodges were remotely controlled by Grand
Lodges in England and also influenced by the French and Swedish Freemasonry, which
was similar to the political status of Prussia during that period of time. On June 14,
1738, the joining of Frederick the Great in Absalom, Prussian Freemasonry had
successfully and intensely connected with the Prussian royalty. Two kings of Prussia
joined the Freemasonry after then, although they were not as active as Frederick the
Great. Thus, German Freemasonry inherited the principle of elitism and entirely
excluded the lower class.24
There were unique characteristics of German Freemasonry compare with other
European lodges. The German Freemasonry had played a vital part in the relation with
the Nazi regime. First, although German lodges shared similar social and religious
23
Jacob, M.C., 2007. The Origins of Freemasonry: Facts and Fictions. Univ of Pennsylvania Press.
24
Hoffmann, S., 2007. The Politics of Sociability: Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840-1918. University of
Michigan Press.
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ideologies with other European lodges, they supported monarchy resolutely. In other
words, German Freemasonry was strongly related to the crown. Secondly, unlike other
European lodges in the UK or France, German Freemasonry never had a fixed national
Grand Lodge. Große Mutterloge zu den drei Weltkugeln, established in 1740, was once
the Grand Lodge in Germany. However, in 1764, the Großeloge Royal York zur
Freundschaf also claimed to be a new Grand Lodge for the followers of York rites. Five
years later, a dispute in the brethren of drei Weltkugln led to the establishment of the
Große Landesloge der Freimaurer in Deutschland. Also, at the same time, claimed itself
a Grand Lodge.25 In 1798, in order to strengthen the relationships with the crown, the
royal family and the lodges, the Prussian monarchy granted the three lodges the power
of Grand Lodge. Thus, these three lodges became the Grand Lodges rather than one
fixed Grand Lodge. However, there was also an additional condition, the names of all
lodges brethrens would have to be revealed to the police annually.26
Since the unification of Germany in 1848, German Freemasonry had remained
conservative comparing to their French and British brethren, particularly during the
period of the French Revolution. Since they had a stable and profitable relationship with
the royal family, German Freemasons were still staunch supporters to the monarchy and
rejected the democratic reform. Furthermore, German Freemasons, who supported the
25
Gould, Robert Freke, et al. Gould's History of Freemasonry Throughout the World:... Scribner, 1936. Gould,
Robert Freke, et al. Gould's History of Freemasonry Throughout the World:... Scribner, 1936 .
26
Gould, R.F., Allen, J.E., Johnson, M.M. and Wright, D., 1936. Gould's History of Freemasonry Throughout the
World:... Scribner.
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unification of Germany, hated socialism and Marxism but preferred nationalism. Thus,
in order to pressure the opposition and to start the war, Bismarck drew support from the
National Liberal Party, which was the primary political force in German Freemasons.27
This alliance was also proven useful during the Kulturkampf owing to the fact that the
Freemasons were officially condemned by the Catholic Church.
The alliance between Bismarck and National Liberal Party broke down in 1879.
However, comparing with the latter impact, the lack of support from Bismarck was a
minor one. In 1888, the death of Wilhelm I, a devoted Freemason, had broken the bonds
between the royal family and the Freemasons. Since the new Kaiser Wilhelm II was not
interested in Freemasonry, German Freemasons lost the favour from the crown.
Therefore, the Freemasonry in German became a bourgeois institution. One more thing
that was noteworthy: Bismarck and Wilhelm II both held membership in Korps while
were in University, however they looked down upon Freemasonry.28 Obviously, it was
not the fraternities that they dislike but the principle of Freemasonry. The essential
difference between the Korps and Masonic lodges was the composition of its members.
Unlike the Freemasons, Korps was completely German. On the contrary, the
Freemasonry was an imported fraternity that connected to international lodges. Thus,
evidently, Bismarck and Wilhelm II would have sceptically regarded Freemasons as a
potential threat from inside. The same pattern continued in the time of Nazis and Hitler.
27
Schacht, H.H.G., 1956. Confessions of" the Old Wizard": autobiography. Houghton Mifflin.
28
Weber, R.G., 1986. The German student corps in the Third Reich. Macmillan.
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From 1900 to the outbreak of World War II, European Freemasons mainly consisted of
professionals, businessmen and bankers. In Greece, among the three hundred brethren
listed, thirty percent of them were military officers, thirty percent were “special
positions of influence”, such as doctors, businessmen and bankers, twenty percent were
lawyers and politicians, fifteen percent were university professors and the rest were
categorised as servants or workers.29 The archives on Freemasons showed that the
structure of Freemasonic members in Yugoslavia and France were similar to the Greece
Freemasonry.
In Germany, the Masonic lodges also followed the same pattern. The members were
mainly from the field of academia, business, and sometimes from military. In addition,
Freemasons played a crucial role in these areas. For example, there was a Mason served
as a general in the army medical corps.30
The Freemasons also share the same obsession with the Nazis on classicism. In 1939,
Sicherheitsdienst-South Office submitted a report pointed out that there were former
Freemasons working in influential positions. According to this report, there were also
many artists that joined the Freemasonry, and they were mainly from Nuremberg
29
Report on the activities of Sonderkommando Rosenberg in Greece, Sub-group 01, “Reichsicherheitshauptamt
(RSHA), Berlin,” Reel 131, folder 9. United States: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
30
Walter Wulfinghoff, Report for Erfurt “holding significant positions in the OKH”. RG-15.007, Reel 5, folder 33.
[manuscript] United States: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Conservatory.31 Although modern art became main stream of the culture, Freemasons
in Germany preferred traditional art and were conservative in culture. There were no
Masonic modern artists, Bauhaus architectures or contemporary filmmakers in the
period of Weimar Public.
Reports from the interrogation of Gestapo also revealed more about the occupation and
social status of Masonic members in the twentieth century Germany. Robert Pehl, born
in 1870, married, was a Freemason of the lodge Glückauf zum Licht until 1933 when
the Lodge was closed. He claimed that he served as a Meister vom Stuhl, the highest
administrator of the local lodge. He also claimed that his religious affiliation was
“non-denominational” and had no concern for politics. Karl Dinger, former Freemason,
born in 1882, worked as a printing office manager before his lodge Freie Forschung und
Duldsamkeit in Essen closed voluntarily in 1933. He was also married and served as a
Meister before the lodge closed. Unlike Pehl, Karl Dinger’s religious belief was not
expressly denominated. He was just recorded as “evangelical”.32 They were both born
in the nineteenth century, which means they became Meisters at similar ages, and they
even both had children at almost the same age. Moreover, they also had decent jobs.
Although not political or wealthy, they both lived with dignity and comfort. Moreover,
they both held membership in other social groups other than the Freemasonry. They
31
32
Record Group 37.001, “Selected Records from the NordheimWesfäliches Hauptstaatsarchiv Relating to
Freemasons,” folder 1. [manuscript] United States: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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joined the Freemasonry at approximately the same age; Pehl joined in his 38, and
Dinger joined when he was 42.
In 1934, another report from Sicherheitsdienst pointed out that Freemasons, such as
Pehl and Dinger, were typical Freemasons. They were professional and outstanding in
their own field, and joined the Freemasonry roughly at the age of 35, and they both
joined before World War I.33
The reasons that they joined the Freemasonry were essential. In the nineteenth century,
the nobles joined the Freemasonry for the mystery and exclusivity of Freemasonry, and
they also could be “both authoritarian and democratic”.34 Although, the nobles and
aristocracy were able to meet the political, academic or business elites that were
admitted by the Freemasonry, people from lower social class were excluded. “Only the
wealthiest and most influential men could join the lodge, ensuring social respectability,
while the myths and lore of Freemason added a romantic and mystical element”35 For
the other members who obtained no noble titles, the lodges provided them philosophical
and intellectual resources. And, to some extent, the Freemasons had provided networks
for businessmen.36 Similar to the French salons or the British coffee houses, the lodges
33
34
35
Anderson, J., 1859. The Constitutions of the Free-masons: Containing the History, Charges and Regulations of
that Most Ancient and Right Worshipful Fraternity. For the Use of the Lodges. Wm. Hunter.
36
Mendelssohn, M., 1784. Über die Frage: Was heißt aufklären. Berlinische Monatsschrift, 2 (2), 193-200.
23
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created an atmosphere for the authoritarians and the social elites to communicate and
cooperate. To the rapidly raising middle-class, the Freemasonry was able to provide
them the political influence and connections they lacked indirectly. Since the discussion
in a lodge meeting was strictly non-political and unclassified to both the middle-class
and the nobles, the Freemasonry was more a help to the nobles rather than a threat. In
addition, the Masonic handbook also included meeting dates and addresses of other
lodges. The masonic network enabled the academic and business to communicate
transnationally. A member of Freemasonry during that period could provide a
considerable amount of practical benefits since the lodges consisted of influential
businessmen and politicians. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a freemason and a philosopher,
told his friend that the Masonic lodge was ideal for those who seek for acquaintances
and business connections and professional debates, and he recommended it strongly.37
Thus, the expansion of Freemasonry was multi-channelled among the social elites
internationally.
Robert Beachy has pointed out that opportunists and adventurist joined the Freemasonry
because the lodges could provide them opportunities to achieve their goals. He also
argued that the lodges had increasingly attracted ambitious liberal professionals, and
less they joined for ideological reasons and more for practical advantages.38 The
association within the lodges were beneficial not only for the bourgeoisie. Karl Gotthelf
37
Abbott, S., 1991. Fictions of Freemasonry: Chapter 1, 18th-Century Freemasonry.
38
Beachy, R., 2000. Club culture and social authority: Freemasonry in Leipzig, 1741-1830
24
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von Hund also had created a new order within the Freemasonry, “to gain access to the
richest courts of Europe.”39
Since the French Revolution expelled most nobles along with the philosophers,
ambition became the primary reason for social elites to join the Freemasonry. For a
generation that rose from the revolution, joining the lodges offered them opportunities
to maximise their political influence and economic benefits. This phenomenon could be
found mostly in German Jewish communities. However, Jews had always confronted
strict opposition joining the Old Prussian lodges due to their religion and culture, and
this still persist in the twentieth century.
There were also people joined lodges out of ideology or academic interests rather than
seeking business opportunities. Lodge members, especially the professionals, often held
membership in other social clubs or professional organisations. Under restrictions of a
particular discipline, the experts ensured the quality of their work and established their
professionalism in the Freemasonry. At the same time, the associations were also able to
“rank professionals and establish an unofficial hierarchy”.40 At this period, the
membership of the Freemasonry, in fact, implied the status of professional, equals to
other professional associations.
39
Zeldis, L., 1993. Masonic Chronology in Context. Kessinger Publishing, LLC.
40
Jarausch, K., 1986. The Perils of Professionalism. German Studies Review, 9, 107-137.
25
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After a long period of observation and inspection, Gestapo and Sicherheitsdienst
concluded that German Freemasons commonly held membership of purely social
organisations such as Schlaraffia, the Druid Order and the International Order of Odd
Fellows.41 In fact, one characteristic of Freemasons was their multiple memberships in
some profession oriented and social associations. Max Meyer, an active Freemason,
targeted by Sicherheitsdienst, was both a professor at Nuremberg
Hindenberg-Hochschule and a member of the International Statistics Office. Moreover,
the Freemason Pelh was also a member of the Hansabund.42
The opportunists that joined the modern German Freemasonry was influenced by the
atmosphere of the university culture. The Freemasons before 1920s were mostly
university educated. At this period, university education was rather a reflection of social
ranking than a preparation for future career. Before the mid-nineteenth century, lower
classes were excluded from school due to the high tuition fee. To the wealthy social
elites, university education presented their social position. Sons were expected to attain
a level at least equal to their fathers’ education. However, for students from
lower-middle class, their top priority was to finish their studies as soon as possible so
they could take the civil service exams or to get employed. Therefore, the students from
a higher class, their university experience mostly referred to the education of social
41
SD-South, 1939, first quarter report on activities of former Freemasons, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, folder 33.
42
SD-South, 1939, first quarter report on activities of former Freemasons, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, folder 32.
26
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relations and leisure. While to lower classes, university education was an essential
approach to a decent job and became the successful generation.43 The successful
bourgeoisies from the lower class had increased the number of university students; thus,
the academic field was no the longer exclusive to the upper class. The membership of
Korps became a symbol of one’s social and financial status in universities.44
From 1870 to 1914, the students’ social life was developed into social exclusiveness.
The Korps and other fraternities in German universities were characterised by the
exclusivity against working class or Jewish students.45 The Korps was “the student
fraternities for the sons of the higher echelons of society”.46
There were various ties and relations between the fraternities and the universities in
Germany. The Landsmannschaften was organised locally and was apolitical. They
allowed Jews function as fraternities at present. The Burschenschaften was founded a
nationalist associations. They were created and established by students of the Free
Korps, who had fought Napoleon. They had clear codes, and strictly forbade Jews from
joining. They were Christians and claimed to be advocates of liberalism. Many leaders
43
Jarausch, K.H., and Jarausch, K.H., 1982. Students, society, and politics in imperial Germany: The rise of
academic illiberalism. Princeton University Press Princeton.
44
Lutz, R.R., 1971. The German Revolutionary Student Movement, 1819-1833. Central European History, 4 (part 3),
215-241.
45
McClelland, C.E., 1980. State, society, and university in Germany, 1700-1914. Cambridge University Press
Cambridge.
46
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of the early Burschenschaften participated in the Revolution of 1848.47 There were
many other student associations rose and fell during this period. However, they were
short-lived.
University education represented the social identity of elite. Moreover, it is essential to
join the university fraternities when seeking for access to the higher classes. In 1900s,
the core members of university fraternities were sons of Protestants who worked as
professionals or influential figures of civil service.48 The Freemasons were almost all at
least educated in universities, and many of them had participated in the Korps or other
similar student groups. According to Weber, the purpose of Korps was to “establish the
student as an educated, refined gentleman and to assist him to develop the qualities of
self-reliance and answerability for his actions at all times”49 Moreover, the
Freemasonry also taught their members to be faithful, law-abiding and solidarity.50
Because the Korps was only a student organisation in universities, the membership in
the Freemasonry was a perfect way to preserve one’s social exclusivity when they
graduate.
These elites had joined the Freemasonry at age of mid-thirty mostly before World War I.
47
Lutz, R.R., 1971. The German Revolutionary Student Movement, 1819-1833. Central European History, 4 (part 3),
215-241.
48
McClelland, C.E., 1980. State, society, and university in Germany, 1700-1914. Cambridge University Press
Cambridge.
49
50
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By the time the Nazi came to power, these Freemasons were around the age of fifty.
They had stable and decent jobs, and they also had a reputation as elites in their fields.
However, these people were also seen as opportunists who sought for sustaining and
furthering their careers. According to the Protocols, which accused the Freemasonry of
conspiring with the Jews, numerous Freemasons that joined the Freemasonry with
relatively practical motivations rather than having a sincere believe in the creeds of the
Freemasonry.51
The rise of the Nazi Party had alarmed the Freemasons. They became vigilant. Some
Freemasons and lodges started to seek to collaborate with the Nazi Party. Politically,
they belonged to either the right or the left. For example, Gustav Stresemann belonged
to the Deutsche Volkspartei, the right; and Hjalmar Schacht belonged to Deutsche
Demokratische Partei, which was a left-wing political party. They both strongly
supported Hitler after 1929. Therefore, when German politics became polarised, it was
effortless for the Freemasons to adjust their political standpoint toward the far right.
Since the late 1920s, some German Freemasons gave up their Masonic membership and
joined the Nazi Party while others tried to find a way making peace with the Nazi party
as they reconcile to Nazism. They hoped to retain their membership in the Masonic
lodges while being supportive to the political far right. Only a minor group of
Freemasons refuse to surrender to Nazism, National Socialism and even political far
51
Segel, B.W., 1996. A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. U of Nebraska Press.
29
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right resolutely.
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CHAPTER II THE CLOSE OF LODGES
Among all the Masonic lodges in Germany, the Old Prussian lodges had the advantage
when negotiate with the Nazi regime. The Nazis favoured their nationalism, their
connections to the monarchy and their restrictions towards Jew. There were also other
humanitarian lodges tried to collaborate with the Nazis. In fact, after the Nazi Party
seized power, very few Masonic lodges, with less than 2,000 members, declared that
they rejected Nazism publicly. However, even the members disliked National Socialism,
for example, the members from the Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland, were fond
of the Nazis better than the communism.1
The Old Prussian lodges were the first ones that attempted to cooperate with the Nazi
regime. Throughout the time of Weimar Public, the Old Prussian lodges had sought to
isolate themselves from other lodges and to explain themselves of the conspiracy
accusations. The accusations alleging that the Freemasonry was a instrument of the
Jews that stab Germany in the back in the World War I. And in 1922, the Old Prussian
lodges declared that they had long been despising humanitarianism, they quitted the
German Grand Lodge Association, as they refused to participate in the “general
1
Tekolf, O., 2002. Die Freimaurer und das Theater im Nationalsozialismus. GRIN Verlag.
31
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humanitarian fraternization movement between people and the world.”2
The election in September 1930 was the start point of the polarisation of German
politics. Influenced by the 1929’s crash, the Nazi Party became the second largest Party
in Germany. In order to cut loose from the international Freemasonry as well as to
become more national, the Old Prussian lodges began to modify their rituals and
terminologies.3 The Große Landesloge also forbade its daughter lodges to connect any
humanitarian lodges.4 After the Nazi had seized power, the Old Prussian lodges
immediately cut ties with internationalism, with Jews, and even with the Freemasonry.
They then changed their names into Christian-National Orders and claimed to be
completely independent from the Freemasonry.
Since the lodges were legitimised by the king in 1798, any official change required the
approval of the Prussian government. Thus, the lodges began to contact Hitler, Wilhelm
Frick and Hermann Göring. They had not only telegraphed Hitler and congratulated him
on his successful appointment, but also reminded him that the Old Prussian lodges had a
long history with the Prussian government.5 They also contact Frick and stated that the
new Order aimed “to meet the requirements of Gleichschaltung in the National Socialist
2
The situation of Freemasonry after the taking of power by National Socialism, no date, R58/6113 part 1, 294.
[manuscript] Germany: Bundesarchiv.
3
4
Personal statement of Paul Theodore Ott, RG 15.007M, Reel 44, folder 548. [manuscript] United States: United
States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
5
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state”.6 Moreover, they reiterated their position of anti-Semitism and
anti-Freemasonry.7
The Old Prussian lodges remained optimistic and yet vigilant. They believed that their
voluntary cooperation with the regime would have spared them from the persecution.
The Catholic Church was also persecuted by the Nazis since its ideology contradicts
entirely with National Socialism. Politically, the Catholic Church was also an opponent
of the Nazis. Even so, the churches survived the persecution and remained independent
by giving negations and compromising itself. In fact, after the Nazi Party seized power,
the only ones did not survive, was Jehovah’s Witnesses and Church of Christ-Scientist.8
Changing into a more religious order, the lodges tried to emulate the churches, to
compromise and to convert to National Socialism as well. While there were rumours
spread among the daughter lodges saying that the three Old Prussian lodges were to be
shut down, the Nazi Party gave no comment on the matter. The Meisters of the Old
Prussian lodges assured their daughter lodges that the lodges would not be shut down.9
However, the assurance did not stand.
The silence of the Nazis’ was merely the serenity before the storm. The letters to all
6
Thomas, C., 2012. Defining" Freemason": Compromise, Pragmatism, and German Lodge Members in the NSDAP.
German Studies Review, 35 (3), 587-605.
7
Statutes of the German-Christian Order, September 6, 1933, R58/6163 part 1, 155. [manuscript] Germany:
Bundesarchiv.
8
Wiesenthal, S., and Osers, E., 1989. Justice not vengeance. Grove Weidenfeld .
9
Letter from German-Christian Order to all departments (not for publication), June 15, 1933, R58/6163 part 1, 165.
33
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these people were turned down without exception. It was not changed till 1934 when the
Grand Lodges finally met Göring. After this meeting, Göring refused to acknowledge
“the Christian Orders” as the new name of the Grand Lodges and ordered it to be
changed back to “the Masonic lodges”. Moreover, he reaffirmed that there shall be no
room for the Freemasonry in Nazism States.10
Without the protection of the government, the lodges were doomed to be annihilated.
Due to the fact that many members were leaving, the lack of funds led to numerous of
small daughter lodges to be closed down.
The Grand Lodges struggled and survived until 1935, when Frick ordered the lodges to
be closed voluntarily. Realising there were hardly any chance of survival, the Grand
Lodges surrendered and closed voluntarily before the given deadline. In August,
Bavarian Political Police announced “Freemasonry in Germany was completely
smashed”.11
Comparing with the Old Prussian lodges, the Humanitarian lodges suffered more due to
their history of admitting Jewish members and sharing information with the
international lodges. The Humanitarian lodges in Germany were accused of being the
instruments of the Jewish conspiracy. However, all these disrepute history and
10
11
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accusations did not prevent the Humanitarian lodges from alienate itself from the
international lodges after the election in 1930. For example, the Bayreuth Grand Lodge
simply “expired” its membership in the International Freemason League.12
Ironically, a pleading letter from Richard Bröse, the Grand Master of the Hamburg
Grand Lodge, became an ironclad proof of the untrustworthiness of the Freemasonry. In
1931, Grand Master Bröse wrote to Hitler privately claiming that many members in
lodges favoured and even agreed with the Nazi cause. He further implored for positions
in the Nazi Party for such masons. In the letter, Bröse also offered Hitler access to the
lodge’s libraries, museums and archives, believing that the lodge’s accumulation had
some benefit for the Reich. Then Bröse also promised to close his lodge and asked other
Grand Masters to do the same. Moreover, in conclusion, Bröse once again begged Hitler
for his acceptance of the former Freemasons for their genuine sincerity, loyalty and
patriotism.13 Two months later, there was finally a letter written back, instead of Hitler,
the reply was given by Rosenberg, and he used Bröse’s letter as a proof of slyness -- the
Freemasons are opportunist that change their allegiance quickly with no principle at all.
Rosenberg also stated that now the Nazis “see every Freemason as a traitor.”14
12
The further development of Freemasonry up to right before the national census, no date, R58/6113 part 1, 294.
13
Barthelmess, R., 1859. Verzeichniss der von der Loge Pythagoras No. 1 in Brooklyn gesammelten Bücher und
Münzen:(Im Auftrage den Loge Pythagoras No. 1. R. Barthelmess, R. Garrigue, Ed. Kahl.)[Auch mit engl.
Titel]:(Catalogue of Books and Metals, collected by Pythagorns Lodge No. 1 in Brooklyn). Druck von GB Teubner.
14
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The Grand Master was not threatened. He continued writing to Rosenberg and stated
that Freemasons remained loyal to Germany. In respond, Rosenberg asked Bröse to read
his book Freimaurerische Weltpolitik. Moreover, Bröse argued that Rosenberg should
read Unwahrheiten über die Freimaurerei.15 It is essential to note the date of these
letters from Bröse, they were sent to Hitler two years before instead of after his seizure
of power. Although the Nazis had made a considerable effort by consensus, it was still
far from it to take over the government. Bröse might be an opportunist, and yet, closing
lodges and asking others to do the same were still a drastic demeanour. As soon as the
letter spread across the country, arguments in lodges had erupted. Slowly, politics
affected and absorbed every mason’s attention until the lodge disintegrated initiatively
due to the political disagreements. Only a few members were still attending the
meetings not long before the shutdown of lodges.16
After the Nazi had come to power, the Humanitarian lodges were bound for destruction.
Some Grand Masters closed their lodges as soon as the Nazi came into power. Pehl did
so even without informing the lodge members to avoid any further dispute.17
Dinger and Pehl responded to the Nazi Party by closing their lodges. However, there
were also Humanitarian Grand Lodges struggled to adopt Nazism for survival. They
15
16
Police report on Karl Dinger, February 4, 1936, RG-37.001, Folder 1. [manuscript] United States: United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum.
17
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dissolved their ties with international and German Freemasonry and took new names to
propitiate the Nazi regime. They also claimed that the purposes for these new lodges
were “to strive for moral-religious strengthening of German men on Christian grounds”.
They also stated that the members of the new lodges were “men of Aryan descent and
Christian confession... Jews and Marxists may not be members of the order”.18 The
National Grand Lodge of Saxony was the largest Humanitarian lodge and also tried to
survive the persecution by changing its name, into “the German-Christian Order of
Saxony”, they also adopted the creed of banning Jews and communists from their lodge,
and alleged allegiance to National Socialism. Some other Humanitarian lodges that tried
to comply with the Nazi suffered the same dilemma as the Old Prussian lodges had. The
loss of membership brought them the loss of funds.19 It soon became the main factor
that prevented the lodges from functioning, rather than the government-mandated close
deadline.
The former lodge brethren of the Humanitarian lodges started forming or joining new
organisations after their old lodges was closed. However, the Sicherheitsdienst
suspected that these new organisations might still be serving the Freemasonry as the
closed Humanitarian lodges did.20 However, according to a report from Gestapo and
Political Police, only a few new organisations were accused of being “Freemasonry-like”
18
Official notice of the Großloge Deutscher Brüderkette, April 13, 1933, T580, 267 I. [manuscript] London: Library
and Museum of Freemasonry.
19
20
Elbe SD Situation report, June 5, 1939, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, Folder 33. [manuscript] United States: United States
37
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due to their decoration and the secrecy of their meetings.21 Thus, the Freemasons were,
in fact, shattered by the Nazi Party. Losing permission of the government, the ideology
of Freemasonry was no longer the Masonic opportunists’ concern. For the Nazi Party,
the opportunists who left the lodges and joined in other organisations so quickly were
never a threat. They were never a threat without the assistance or leadership of the true
believers who joined and adopted the ideology of the Freemasonry. Although there were
former Freemasons who formed new organisations that appeared even more mysterious
than the closed Masonic lodges, the threats of the Freemasonry was practically
smashed.
The Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland was a unique case among the irregular
lodges. The Grand Master of the Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland was Leo
Müffelmann, who was known more as a sincere believer of Freemasonry ideology
rather than an opportunist that joined the lodge for ambition or economic benefits.
Müffelmann was targeted by the Nazi Party due to his devotion to the Freemasonry and
his critics on National Socialism inevitably.22 The irregular lodges were a few German
Masonic lodges that did not intend to compromise or to collaborate with the Nazi
regime. Compare with the Old Prussian lodges and other Humanitarian lodges, irregular
lodges, were youthful and small. For example, the Grand Master of the Symboliches
21
RSHA,1939.1938 RSHA II 111 Situation report, , RG-15.007M, Reel 5, Folder 30. [manuscript] United States:
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
22
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Großloge von Deutschland, established in 1930, hardly had any ties or histories with the
government. The irregular lodges, such as the Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland,
were mostly founded in late 1920s. They believed that the goal of the Freemasonry was
to fight Nationalism, Fascism and Bolshevism along with any group that condemned
radicalism.23 Thus, the irregular lodges were, to some extent, depending on the
Freemasonry to stand against the Nazi regime. Since the majority of the German
Freemasonry compromised and collaborated with the Nazi Party, the voice of resistance
from the irregular lodges was small, but their point was well made to the Nazi Party and
even to the other lodges. The irregular lodges then had to receive charters from
international lodges of England and France.24 Nonetheless, although the Grand Masters
of the irregular lodges were determined to hold their positions and refused to collaborate
with the Nazis, there were also members of the irregular lodges that supported Nazism.
In order to secure their positions in Nazism auxiliaries, some members left the lodges
and joined the Nazi Party before the close deadline. Ironically, some Jewish members of
the lodge Jerusalem, a daughter Lodge of the Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland,
proclaimed that they had faith in Nazism and supported the Nazi Party.25 It can be
argued that although there were disputes in the most humanitarian and irregular lodge,
the majority of members turned to the right-wing.
23
24
Lodge record, 1931. Grand Council meeting, , Nr. 25. London: Library and Museum of Freemasonry.
25
Propper, E., 1932. Dr. Emmanuel Propper to Müffelmann, from Jerusalem, regarding the exit of Prof.
Bodenheimer, 5.1.11, Nr. 20. [manuscript] London: Library and Museum of Freemasonry.
39
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The fate of the irregular lodges was similar to the Old Prussian lodges and other
Humanitarian lodges. After the loss of members and shutdown of local daughter lodges,
the irregular lodges were broke. In April of 1933, the Symboliches Großloge von
Deutschland was the only irregular lodge that had a chance to struggle for survival. Two
months later, on June 10, the Symboliches Großloge von Deutschland was eventually
closed under direct order.26 Thus, the irregular lodges were also completely smashed.
However, it was not convincing enough for the Nazis to believe that the threat of the
Freemasonry was neutralised by dismissing its members and shutting down its lodges.
To the Nazis, it was necessary to continue the investigation on the former Freemasons
and the other social organisations the former Masons joined after the shutdown of the
lodges. Reports from the region Sicherheitsdienst shows that other than the a few
former Freemasons who had formed Freemasonry-like clubs or groups after the close of
the lodges, the majority of former Freemasons supported Nazism.27 For example, the
Former Freemasons and the other social organisations they joined after the lodges’
shutdown almost remained silent towards the Kristallnacht. They slightly condemned
the violence and pointed that it might have damaged the economy and image of
Germany. However, they still supported the Nazis’ policy of anti-Semitism and legal
marginalisation.28
26
Abwicklungstelle der frueheren SGvD, May 15,1933, 5.1.11, Nr. 8. [manuscript] London: Library and Museum of
Freemasonry.
27
1939 quarterly report from SD-Northwest, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, Folder 31. [manuscript] United States: United
28
1939 quarterly report from SD-Northwest, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, Folder 30. [manuscript] United States: United
40
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The former Freemasons remained supportive to the Nazis’ policy not only the policy
against the Jews, but also the Nazis’ foreign policy. For example, these former
Freemasons supported Germany’s claims to Danzig and Polish Corridor.29 Moreover,
they sought to join not only the Nazi Party but also the Schutzstaffeln.30 The former
Freemasons’ appeasement policy towards the Nazi regime continued until the outbreak
of war.
There were also Freemasons who did not convert to National Socialism or
anti-Semitism. They refused to collaborate, to appease or to criticise. Some of them
committed suicide due to the repeated harassment by the Nazi Party.31 Most of the
Freemasons who refused to accept National Socialism were imprisoned or sent to
concentration camps. They even established secret lodges inside the concentration
camps. Libertéchérie was the most prestigious secret Masonic lodge in the
concentration camp Esterwegen.32
Although most of the Freemasons were discontent about the shutdown of the lodges,
they still supported the Nazi Party and its policies. Most of the Humanitarian lodges and

29
1939. January-June SD-Northeast Situation report, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, Folder 33. [manuscript] United States:
30
SD Subsection Südhannover-Braunschweig situation report, January-August, RG-15.007M, Reel 5, Folder 33.
31
RFSS, 1938. RFSS in-house letter, RG-15.007M Reel 14, Folder 198. [manuscript] United States: United States
32
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all three Old Prussian lodges sought for collaborating and cooperating with the Nazi
party. Although the irregular lodges struggled to preserve their institutions, they failed
eventually. The ideology of Freemasonry was not the primary reason for the German
Freemasons to join the lodges judging by their reaction to the accusation and
persecution of the Nazi Party. Also, the response of the lodges shows that they were
eager to align with the Nazi regime.
The Vertrauensmänner of Masonic lodges also proved that it was opportunism drove
some members to join and to betray the lodges. For example, Karl Busch, a wealthy
Freemason, began to spy on the Freemasons for the Gestapo from 1933. He sought
neither fame nor wealth, but the opportunities to speak to the Nazis and to participate in
the Nazis’ actions.33
Ambitions and seeking of opportunities were the two primary motives for the
opportunists to join in or to quit the Freemasonry. When they can no longer benefit from
the connections and opportunities provided by the brotherhood, there was no point for
them to remain a member. Thus, the opportunists in the lodges soon turned against the
brotherhood and sought for collaboration with the Nazis, who had the social and
financial advantages that can benefit them the most. Despite the extreme examples, the
majority of lodge members remained neutral. They felt sorry for the shutdown of
33
SD, 1934. SD report, RG 15.007M, Reel 43, folder 533. [manuscript] London: Library and Museum of
Freemasonry.
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Masonic lodges, so they did not assist when the Nazis shutdown their lodges. However,
they were still willing to forsake their membership in exchange for greater benefits. To
the Freemasons at that period, to remain neutral was practically collaborating with the
Nazi regime. Thus, except for the extreme radical German Freemasons who drastically
confronted the persecutions from the Nazis, the other German Freemasons virtually
assisted the Nazi regime to smash the Freemasonry in the Third Reich.
The destruction of the German Freemasonry did not block the collaboration between the
former Freemasonry individual and the Nazi Party. Thus, the Nazis found the critical
point to establish a new balance between National Socialism and the Third Reich’s
practical demands.
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CHAPTER III A DANCE OF COMPROMISE
The Freemasonry was institutionally smashed in the Third Reich. However, the Nazis
were facing a dilemma trusting the former Masons. The former Freemasons were
educated professionals, and their skills were critical to the regime. On the other hand,
these people were part of the Freemasonry -- an organisation that contradict to Nazism,
and was possibly manipulated by Jewish conspirators. Although the majority of former
Freemasons in Germany joined the lodges out of opportunities and benefits, there were
also members who followed the ideology. In a letter from a former Freemason of the
lodge Totenkopf und Phönix (one of the Old Prussian lodges), it was stated that the only
thing that changed was the form, not the spirit. It was also explained, although words
and terms were changed, the principles and laws remained.1 These correspondences
were mostly intercepted by the Sicherheitsdienst, and their contents were fatal to the
survival of the Masonic Lodges. Although the Masonic lodges were shut down, the Nazi
regime had to restrain the former Freemasons from continuing working in the Nazi
region. Obviously, it would be foolish to ban all former Freemasons, since they have the
skill that could benefit the Nazi regime. Meanwhile, it was also necessary for the Nazis
to be cautious, in case there were devoted Freemasons might join the Nazi Party and try
1
Otto Hieber, Geschichte der vereintigen Johannis-loge zum Todtenkopf und Phönix, 1897, YG 166 HIE, IL10077.
[manuscript] London: Library and Museum of Freemasonry.
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to sabotage it from the inside. Thus, the Nazi Party needed to find a way to separate the
true believers from the opportunist. Since 1926, the Nazi regime had made many
changes to limit former Freemasons from joining the Nazi Party. However, the
restrictions were loosened in the following years so that there could be more former
Freemasons to collaborate with the Nazis. Within a decade, the Nazis’ limits on former
Freemasons were almost removed.
In 1926, the Untersuchung und Schlichtungsausschuss was established. It functioned as
a court dealing with disputes from inside the Nazi Party. It also prevented any
embarrassment on the image of Nazism or on the Führer from happening.2 The
committee evolved into Reich Untersuchung und Schlichtungsausschuss after Hitler
seized power. All former Freemasons who wished to join the Nazi Party must all be
censored and examined by the committee. The committee had the authority to expel the
former Freemason after they joined the Nazi Party. In 1930, the board banned all
Freemasons from joining the Nazi party. Exceptions could only be granted by Hitler
himself.3
However, the policy was not strictly enforced. Some offices started to admit former
Freemasons and refuse to dismiss the former Freemasons who had already joined the
Nazi Party. In fact, there was a significant paradox in the policy. The system claimed to
2
Shirer, W.L., 2002. The rise and fall of the Third Reich. Arrow.
3
Rigg, B.M., 2002. HITLER'S JEWISH SOLDIERS: THE UNTOLD STORY OF NAZI RACIAL LAWS AND
MEN OF JEWISH DESCENT IN THE GERMAN MILITARY.
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ban all Freemasons, but it also argued that it would not restrain the “honourable” former
Freemasons who had forsaken their membership.4
Walter Buch was the head of the Reich Untersuchung und Schlichtungsausschuss from
1927 until the end of the war. He suggested that former Freemasons should be treated
differently based on the lodge they joined, and the Nazi Party should distinguish the
lodges into branches, considering their attitude towards the Jews, their relationship with
the monarch and their willingness to convert to Nazism. Also, considering the fact that
German Freemasonry was smashed institutionally and the valuableness of the former
German Masons, the re-definition of “honourable former Freemasons” became more
significant. In addition, he suggested extending the scale of exceptions. All former
Freemasons should sign an Erklärung declaring that they had forsaken the membership
and all the relation and oath of the lodges they belonged to.5
Buch was not the only Nazi officer tried to persuade the Nazi regime to accept former
Freemasons. Eric Hollenbach, a Nazi officer in Berlin, suggested that not only should
the former Freemasons be allowed to join the Nazi, former masons of the Old Prussian
lodges should be more welcomed.6 He argued that the Old Prussian lodges had never
accepted any Jew in their 200-year history, and they also fought bravely during the
4
1931. Transcript from a USCHLA newsletter about Freemasons in the party, T580, 267I. One of Buch’s assistants
was Hans Frank. [manuscript] London: Library and Museum of Freemasonry.
5
1931Transcript from a USCHLA newsletter about Freemasons in the party, T580, 267I. One of Buch’s assistants
was Hans Frank. [manuscript] London: Library and Museum of Freemasonry.
6
University Press Detroit.
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Franco-Prussian War and World War I.7 He concluded that German Freemasons
prioritised their identity of being German, above all other identities. It was unwise and
inefficient to admit the former Freemasons by branch. Because there were also
Freemasons from Humanitarian lodges that supported Nazism.
The debate over former Freemasons’ joining and remaining in the Nazi Party was never
settled. When the Nazis came into power, numerous of Freemasons sought to join the
Nazi Party. Buch claimed that no Freemasons should remain or join the Nazi Party after
May 15th, 1933. However, former Freemasons, who had abandoned their membership
of lodges before the seizure of power could join or remain in the Nazi Party if they had
signed the Erklärung, but they could not be in any positions of leadership. However, this
solution was difficult for the local authorities to carry out due to the blurry definition of
“honourable former Freemasons”. In 1934, a General Report published by the Nazi
Party stated that the identity of Freemasons was unchangeable.8 However, Buch
believed that once a former Freemason signed the Erklärung, all their ideological ties
with the Freemasonry were broken. Also, they were eligible to join the Nazi Party.
Although the former Freemasons were allowed to work under the regime even in the
civil services, they were barred from the centre of power. They were not allowed to
7
Hollenbach, 1932. Hollenbach to Rosenberg, March 9, 1932, T580, 219. [manuscript] London: Library and
Museum of Freemasonry.
8
1934. A General Report on Freemasonry in Germany, T580, 267 I. [manuscript] London: Library and Museum of
Freemasonry.
47
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have office, and also they were not allowed to be given promotions. However, these all
changed after Hitler issued a decree in July 1937 to directly hire, stall or promote people
in civil service system.9
The debate also involved military and civil defence organisations. During the Frist
World War, German Freemasons were allowed to join the army and even to become
officers. The Sicherheitsdienst had noticed that many former Freemasons tried to get
enlisted again and fight for their fatherland.10 Although there were former Masonic
officers during the First World War, the Wehrmacht and the Schutzstaffel was obviously
not suitable for the former Freemasons to lead. However, the former Freemasons had
already been in the military system when the war broke out. They had qualifications,
capabilities and experiences. For example, the Reichsführer-SS suggested that the
German Red Cross of Freemasons should not be purged since most of the doctors were
Freemasons.11 The same situation happened in 1936. Otto Bernsdorf, a former
Freemason fought in the First World War, phoned his old comrade General Wilhelm
Keitel appealing to join the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht.12 In the same year, the
Bavarian Political Police, under direct order of the Schutzstaffeln, suggested that it
would be wise for the Nazi regime to let the Wehrmacht to deal with their own
9
10
SD-Northeast, 1939. SD-Northeast Situation report for August, USHMM, RG-15.007M Reel 5, Folder 33.
11
RFSS, 1939. Letter from RFSS regarding handling requests for information from the German Red Cross,
February 26, 1939, R58/6164 part 1, 4. [manuscript] Germany: Bundesarchiv.
12
SD, 1939. Summary of a telephone conversation with a Captain Braun, R58/6164 part 1, 38-39. [manuscript]
Germany: Bundesarchiv.
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Freemasons’ problems. The Wehrmacht apparently preferred to keep the experienced
veterans in the army. In order to avoid the ideological conflicts, the military decided to
follow the similar policy of the Nazi Party and required the former Freemasons to sign
the Erklärung. The Wehrmacht stated that they would only recruit former Freemasons
who had left the lodges before January 10, 1932. The military also claimed that former
Freemasons of the third degree or above should not be enlisted since they had sunk too
deep believing the Freemasonry philosophy and ideology. This requirement was
necessary for the Wehrmacht since the ideology and philosophy of the Freemasonry is
not compatible with the purpose and theory of war. For example, during the First World
War, the field Lodges allowed enemy prisons of war to attend lodges meeting with their
capturers. It was an example that the Freemasonry was “a brotherhood of all men”.13
There was also a list of positions that were excluded to former Freemasons, such as,
pilots, military court officers, commander of any unit, department of personnel and
strategic decision.14 Although there were limits and restrictions on particular positions,
former Freemasons were not strictly restricted to serve the army. The former
Freemasons were only prevented from taking leading positions.
It was the same in the Schutzstaffeln. An article in Der Schwarze Korps pointed out that
any civilian wish to join the Schutzstaffeln must fill out a questionnaire. There was a
13
Ehlers, E., 1940. Memo from Erich Ehlers regarding the use of former Freemasons in the Wehrmacht, R58/6164
part 1, 21-30. [manuscript] Germany: Bundesarchiv.
14
OKW, 1939. OKW memo regarding mobilization of former officers and staff who were Freemasons, September 9,
R43II 1308a, 59-61. [manuscript] Germany: Bundesarchiv.
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question that asked if the candidate once was a Mason. However, it does not mean that
joining the Schutzstaffeln was forbidden to all former Freemasons. Like many other
administrators of the Nazi Party and Wehrmacht, Heydrich realised that it would be
unwise to ban all former Freemason. He started to make exceptions according to
specific cases.15 For example, Dr Heinrich Bütefish, a former Freemason, joined the
Schutzstaffeln although the Reichssicherheitshauptamt accused him of being an
internationalist.16 Although some former Freemason applicants were rejected, the most
zealous Nazism organisation started to admit former Freemasons.
In the Nazi Party and the Wehrmacht, the admissions to some carefully selected former
Masons potentially sow the seed of Freemasonry sabotage. The Oberkommando der
Wehrmacht argued that the Wehrmacht officers were not only servants of Aryans, but
also leaders of men. Therefore, the ideology of all Wehrmacht officers should be purer
than the average. Because the former Freemasons from humanitarian lodges were
equally allowed to join the Wehrmacht as the former Freemasons from the Old Prussian
lodges, the Wehrmacht suspected that it was possible for the former Freemasons to fake
their belief in Nazism and corrupt the Nazi soldiers when they are on their posts. Thus,
the former Masonic officers were not allowed to fight at the frontlines.17
15
Neuberger, H., 2001. Winkelmass und Hakenkreuz: die Freimaurer und das Dritte Reich. Herbig.
16
Höhne, H., and Barry, R., 1969. The Order of the Death's Head: The story of Hitler's SS. Secker & Warburg.
17
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Their secret terminology also confused and frightened the Nazi officers. For example,
the word “master” was always used to refer to both the third degree Freemasons and the
head administrator of each daughter lodge since they had similar names (the third
degree of Freemasonry is Master Mason, and the head administrator of lodge is Meister
vom Stuhl).18 Here, the meaning of “master” could be quite confusing to the ordinary
Wehrmacht officers because it is hard to identify the specific rank and duties of a
“master”. Nothing could be more dangerous to the Wehrmacht than having a high-level
mason that completely devoted to the ideology of the Freemasonry hidden at the
decision-making level. It could lead to the corruption of the whole National Socialism
system from the inside.19 Considering the number of former Freemasons who have
already been in such positions, it was impossible for the Nazis to eliminate the potential
risk.
In 1940s, the development of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was restricted due to
a lack of commanding officers with battlefield experiences. The restrictions on former
Freemasons were once again relaxed. The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht then
proposed that the fourth degree former Freemasons should also be allowed to join the
Wehrmacht if they left the lodges before January 30th, 1935.20 Although the
18
Gestapo, 1943. The exchange took place over the winter of 1942-1943 regarding Reserve Officer Oberleutnant
Franz Wagner and Soldat Richard Huber. RG 15.007M, Reel 48, folder 589. [manuscript] United States: United
19
RFSS-SD, 1937. RFSS-SD Year Report for 1937, Situation of former German Freemasons, R58/6113 part 1, 11.
20
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Oberkommando der Wehrmacht’s proposal had its influence on the Nazi Party’s
restriction towards the former high-level Freemasons, still, after a long dispute, the
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht’s proposal was rejected. However, the restrictions on
former Freemasons were to some extend relaxed. From 1942, in some exceptional cases,
former Freemasons could finally go to the frontline as military officers.21 The practical
needs of war had once again beaten the demands of the purification of ideology.
In fact, to some extent, German Freemasonry and the Nazi Party chased the same goal
with different measures. Among all the former Freemasons collaborated with the Nazi
Party, Hjalmar Schacht was the most successful one. Collaborating with Hitler, Schacht
intended to fulfil his ambition and to restore the glory of Germany. As a former
Freemason and the Minister of Economics of the early Third Reich, Schacht had
witnessed the persecution on German Masonic lodges and his brethren.
Hjalmar Schacht’s case was exceptional due to his high rank in the Nazi government
and his relationships with the Freemasonry. His experience and social status enabled
him to have both the ideology of humanitarian and the ideology of monarchy.22 He
preserved the respect and aspiration of monarch, and he also desired for liberalism and
humanitarianism.
21
OKW, 1942. OKW memo regarding the use of former Freemasons, June 17, 1942, RG 15.007M, Reel 48, folder
589. [manuscript] United States: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
22
Schacht, H.H.G., and Butler, R., 1927. The stabilization of the mark. Adelphi.
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Although at first, Schacht despised Nazism, he eventually decided to serve his
fatherland through joining the Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Arbeiterparteil. After the
seizure of power, Schacht became a member that is critical to the Nazi regime – he was
appointed as Germany's Minister of Economics managing finance for the Third Reich.
In 1935, he realised that Hitler could not be restrained or pacified, eventually, Schacht
turned against Nazism.
Schacht was eventually imprisoned on account of his ideological differences. According
to his statement to the Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, he intended to restore the glory
of Germany practising patriotism instead of Nazism.23 Although he quitted arming the
Swastika monsters, the Wehrmacht had already prepared for war. The compromise that
the Nazi regime made was out of the restoration of the German glory through iron and
blood. The ideological purification was not a top priority at the time of war.
Nonetheless, it was not entirely possible for the former Freemasons to disguise
themselves and to seek for opportunities to sabotage the Nazi regime from the inside.
Their positions were granted as honours instead of giving them power to make decisions.
They were not under surveillance, but their performance was observed. Once there was
any sign of ideological rebellion or treason, the Nazi regime shall have them isolated or
arrested.
23
Peterson, E.N., and Schacht, H., 1954. Hjalmar Schacht for and against Hitler. Christopher.
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In conclusion, at first, the former Freemasons in the Third Reich were banned from
joining the Nazi Party and working for the government before 1933. However, in 1939,
Hitler amnestied a large number of former Freemasons and allowed them to accede to
the Nazi Party and to the civil service. In 1942, former Freemasons were permitted to
fight on the front line as Wehrmacht officers. The primary cause for the Nazi’s
compromise was the irreplaceability of the practical value of former Freemasons. Even
the Schutzstaffeln disagreed to remove all former Freemasons from their positions
merely out of ideological purification. In addition, the former Freemasons had been
trying a long period to join or work with the party individually. In 1939, the office of
Reichssicherheitshauptamt reported that although the former Freemasons feared that
they might be put in the concentration camps, they tried to show their patriotism to get
enlisted in the Wehrmacht.24 Relaxing the restrictions, the Nazi regime had reached a
critical point that balanced between the need of war and the need on ideological
purification.
24
RSHA, 1939. RSHA office II 111 Situation report for 1938, January 19, 1939, RG-15.007M Reel 5, Folder 30.
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CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION
Officially, the ideology of internationalism and humanitarianism had been eradicated,
but fraternity had survived. The Sicherheitsdienst had foreseen the rebirth of the
German Freemasonry and euphemised their speculation in 1937. They believed that the
former Freemasons’ ideology of fraternity would eventually lead to the reconstruction
of the Freemasonry.25 They then took precautionary measurements and monitored the
former Freemasons. However, these measures were not enforced as were planned.
After the war, the German Freemasonry was soon re-established. As soon as the Nazi
regime collapsed, the lodge resettled at the same place when it first came to the
Germany in the eighteenth century. A few weeks after the fall of the Third Reich, former
members of lodge Absalom met in Hamburg and planned for the re-establishment. The
former members of western-German lodges also met after the war in Frankfurt am Main
and officially established a new lodge, Großloge der Alten Freien und Angenommen
Maurer.26 The other daughter lodges were also rebuilt in the following ten years. Along
with the Allied armies, the Freemasonry from the U.S. and the United Grand Lodge of
25
SD, 1937. Monthy SD reports, lodge chronicles, RFSS-SD Year Report for 1937, Section II 111, FM influence in
the economy,” R58/6113 part 1, 13. [manuscript] Germany: Bundesarchiv.
26
Howe, E., 1973. The Collapse of Freemasonry in Nazi Germany 1933-5. Transactions Quatuor Coronati Lodge,
Londres.
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England also came to Germany and re-established their connection with the German
lodges. In 1958, along with the United Grand Lodge of England and the
American-Canadian Grand Lodge, the Symbolic Lodge of Germany in Exile, the newly
revived lodge Drei Weltkugeln and the lodge of Große Landesloge came together and
formed the new Grand Lodge of Germany, named Vereinigte Großlogen von
Deutschland.27
The Freemasonry managed its own return after the war in such a short period of time. It
presented the desire of the German middle class for sociability and fraternity. As for the
former Freemasons who had converted to Nazism, the re-establishment of their old
lodges was the best solution to maintain their social status and regain their connections
within the brotherhood. Not the ideology of Freemasonry that motivated them to
re-establish the lodges.
There was another reason for the former Freemasons, especially those who collaborated
with the Nazi regime to re-establish their old lodges in haste. The majority of German
Freemasons sought to work with the Nazi regime. As soon as the Nazi Germany were
defeated and captured by the Allies, the denazification process begun. People who were
formerly related to the Nazi regime were anxious to cut themselves clean from Nazism.
The best way to do this was to re-establish and re-join their old fraternity which was
27
Howe, E., 1973. The Collapse of Freemasonry in Nazi Germany 1933-5. Transactions Quatuor Coronati Lodge,
Londres.
56
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once persecuted by the Nazi regime.
Thus, the lodges changed their records and history under the Third Reich, similar to
what the French did with the Vichy record. Both the Vichy government and the majority
of German Freemasons supported the wrong side. After the war, when the former
Freemasons talked about their relationship with the Nazi regime, they described their
collaboration as an unwilling but necessary method of surviving. Like the Vichy
government, former Freemasons of Germany described their collaboration as an
necessary evil for a greater good.28 Lodges like the Symbolic Grand Lodge, despised
and expelled by the Old Prussian lodges and other Humanitarian lodges, suddenly they
became the model of German Freemasonry under the Third Reich. Moreover, the
experience of German Freemasons in the Third Reich was also beautified and
whitewashed into heroic minorities who resolutely confronted the evilness of Nazism.
Thus, there began the debate on German Freemasons, were they collaborators or victims
of Nazism? If the German Freemasons could be considered as both victim and
collaborator of Nazism, it can be deduced that there must be a similar goal shared by the
Nazi regime and German Freemasons. And they both made compromises to balance the
ideological differences. It means that Nazi’s persecution was not implemented strictly
but to some extent negotiable. Since the Nazi Party, in fact, had the Freemasons at their
28
Paxton, R.O., 2001. Vichy France: Olg Guard End New Order 1940-1944. Columbia University Press.
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disposal, their terms of negotiation reflected their most urgent requirements. As
mentioned in Chapter I, the Freemasons were among the most adamant supporters of
National Socialism after the Crash of 1929, and they occupied essential professions that
were required by the Nazi regime urgently. The only thing that stood between the
German Freemasons and the Nazi Party was the different ideology the lodges held. Thus,
there was no obstacle for the collaborations between the Nazi regime and individual
Freemasons.
Since the Nazi Party identified German Freemasonry as a non-racial group, comparing
with people such as Gypsies, Jews and homosexuals, Freemasons in Germany had the
absolute advantages to survive under the Nazi regime. Unlike one’s blood or race,
ideology could always be altered willingly or unwillingly.29 Thus, the opportunists
could quickly disassociate with their former lodges to convert to Nazism.
The willingness for collaboration within the groups was also significant. For example,
although Jehovah’s Witnesses were also a non-racial group, they had not interests in
changing their ideologies or in collaboration. However, Freemasons were willing to
cooperate with the Nazi regime, particularly the opportunists who joined the
Freemasonry out of economic or social benefits. Abandoning their membership of
Freemasonry was a necessary procedure in pursuit of better opportunities.
29
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Among all the targeted groups, what made the Freemasons unique were the professions,
skills and experiences they possessed. Unlike other non-racial groups, Freemasons were
mostly professionals or social elites. Comparing with the Communist Party, which
mainly consisted of labours, the Freemasons were not only acceptable but also desired
by the Nazi regime.
However, there were people choose to be loyal and resolute to their ideology, such as
Leo Müffelmann, who had ideologically devoted to the Freemasonry and was sent to the
concentration camps along with the Jehovah’s Witnesses.30
The Nazis’ need of professionals and the Freemasons’ desire to survive in the
persecution should have made it possible to create a mutually beneficial relationship.
Göring’s idea was to prevent the any lingering existence of the Freemasonry ideology.
However, his refusal practically limited all the collaboration at an individual level.
Although the German Korps, such as the Deutsche Burschenschaften were similar to the
German Freemasonry, these two organisations had different fates. The Korps survived
and continued on operating after the Nazis came to power, when the Freemasonry was
smashed. There were two primary factors that led to the different outcomes. Firstly, the
30
Neuberger, H., 2001. Winkelmaßund Hakenkreuz. Die Freimaurer und das Dritte Reich. Herbig
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Korps was consisted of people that are racially pure. Secondly, the most significant
difference between these two organisations was that the Korps could benefit the Third
Reich more as a functioning institution. When Hitler came to power, the Korps
accelerated his Gleichschaltung. Nationalsocialistische Deutsche Studentenbund was
eventually affiliated to the Korps as an institution.
Most of German Freemasons collaborated with the Nazi regime primarily out of
ambitions and seeking for opportunities rather than the necessary method of surviving.
Shutting down the lodges and admitting former Freemasons that had converted to
National Socialism, the Nazis had completely neutralised the potential risks of the
Freemasonry. Furthermore, the interests of both the Nazi Party and the former
Freemasons were also ensured.
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74

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Tianmeng Feng

FREEMASONRY: SURVIVAL AND COMPROMISE

FREEMASONRY IN THE THIRD REICH

understanding, patience, and most importantly, his friendship during my graduate

studies at Nottingham Trent University.

and primary material.

Mason supporters were significant to the achievement of Hitler’s Nazi regime.

established, regardless of the different understanding towards National Socialism.

Keywords: Freemasonry, the Third Reich, Nazism, Compromise, Collaboration,

CHAPTER I THE TRUE BRETHRENS AND THE APOSTATES .......................................... 14

CHAPTER II THE CLOSE OF LODGES .................................................................................. 31

CHAPTER III A DANCE OF COMPROMISE.......................................................................... 44

CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 55

ideology of Freemasonry. He was convinced that the Freemasonry was a conspiracy of

prevented the process of marginalisation of Jews in the society of Europe.1 Therefore,

Although a membership of the Freemasonry requires a belief in the existence of God,

the Freemasonry was never a religion.

than Melzer, Helmut Neuberger’s Freimaurerei und Nationalsozialismus was written by

a non-masonic author, however, eventually, his work was published by a Freemasons

published in Masonic journals. Moreover, illustrative works on the subject were

research about the Freemasonry: Should the Freemasonry be considered as victims or

disputed by lodges in other regions.12

Freemasons, the Freemasonry became unique to the Nazi regime.

absorbed the Freemasons.

Therefore, “Freemasonry” at this period should be re-defined. As soon as the Nazi

membership of the Freemasons. Since these Freemason-like organisations were not

scattered in Germany with almost 70,000 members.15

outcomes of the study.

In Chapter I, the history of the Freemasonry in Germany will be introduced briefly. It

dozens of years’ membership.

Nazis balance their ideology and political actions.

CHAPTER I. THE TRUE BRETHRENS AND THE APOSTATES

symbol of exceptionalism, elitism, humanism, internationalism and liberalism. It all

Volksgemeinshaft and continued on advocating the ideology of “brotherhood of all

most anti-Masonic propaganda accused the Freemasons of plotting to build a world

is being delivered to the Freemasons through the League of Nations.”19

that all these people represented exceptionalism rather than Volksgemeinschaft.

Germany Freemasons in German society and their relations to other European

Freemasons were mostly Protestants.21 In the eighteenth century, modern Freemasonry

Jacobites, turned to support a strong monarch.

excluded the lower class.24

There were unique characteristics of German Freemasonry compare with other

lodges brethrens would have to be revealed to the police annually.26

Since the unification of Germany in 1848, German Freemasonry had remained

Freemasons were officially condemned by the Catholic Church.

Freemasonry was an imported fraternity that connected to international lodges. Thus,

evidently, Bismarck and Wilhelm II would have sceptically regarded Freemasons as a

categorised as servants or workers.29 The archives on Freemasons showed that the

as a general in the army medical corps.30

Masonic modern artists, Bauhaus architectures or contemporary filmmakers in the

period of Weimar Public.

Dinger joined when he was 42.

joined before World War I.33

transnationally. A member of Freemasonry during that period could provide a

considerable amount of practical benefits since the lodges consisted of influential

businessmen and politicians. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a freemason and a philosopher,

and business connections and professional debates, and he recommended it strongly.37

richest courts of Europe.”39

this still persist in the twentieth century.

membership in other social clubs or professional organisations. Under restrictions of a

“rank professionals and establish an unofficial hierarchy”.40 At this period, the

membership of the Freemasonry, in fact, implied the status of professional, equals to

other professional associations.