The Effect of Fly Ash

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THE EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF BLACK

COTTON SOILS
Thesis · December 2001
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Bashir Ahmed Mir

National Institute of Technology, Srinagar
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The main aim of the present investigation is two fold. First, to improve the properties of black
cotton soil for its effective use as a construction material in many civil engineering projects
such as construction of embankments, dams and pavements and, second, to understand the
behavior of fly ash for its bulk utilization in the construction of structural fills, embankments,
dikes, dams, sub-base course and base course in the construction of highway pavements etc.
Black cotton soils, also known as expansive soils are found in the semi-arid regions of the
world and are in abundance where the annual evaporation exceeds the precipitation. Black
cotton soil deposits experience large volume changes on exposure to climates with alternate
wet and dry seasons. These soils shrink on drying with accompanied cracking. The cyclic
upward and downward movements of black cotton soils result in distress to the structures
founded on or with them. Black cotton soils, though primarily belong to the fine-grained
group of soils and are classified as clays mostly, have gained significant importance due to
their peculiar behavior of volume change. A careful study of all aspects of this problem will
therefore, be of great importance.
On the other hand, utilization of fly ash reduces the quantity of fly ash to be disposed and
associated environmental problems. In India, about 82 thermal power stations are using
pulverized fuel producing enormous quantities of ash as fuel products of combustion (nearly
100 million tonnes per annum). With a very small utilization of less than 10 % of fly ash
produced currently, the ash deposit is expected to become alarming due to:
(1). Limited space available for ash disposal near most of the thermal power stations.
(2). The tremendous environmental problems being caused by large scale dumping of fly
ash and the health hazards posed if not managed properly.
4
Thus, this calls for strategies to encourage and establish technologically feasible, cost
effective and environment friendly disposal methods and one such attempt is the bulk
utilization of fly ash for geotechnical engineering applications.
Soil stabilization or soil improvement can be achieved by various means such as compaction,
soil replacement, chemical improvement, earth reinforcement etc. Usually, in the case of clay
soils, chemical improvement is commonly most effective since it can be used to change the
nature of the material. Chemical means can be used to strengthen the soil, to remove its
sensitivity both to water and its subsequent stress history. Among chemical means or
additives, lime provides an economic and powerful means of improvement, as demonstrated
by the significant transformation that is evident on mixing with heavy clay.
Lime stabilization of soils is limited to specific situations and it can not be used for the
modification or stabilization of silts and coarse grained soils. Generally, the reaction between
lime and clay is dependent on the reactive clay content. Furthermore, lime is a costly material
and to reduce the cost of stabilization of soils, thrust is given to use of fly ash to improve the
properties of soils. Thus, there is a large body of literature available on “soil-lime-fly ash” or
“soil-lime –other additives” mixes, and not much work has been attempted on soil-fly ash
mixes which will lead to the bulk utilization of fly ash for geotechnical applications.
Hence, in the present investigation, an attempted has been made to study the behavior of soil-
fly ash mixes with different percent fly ashes. The important properties that are necessary for
using fly ash in many geotechnical applications are compaction characteristics,
compressibility characteristics, permeability and strength. Therefore, the present work deals
with:
(1). The compaction behavior of soil-fly ash mixes
(2). The compressibility and permeability behavior of soil-fly ash mixes, and
5
(3). Effect of fly ash on the unconfined compressive strength of black cotton soil.
Chapter 1 presents the introduction and scope of the work with special reference to soil-fly
ash mixes.
Chapter 2 presents a detailed review of literature on black cotton soils and fly ash on all
aspects connected with the present study.
Chapter 3 presents the materials and methods adopted in carrying out this investigation.
Chapter 4 presents the compaction behavior of soil-fly ash mixes. The soil stabilization or
modification of soil-fly ash mixes is of great importance and hence the compaction behavior
of soil-fly ash mixes is studied in detail.
Chapter 5 presents the compressibility/consolidation and permeability characteristics of soil-
fly ash mixes. Compressibility and permeability characteristics of soil are important
engineering properties. The compressibility characteristics such as compression index and
coefficient of consolidation are required for the design of structures founded on cohesive
soils, to estimate the total settlement and the time required to undergo the same by the soil-fly
ash mixes. The coefficient of permeability is important in terms of water flow through soils
or seepage characteristics of soils. Hence the compressibility and permeability of soil-fly ash
mixes without and with different curing periods is of vital importance.
Chapter 6 presents the unconfined compression strength characteristics of soil-fly ash mixes.
The effect of varying fly ash contents on the ucc strength is examined in detail. The variation
of ucc strength of soil-fly ash mixes has been explained based mainly on reactive silica, free
lime content, carbon content and particle size.
Chapter 7 presents the summary and conclusions of the present work.
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Acknowledgements 3
Abstract 5
Table of Contents 8
List of Figures 15
List of Tables 19
List of Symbols 21
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1.1 GENERAL 23
1.2 SOIL 23
1.3 PROPERTIES OF A SOIL 24
1.4 STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL 25
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK 26
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BLACK COTTON SOILS 27
2.1.1 General 27
2.1.2 Origin and general properties 27
2.1.3 What are expansive soils? 29
7
2.1.4 Mineral composition 30
2.1.5 Identification and classification of expansive soils 35
2.1.6 Swelling potential / expansivity classification 38
2.2 BEHAVIOR OF BLACK COTTON SOILS / EXPANSIVE SOILS 44
2.2.1 Why are expansive soils “EXPANSIVE”? 44
2.2.2 What can cause the soil to Swell or Shrink? 44
2.2.3 Why do expansive soils “HEAVE”? 45
2.2.4 How much will the soil Heave or Shrink? 46
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SWELLING AND SHRINKING
CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK COTTON SOILS 46
2.3.1 Factors influencing swelling characteristics of black cotton soils 46
2.3.2 Factors influencing shrinking of expansive soils 49
2.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPANSIVE SOILS 51
2.4.1 Geologic Context 51
2.4.2 Creep & Settlement 53
2.4.3 Landslide 53
2.5 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 54
2.5.1 Pre-Construction Solutions 54
2.5.2 Post-Construction Solutions 54
2.6 PREVENTIVE DESIGN CONCEPTS 55
2.6.1 Planning and building siting 55
2.6.2 Special foundation 55
2.6.3 Fill blanket 55
8
2.7 FLY ASH 56
2.7.1 General 56
2.7.2 Material Description 57
2.7.3 Overview of utilization 58
2.7.4 Fly ash applications 60
2.7.5 Fly Ash Classification 61
2.7.6 Material properties 61
2.7.7 Engineering Properties 64
2.8 FEATURES OF FLY ASH 68
2.9 CENOSPHERES 69
2.10 WHAT IS A POZZOLAN? 70
2.10.1 Natural pozzolan 70
2.10.2 Artifical pozzolan 71
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 GENERAL 72
3.2 MATERIALS 72
3.3 PROPERTIES AND METHOD OF TESTING OF SOILS 72
3.3.1 Physical properties 72
3.3.2 Engineering properties of soils 76
3.3.3 Chemical properties of the soils used 78
3.4 PROPERTIES OF FLY ASHES 80
9
3.4.1 Properties of fly ashes 80
3.4.2 Engineering properties of fly ashes 82
3.4.3 Chemical properties of fly ashes used 86
3.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 89
3.5.1 Specific gavity 89
3.5.2 Particle size distribution 89
3.5.3 Consistency limits 90
3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 97
CHAPTER 4
COMPACTION BEHAVIOR OF SOIL-FLY ASH MIXES
4.1 INTRODUCTION 99
4.2 COMPACTION BEHAVIOUR OF BLACK COTTON SOILS 99
4.2.1 Structure and engineering behaviour of compacted
cohesive soils 100
4.3 COMPACTION BEHAVIOR OF FLY ASHES 104
4.3.1 Normalized dry density-water content plots 106
4.4 COMPACTION BEHAVIOR OF BLACK COTTON SOIL-FLY ASH MIXES 109
4.4.1 Materials used 109
4.4.2 Experimental programme 110
4.4.3 Methods of testing 111
4.4.4 Strength tests 111
10
4.5.1 Compaction behaviour of black cotton soil 112
4.5.2 Compaction behavior of black cotton soil-fly ash mixex 115
4.5.3 Effect of fly ash on the compaction behavior of black cotton soil 118
4.5.4 Mechanisms controlling compaction behavior 119
CHAPTER 5
CONSOLIDATION AND PERMEABILITY BEHAVIOR

OF SOIL-FLY ASH MIXES
5.1 GENERAL 121
5.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 122
5.3 MATERIALS 122
5.3.1 Soil and fly used 122
5.3.2 Lime 123
5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME 123
5.5 METHOD OF TESTING 123
5.5.1 One-dimensional consolidation tests 123
5.5.2 Permeability behavior of soil-fly ash mixes 123
5.6.1 Compressibility characteristics 125
5.6.2 Compression behavior of soil-fly ash mixes 127
5.6.3 Permeability characteristics 137

11
CHAPTER 6
EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON THE UNCONFINED COMPRESSION

STRENGTH OF BLACK COTTON SOILS
6.1 INTRODUCTION 142
6.1.1 Principle of unconfined compression test 142
6.2.1 Purpose and application of unconfined compression test 143
6.1.3 Review of relevant literature 144
6.2 MATERIALS USED 145
6.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME 146
6.4 METHOD OF TESTING 146
6.4.1 Immediate test series 146
6.4.2 7days and 28 days curing test series 146
6.5.1 Black cotton soil 153
6.5.2 Fly ashes 153
6.5.3 Effect of Neyveli fly ash content (with out any addition of lime 154
6.5.4 Effect of varying badarpur fly ash content( with out additives) 155
6.5.5 Effect of bfa with lime (8.5 %) 156
6.5.6 Effect of curing 156
6.5.7 Comparsion of uconfined compression strength of fly ashes
with pozzolanic reactivity 157
6.5.8 Initial and secant modulii 157

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CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 161
APPENDIX
REFERENCES 166
13
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1 Regional soil deposits of India 24
Fig. 2.1 World map for showing dark clay soil regions 27
Fig. 2.2 Area covered by expansive soils in different States of India 28
Fig. 2.3 The distribution of free swell value (after Xuang Xiling, 1987) 37
Fig. 2.4 Expansiveness chart ( v.d. Merwe, 1975) 38
Fig. 2.5 Chart for determining expansiveness of soils (After Vargas, 1985) 39
Fig. 2.6 COLE value classification chart( Humberg, 1985) 39
Fig. 2.7 COLE value as a function of percent clay for regions shown in figure 2.6 39
Fig. 2.8 (a) Swelling of clays as a function of their moisture content 48
Fig. 2.8 (b) Swelling of a soil as a function of unit weight and moisture content 48
Fig. 2.9 Problems Associated with Expansive Soils
(a) Swelling due to imbibation of water 52
(b) Trigger due to removal of load 52
(c) Const. Damage due to Heaving 53
(d) Const. Damage due to seepage 53
(e) Const. Damage due to creep 53
(f) Damage due to swelling and creep 53
(g) Damage due to land slide, settlement & trench failures due to expansive soils 54
Fig. 10 Possible Solutions Associated with Expansive Soils
(a) Special foundation 55
(b) Fill blanket 55
Fig. 2.11 Production of fly ash in a dry-bottom utility boiler with electrostatic
Precipitator 58
14
Fig. 2.12 Production of fly ash with electrostatic precipitator 58
Fig. 2.13 FLY ASH IMAGES 71
Fig. 3.1 Particle size distribution curves for BC Soil and Red Soil 73
Fig. 3.2 Dry density – water content relationships for soils 76
Fig. 3.3 Particle size distribution curves for Badarpur fly ash
and Neyveli fly ash 81
Fig.3.4 Dry density – water content relationship for fly ashes 83
Fig. 3.5 Dry density – water content relationship for fly ashes and soils 84
Fig. 3.6 Variation of liquid limit with percent fly ash 93
Fig. 3.7 Variation of maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content with percent fly ash 94
Fig. 3.8 Variation of Compression index void ratio with percent fly ash 94
Fig.3.9 Variation of compression index with liquid limit 94
Fig. 3.10 Variation of plastic limit and plasticity index with percent fly ash 95
Fig. 4.1 Effect of compaction on structure, compressibility and
stress-strain behavior of cohesive soils 103
Fif. 4.2 Dry unit weight versus water content relation for Indian coal ashes 108
Fig. 4.3 Dry unit weight – water content relationship for soils and fly ashes 112
Fig. 4.4(a). Normalized dry unit weight-water content relationships
for BC Soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes 112
Fig. 4.4(b). Normalized dry unit weight -water content relationships
for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes 113
15
Fig. 4.5(a). Normalized dry unit weight -water content relationships
for Red soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes 113
Fig. 4.5(b). Normalized dry density-water content relationships
for Red soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes 114
Fig. 4.6 Variation of dry unit weight with Fly ashes 116
Fig. 4.7 Variation of moisture content with Fly ashes 116
Fig. 5.1 Time-compression curves for soil-fly ash mixes for immediate test series 125
Fig. 5.2 Time-compression curves for soil-fly ash mixes for different curing periods 126
Fig. 5.3 A Typical plots determination of determination of t90 126
Fig. 5.4 e-log p relationship for black cotton soil- fly ash mixes for immediate series 128
Fig. 5.5(a). e-logp relationship for Red Soil-Fly ash mixes for immediate test series 129
Fig. 5.5(b). e-logp relationship for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes for different
curing series 129
Fig. 5.6 Variation of compression index with pressure 130
Fig. 5.7(a). Heave and collapse behavior of soil-fly ash mixes 131
Fig. 5.7(b) Variation of swell-potential of soil-fly ash mixes for different
curing periods 132
Fig. 5.8(a) Variation of coefficient of consolidation with pressure for
immediate series 134
Fig. 5.8(b) Variation of coefficient of consolidation with pressure 135
Fig 5. 9 Variation of Preconsolidation pressure with percent fly ash 136
16
Fig. 5.10 Variation of permeability with void ratio for black cotton soil-fly ash
mixes for immediate test series 138
Fig.5.11 Variation of permeability with void ratio for black cotton soil-fly ash
mixes for 7 Days and 28 Days curing series 138
Fig. 5.12(a). Variation of permeability with pressure for 7 days curing period 139
Fig. 5.12(b) Variation of permeability with pressure for 28 days curing period 139
Fig. 6.1 Principle of unconfined compression test 142
Fig. 6.2 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes for different
curing periods 147
Fig. 6.3 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes for different
curing periods 148
Fig. 6.4 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes for different
curing periods 149
Fig. 6.5 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes for different
curing periods 150
Fig. 6.6 Variation of strength with addition of Neyveli fly ash to BC Soi1 155
Fig. 6.7 Variation of strength with addition of BFA & NFA to BC Soil 155
Fig. 6.8 Variation of strength with addition of Badarpur fly ash to BC Soil 157
Fig. 6.9 Variation of strength with curing time for BC Soil- NFA mixes 157
Fig. 6.10 Variation of Modulli with fly ash content and curing time for
BC Soil-fly ash mixes 158
Fig. 11 Definition of Modulli 159
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1(a) Schematic diagrams of clay minerals 31
TABLE 2.1(b) Properties of clay minerals 32
TABLE 2.2 Results of analysis, range of values (% by wt.) 34
TABLE 2.3 Methods of Identification of Degree of Expansion 40
TABLE 2.4 Composition of mineralogical regions (Figs.2. 6 and 2.7) 41
TABLE 2. 5 Chemical composition of a typical BC Soil 41
TBALE 2.6(a) Classification of expansive soils/black cotton soils 42
TABLE 2.6(b) Identification criterion for expansive clays (USBR, USA) 42
TABLE 2.6(c) Degree of expansiveness & free swell (IS: 2720 part 40-1977) 42
TABLE 2.6(d) Identification of potential expansion on “SL & LS”(Altmeyer, 1955) 42
TABLE 2.6(e) Degree of expansion based on clay colloid,
LL and N-values (Chen, 1975) 42
TABLE 2.7 Normal range of chemical composition for fly ash
produced from different coal types 63
TABLE 2.8 Typical composition of class F and class C fly ash 64
TABLE 3.1 Properties of Soils 75
TABLE 3.2 Chemical analysis of Soils used 79
TABLE 3.3 Properties of fly ashes 87
TABLE 3.4 Chemical analysis of fly ashes used 88
TABLE 3.5 Index properties of soil-fly ash mixes 92
TABLE 4.1 Physical properties of materials used 109
18
TABLE 4.2 Experimental Programme 110
TABLE 4.3 (a) Compaction characteristics of soil-fly ash (BFA) mixes 117
TABLE. 4.3 (b) Compaction characteristics of soil-fly ash (NFA) mixes 118
TABLE No. 6.1 Unconfined Compression Strength Values 143
TABLE 6.2 Physical Properties Of Materials Used 145
TABLE 6.3 UCC Strength Test Results 151
TABLE 6.4 Ucc Strength Test Results 152
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LIST OF SYMBOLS/NOTATIONS USED
Ao = 10-10 m
BC Soil = Black cotton soil;
BCBFA= Black Cotton + Badarpur Fly Ash Sample Mix
BCNFA = Black Cotton + Neyveli Fly Ash Sample Mix
bd = detection;
BFA = Badarpur fly ash;
C = Clay Content;
CEC = cation Exchange Capacity (meq/100gm of clay)
Cu = Coefficient of uniformity;
Cz = Coefficient of curvature;
Cc = Compression index;
COLE = Coefficient of Linear Extensibility;
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation (m2/s);
Cv – RH = Determination of Coefficient of consolidation by Receangular Hyperbola Method
Cv – T = Determination of Coefficient of consolidation by Taylor’s Method
DFS = Differential Free Swell (%);
e = void ratio;
Ei = Initial Tangent Modulus;
Es = Secant Tangent Modulus;
FSI = Free Swell Index (%);
G = Gravel Content;
Gm = Specific gravity of soil sample prepared;
Gstd) = Standard value of sp. gravity (= 2.65);
20
∆H = Increase in sample height due to swelling of BC soil under nominal loading;
H = Initial sample height;
k =coefficient of permeability(m/s);
LL = Liquid limit (%);
LOI-loss on ignition;
mv = Coefficient of volume change (m2/kN);
NFA = Neyveli fly ash;
N. P. = Non-plastic;
OMC = Optimum moisture content (%);
pc = Preconsolidation pressure (kN/m2);
PI = Plasticity index (%);
PL = Plastic limit (%);
pS = Swelling Pressure (kPa)
Pr. = Pressure (kPa);
SI = Shrinkage Index (%);
SL = Shrinkage limit (%);
w= Natural moisture content (%);
wn = Normalized water content (%);
γdmax, = Max. dry unit weight (kN/m3); and
γdmax,n =Normalized max. dry unit weight (kN/m3);
ρd = Dry density (g/cc);
UCS = Unconfined Compression Strength (kPa);
UCT = Unconfined Compression Test, and
ZAV = Zero-Air-Void Line.
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21
CH
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1.1 GENERAL
Natural soil is both a complex and variable material. Yet, because of its universal availability
and low cost of winning, it offers great opportunities for skilful use as an engineering
material. Soil, by virtue of its great heterogeneity and intrinsic variability, poses severe
problems not ordinarily accounted for by other construction materials. To minimize these
problems, and to achieve a proper economy in the design and usage of earthen materials in
construction, it is essential to have a general working knowledge of the major soil types and
their properties.
1.2 SOIL TYPES
On the basis of the geological origin of their constituents, soils can be divided into two main
groups: -
(1). Those which owe their origin to the physical and chemical weathering of the parent
rocks, such as coarse grained soils (sands and gravels)
(2). Those which are chiefly of organic origin, are extremely compressible and their use as
foundation material is best avoided.
A soil is called a residual soil, if still located at the place of origin and formation (due to
weathering processes) or a transported soil, if that has been transported from its place of
origin by wind, water, ice or any other agency and re-deposited.
The soils of India can be broadly divided into the following groups, based on the climatic
conditions, topography and geology of their formation.
1. Black cotton soils
2. Laterites and lateritic soils
3. Alluvial soils
4. Desert soils
5. Marine soils
6. Boulder deposits
22
Fig. 1.1 shows the general areas of occurrence of these soils.
Fig. 1.1 Regional soil deposits of India
1.3 PROPERTIES OF A SOIL
The properties of soils of principal interest for the analysis and design purposes are:
1.3.1. Index properties
In nature, soils occur in a large variety. However, soils exhibiting approximately similar
behavior can be put together to form a particular group. Various classification systems in
practice place these soils in different categories. The tests carried out in order to classify a
soil are termed as classification tests and the numerical results obtained on the basis of such
tests are termed as index properties of soils. The index properties also termed as Atterberg
limits include liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit. These limits furnish an excellent
basis for the classification and identification of fine-grained soil and specifications for
controlling soil for use in fill, and in semi-empirical methods of design.
23
1.3.2 Engineering properties
The chief properties of a soil with which the construction engineer is concerned are:
1.3.2.1 Compaction characteristics: - maximum dry density; optimum moisture content;
relative compaction; compaction control, etc.,
1.3.2.2 Compressibility indexes for amount and rate of settlement; compression index;
coefficient of consolidation; coefficient of volume change; coefficient of secondary
compression etc.,
1.3.2.3 Permeability, also called hydraulic conductivity, and
1.3.2.4 Strength parameters: - Stress-strain modulus or modulus of elasticity; shear

modulus; Poisson’s ratio; angle of internal frictional; soil cohesion.
1.4 STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL
Black cotton soil is known for its undesirable characteristics of high swelling and shrinkage.
The inherent high swelling and shrinkage characteristics of black cotton soils cause
considerable damage to the structures built on or with them. Admixing stabilizers (fly ash in
the present case) can modify these undesirable properties. The effects of fly ash when added
to soil are studied in the present investigation. Addition of fly ash improved the workability
of the soil considerably. Stabilization of black cotton soils with lime has been accepted as the
most expedient method to improve their engineering properties. Soil stabilization can be
achieved by various means and different stabilizers keeping in view their suitability with a
particular soil type and other governing parameters. As a broad generalization, the statement
“use cement for sands and lime for clays” has considerable validity; but ignores many other
useful stabilization procedures. Fly ash can be used with any type of soil as a stabilizer or as a
fill material due to its low unit weight and high frictional value and freely draining nature.
Fly ash is a waste material produced in burning of coal in thermal power stations in the
production of electricity. Research work and studies have been carried out for utilizing fly
ash for various purposes to achieve economy and to minimize the disposal problem. Hence,
using fly ash for improvement of soils has a two-fold advantage. First, to avoid the
tremendous environmental problems caused by large scale dumping of fly ash, and second, to
reduce the cost of stabilization of soils and bulk utilization of fly ash. Thus, the present
investigation on the engineering properties of black cotton soils mixed with fly ash has as its
24
main purpose of understanding of the governing mechanisms, which will help to use fly ash
confidently in geotechnical engineering practice.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK
The present production of fly ash in India is about 100 million tonnes, but its utilization is
less than 10 %. Mass and effective utilization is possible only through geotechnical
applications. Therefore, many attempts are being made to utilize fly ash for various
applications to reduce problems associated with its disposal and environmental problems and
health hazards. One such attempt is the present investigation of effect on the fly ash on the
engineering properties of black cotton soils. Thus, the scope of the work is briefly
summarized as below.
1. Study of compaction behavior of soil-fly ash mixes for different percent fly ash.
2. Study of compressibility and permeability behavior of soil-fly ash mixes.
3. Study of unconfined compression strength of soil-fly ash mixes.
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2.1 BLACK COTTON SOILS
2.1.1 General
A black cotton soil is the Indian name given to the expansive soil deposits in the central part
of the country. Black cotton soils undergo significant volumetric changes when subjected to
changes in water content. When the water content increases, the soils swell (expand) hence
the termed as “EXPANSIVE SOIL”, and when it decreases, the soil shrinks (cracks). The
inherent high swelling and shrinkage characteristics of black cotton soils have caused
considerable damage to structures built on or with them. Just as in other parts of the world
where these soils occur, research and field engineers of India are engaged in understanding
the behavior of black cotton soils and in solving many associated engineering problems.
2.1.2 Origin and general properties

Black cotton soil is a worldwide problem that causes extensive damage to civil engineering
structures. Documented evidence is available of the existence and problems associated with
expansive clays having occurred in such countries as India, Africa, Australia, USA, as well as
regions in Canada. In general, the black cotton soils refer to soils that contain active clay
mineral especially montmorillonite. The black cotton soils occur all over the world as shown
in Fig. 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 World map for showing dark clay soil regions
26
In India, black cotton soils cover extensive areas in the states of Karnataka, Maharshtra,
Andra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu accounting for almost one-fifth of
the surfacial deposits as shown in Fig. 2.2. The origin of these soils is yet not fully known. It
is generally ascribed to long continued surface action on rocks like Deccan traps and
Peninsulas of gneisses of a basic composition. Their formation /occurrence on granite, shale,
basalt, sand stone, slates, lime stone, basic volcanic ash, calcareous aluminum has also been
recognized. Semi-arid, hot climate and poor drainage conditions, low lying regions and flood
plains are usually associated with the formation of expansive or black cotton soils (Humad,
1978). The underlying bedrock of black cotton soil to a large extent is basaltic or trap. The
soil produced by the decomposition of the basalts is a rich agricultural soil, being a highly
argillaceous dark loam, containing calcium and magnesium, carbonates, potash, phosphates
etc.,
Fig. 2.2 Area covered by expansive soils in different States of India
Differential thermal analysis and X-ray diffraction pattern analysis (Roy and Char, 1969;
Sridharan, A and V.G Rao, 1973; Lunkad, 1977; and Katti, 1979) have shown that
27
montmorrillonite is the predominant clay mineral in black cotton soil. The base exchange
capacity of clay fraction varies from 60 to 130 meq/100 gm. On saturation, black cotton soils
have very low shear strength and high compressibility. The clay fraction of black cotton soil
is very rich in silica (60 %) and iron (15 %) with only 25 % of alumina (Wadia, 1975) and
the consistency limits as:
Liquid > 53 %; Plastic limit > 20 %; Shrinkage limit > 7 % respectively.

The specific gravity ranges from 2.7 to 2.9 (Katti, 1975; Sridharan and G.V. Roa, 1973;
Subba Rao and Satyadas, 1980; Sridharan and Rao, 1982).
Dinesh Mohan (1955) has found the following correlation for black cotton soils:
Liquid limit, LL = 1.33(PL) + 21 --------------- (1); (PL = Plastic limit)
= 1.91 (C) – 34.5 ----------- -- (2); (C = Clay content)
Black cotton soils, which are clays of high shrinkage and swelling characteristics, are
problem soils for the engineers. Swelling soils provide an attractive field of research and
challenging areas in ground engineering practice. There is much to be learned from case
records and sophisticated theories based on moisture-temperature flux through the ground.
The effects of black cotton soils on man-made structures continue to be a major problem
worldwide. On account of these adverse engineering properties it has posed numerous
foundation problems, and therefore, are of special engineering interest.
In this present investigation, an attempt has been made to study the behavior of these soils
with fly ash as an additive. For the present study, black cotton soil was collected from
Devangere District of Karnataka State and two fly ashes namely, Badarpur fly ash from
Badarpur thermal power station (UP), and Neyveli fly ash from Neyveli thermal power
station Tamil Nadu.
2.1.3 What are expansive soils?
Expansive soils are black cotton soils or clay soils, that have ability to change in volume
when the water content of the soil changes are considered “EXPANSIVE” or highly plastic.
Expansive clay particles are invisible to the naked eye and swell when the water content
increases and will shrink when water content is reduced. The expansive clays dry and crack
open in the bottom of a mud puddle in the summer heat. When winter rains fall on the dry,
cracked ground, the clays swell; the cracks close; and the ground can “HEAVE” up as much
as several inches.
28
Expansive soils are also known as “SWELLING SOILS” (a major geologic hazard),
“HEAVING SOILS”, and “VOLUME CHANGING SOILS”. In UK, these soils are known
as “SHRINKABLE SOILS”, in US, as “ADOBE”, and in INDIA, as “REGUR SOILS” (from
the Telgu word Regadda). Which are highly argillaceous, somewhat calcareous, very fine
grained, and possess unique capacity to hold water, very plastic, swell when wetted and exert
high swelling pressures when confined.
Expansive soils are usually black, dark brown, or dark red. When wet, they have a gooey
texture and easily stick to the soles of shoes. When dry, they shrink and crack appear on the
ground that often forms a hexagonal pattern, like the bottom of a dried-up pond.
2.1.4 Mineral composition
There are three basic types of soil naturally occurring in this area, namely:
1. Sand,
2. Silt, and
3. Clay.
Clay soils are generally classified as “EXPANSIVE”. Although there are many types of clay
minerals, the most commonly encountered are known as:
1. Smectite
2. Kaolinite, and
3. Illite.
Smectite (including Montmorrillonite) has the greatest swelling potential. Two types of
smectites are commonly found are Montmorrillonite and bentonite.
Montmorrillonite (2:1 group) has a lattice consisting of a single layer of alumna

sandwiched between two layers of silica. Thus, the assemblages of montmorrillonite particles
are not well bound. Charged molecules of water are able to penetrate between such
assemblages, forming a water film whose thickness increases with a decrease in the binding
strength between them. Hence the characteristic feature of this mineral is “inter-crystalline
swelling” which may lead to a total disintegration of such groups. Besides these minerals,
there are other minerals such as Kaolinite and Illite.
Kaolinite (1:1 group) has a lattice consisting of single layers of silica and alumina, which is
capable of binding assemblages of minerals (elementary particles) that the exchange cations
29
and polarized molecules are unable to penetrate into the inner plane of the crystal and hence
kaolinite shrinks and swells the least (or negligible) of these three types of clay minerals.
Illite (2:1 group) has a lattice consisting of two layers of silica and a single layer of alumina,
for which penetration and accumulation of water molecules between assemblages of particles
is negligible. Illite shrinks and swells a little more than kaolinite, but shrinks and swells
considerably less than the smectite clays. Thus, the types of clay soils that cause the most
trouble to residential and light commercial structures are those that have predominantly
montmorrillonite or bentonite clay minerals. The diagrams and properties of these clay
minerals are shown in Table 2.1(a) and 2.1(b).
Table 2.1(a) Schematic Diagrams of Clay minerals
Clay minerals
Description
Montmorrillonite Kaolinite Illite
(2:1 Group) (1:1 Group) (2:1 Group)
1.Schematic S G S
9.5A° G 7.2A° S G
structure
10 A°
S S
*:S Silica sheet G
7.2A° S S
G Gibbsite sheet
(AL cations) 9.5A° S 10 A° G
G
Potassium ion G 7.2A° S S
S
A° 10 -10 m
30
TABLE 2.1(b) Properties of clay minerals
Clay minerals
Description of properties
Montmorrillonite Kaolinite Illite

(2:1 Group) (1:1 Group) (2:1 Group)
1. Shape Flakes 6 – sided flakes Flakes
2. Particle thickness 9.6 A°(unit cell) 0.05 µ -- 2 µ 0.003 µ - 0.1 µ
3. Particle diameter (microns) 0.5µ --- 10 µ 0.5 µ -- 4 µ 0.5 µ -- 10 µ
4. Specific surface (m2/gm) 600 --- 800 5 ----- 30 65 -- 100

10 -- 40
5. EC (meq/100gm of clay) 80 ---150 3 ----- 15
(150inabsence of k)
6. Max. Swelling as a %age

Negligible
for surcharge (T/sq.ft): 0.1 1500 350
0.2 350 150
Van der waals Due to vander Potassium-ion
7. Bonding forces; Weak bonds waals forces; H2 bonds fixed)
(by cations) bonds
Mg for AL in Octa- AL For Si in Si ions by Al in
sheet; AL for Si in silica sheet or silica sheet.
8. Isomorphous substitution
Tetra-sheet. divalent ion for
Al in Octa-sheet.
4–7 for Na-Mont.
9. Activity Value 0.3 ----- 0.5 0.5 ------ 1.3
1.5 for Ca-
Mont.
10. Specific gravity, G 2.35 ---- 2.70 2.60 --- 2.68 2.60 ---- 3.00
Fundamental clay properties that control the degree to which the clay minerals swell
are:
(a). Percent smectite,

(b). Cation-exchange capacity, and
31
(c). Exchangeable sodium percentage.
Thus, the understanding of the composition of minerals present in a soil helps one in the
prediction of some of more important behavior of clay soils. It is unreasonable to expect that
the soil engineer will be able to delineate completely the engineering tests of a soil by
knowing its composition only. But there is no doubt the compositional data would lead
classification of soils on a more rational basis and can help in planning other engineering
tests and can be utilized in the prediction of certain unusual behavior of the soils. Current
engineering practice for characterization of expansive clays involves standard engineering
tests for determination of swelling potential, X-ray differaction analyses and reflectance
spectrometry technique.
At IISc, detailed analyses have been done on the soils obtained from IISc campus, Devangere
District of Karnataka state, Tirupati District of A.P. state. It is well known that
montmorrillonite soils possess high plasticity, high swelling potential, low permeability, large
secondary compression and show loss of strength in the presence of moisture. The following
Table 2.2 gives the values obtained by the laboratory analysis of surface samples for various
chemical and physical parameters.
32
TABLE 2.2 Results of analysis, range of values (% by wt.)
Expansive soils Red Soil

Description of property
Devangere Tirupati IISc Campus
BC Soil BC Soil
1. Clay content (%) 63 20 40

2. Silt (%) 27 10 30
3. Fine Sand (%) 10 15.5 30
4. Medium Sand (%) ---- 54.5 ---
5. OMC (%) 28.55 15 18.35
6. γdmax (kN/m3) 14.4 17.8 17.3
7. Specific gravity, G 2.71 2.73 2.69
8. Void Ratio 0.882 0.534 0.555
9. Liquid Limit (%) 84 95 42
10. Plastic Limit (%) 25.4 17 18
11. Shrinkage Limit (%) 8.3 16 15.6
12. Free swell Index (%) 65.2 310 11
13. Main Clay Mineral Montmorrillonite Montmorrillonite Kaolinite
14. Loss on Ignition (LOI) 18.1 16.18 10
15. SiO2 49.2 47.5 42
16. Al2O3 24 18.7 40
17. TiO2 0.7 0.24 0.4
18. Fe2O3 5.8 8.4 6.4
19. MgO 0.4 2.94 0.2
20. MnO 0.2 -- bd
21. CaO 0.4 3.68 0.3
22. K2O 0.12 1.48 0.1
23. Na2O 0.10 0.88 0.2
24. CEC (meq./100 gm of clay) 67 --- 12.7
bd : Below detection
33
2.1.5 Identification and classification of expansive soils
The identification and classification are two important problems for evaluating the expansive
soils. As a matter of fact, the degree of damage to structures is dependent on the behavior of
the deformation of the subsoil, which is a function of a number of factors such as expansive
potential, local weather conditions, landforms etc. Therefore, a standard for identification and
classification of expansive soil is of great significance.
It is considered that some indices, swell potential, free swell, shrinkage limit etc., for
example, may be used for identification; but not be used for classification because, in
addition to the nature of soil, there are other ambient factors which affect the swelling or soil
shrinking in the site which is directly related to the degree of damage. Due to these reasons,
there is a need to divide the foundation soil evaluation process into two parts:
1. Identification: The purpose of identification is only to distinguish expansive from non-

expansive soils.
2. Classification: The purpose of classification is to predict the possible movement of the sub-
soil and the degree of damage for providing the basis for design, and in this case, the
classification is indispensable.
To identify an expansive soil, one needs to know the type and proportions of the clay content
of the soil. Establishing the engineering behavior of soil, such as its swelling pressure, swell
potential, their inter-relation under different external conditions, is another problem of utmost
importance.
The identification and classification of soils in accordance with the limited mineralogical
information can be achieved in different ways. Earlier researchers (Novais-Ferreira and De
Silva, 1971) carried out a study on expansive clays using geological, mineralogical, as well as
soil mechanical methods and came out with an important conclusion that the “in-situ”
behavior of the soil can be represented best by oedometeric tests at various intermediate
loads, under suction conditions found in the field. Thus a considerable body of literature is
available on expansive soils based on extensive laboratory and field test data. Hence, both
direct and indirect techniques are available for identification of expansive soils.
Direct Techniques: The direct methods employ laboratory tests such as:-
(a). Oedometer tests and free swell tests;
34
(b). Scanning Electron Microscope to study the mineralogy and structure of
expansive soils;
(c). Use of X-ray diffraction analysis, DTA, etc.,
Indirect Techniques: The indirect techniques include:-

(a). Based on index properties (LL, PL, SL, PI, SI, etc.,);
(b). Physical properties, like surface area, clay content;
(c). Physico-chemical properties like cation exchange capacity and type of
exchangeable ions;
(d). Dielectric dispersion for measurement of the mineralogical composition.
According to field investigation on several regions of expansive soils, the geotechnical

features of the expansive soils are:
1. Structural fissures are well developed and filled with gray-green, gray-white clay.
2. The natural topographic slope is less than 14 degree; the wall of the pit & trench is to strip
in the dry season and collapse during rain.
3. The low-rise masonry structures with foundation depth less than 1m are usually seriously
cracked on the ends of the houses.
4. The water content is close to plastic limit.
In the areas with the aforesaid features, free swell tests should be done & the relation between
free swell and montmorrillonite content is shown in Fig. 2.3(a), and distribution of free swell
value is shown in Fig.2.3(b). The classification of expansive soils indicative of their damage
potential is usually based on swelling potential.
35
40
Montmorrillonite (%)
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Free Swell (%)
(a). The relation between free swell and Montmorrillonite content (%)
(after Huang Xiling, 1987)
60 60
50 50
Frequency (%)
Frequency (%)
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 36
Free Swell (%) Free Swell (%)
(b). Expansive soils (c). Non-expansive soils
Fig. 2.3 The distribution of free swell value (after Xuang Xiling, 1987)
36
2.1.6 Swelling potential / expansivity classification
The swelling potential is a measure of the ability and degree to which such a soil might swell.
Swelling potential in general depends on several factors like dry density, moisture content,
surcharge, clay – water – electrolyte system and environmental conditions. The free swell test
devised by Holtz and Gibbs (1956) provided a simple procedure to get a qualitative
estimation of the swelling potential of clays. This method has further been improved into
finding differential free swell (IS: 1977), free swell index (Sridharan et al, 1985), and
modified free swell index (Sivapullaiah et al, 1987). The method proposed by Van Der
Merwe (1964) based on clay friction and plasticity index (Fig. 2.4) has been widely used.
More recently the method suggested by Margas (1985) based on plasticity index, clay
fraction and liquid limit (Fig. 2.5) is gaining wide acceptance.
Fig. 2.4 Expansiveness chart ( v.d. Merwe, 1975)
37
Fig. 2.5 Chart for determining expansiveness of soils (After Vargas, 1985)
Many investigators have found that Atterberg limits can be used to predict both qualitatively
and quantitatively the swelling potential of soils (Chen, 1965, Ranganatham and
Satyanarayana, 1965, Holtz and Gibbs, 1956, Altmeyer, 1954, Seed et al, 1962). Table 2.3
lists the different methods of identification of degree of expansion. The COLE test
(Coefficient of Linear Extensibility) is another widely used test. It determines the linear strain
of an undisturbed, unconfined sample on drying from 5psi suction to oven-dry suction.
Hamburg (1985) has developed a COLE classification chart shown in Figs 2.6 and 2.7. The
mineralogical regions 1 to 5 have the clay fraction as shown in Table 2.4, and the chemical
properties of a typical BC soil are shown in Table 2.5.
Fig. 2.6 COLE value classification chart Fig. 2.7 COLE value as a function of
( Humberg, 1985). percent clay for regions (Fig.2.6).
38
TABLE 2. 3 Methods of Identification of Degree of Expansion
Tests Swelling Potential or Degree of Expansion SOURCE
Estimated Probable
Colloidal Shrinkage Degree of
PI expansion in % at
content Limit (SL) Expansion
1 Psi of vertical
1 Plasticity loading (dry to
Index (PI) saturated)
<17 >15 <2 0 Low <10
Holtz
12 --- 27 10 ---16 12--34 Medium 10 ---- 20
&
18 --- 27 7 --- 12 23--45 High 20 ---- 30 Gibbs (1956)
>27 <11 >32 Very High >30
Degree of
SI (%) Expansion @ 1 psi, volume
Expansion change (%)
Shrinkage Ranganatham
2 Index SI 0 --- 20 Low <10 and
=(LL– SL) 20 --- 30 Medium 10-----20 Satyanaraya
30 --- 60 High 20-----30 n
(1965)
>60 Very High >30
3 DFS (%) :- Refer Table No. 2.6(c) IS: 2720(Part XL)
4 LINEAR SHRINKAGE:- Refer Table No. 2.6(d) ALTMEYER (1956)
5 LIQUID LIMIT :- Refer Table No. 2.6(e) CHEN (1965)
Sridharan et al (1985)
FSI (%) Swelling Potential
< 1.5 Negligible
FREE SWELL
6 INDEX 1.5 ----- 2 Slight
2 ----- 5 Moderate
5 ----- 10 High
>10 Very High
LL (%) MFSI Swelling Potential
Sivapullaiah
MODIFIED
et al (1987)
<200 <2.5 Negligible

7 FREE SWELL
INDEX (MFSI) 200 --- 400 2.5 ---10 Moderate
400 --- 550 10 --- 20 High
>550 >20 Very High
EI Expansive Potential
Uniform
0 ---- 20 EI = 100 ^h F Very Low
8 Expansion building
Index (EI) 21 ---- 50 ^h = % swell Low code
51 ---- 90 F = fraction passing Medium
91 ---- 130 # 4 sieve High
>130 Very High
39
TABLE 2.4 Composition of mineralogical regions (Figs.2. 6 and 2.7)
Percentage Clay Fraction

Regions Geometric
Kaolinite Illite Vermiculite
1 > 50 None None None
2 > 50 tr -- 25 Traces -- 25 None
3 5 --- 50 None 5 --- 25 None
4 tr. -- 25 10 --- 25 None 10 --- 25
5 tr 10 -- 50 tr. -- 25 tr
TABLE 2. 5 Chemical composition of a typical BC Soil
Sr. No. Description Formula Range
1. Carbonate (%) CO3 0.5 ------ 6.60
2. Silica (%) SiO2 48 ------ 58
3. Alumna (%) Al2O3 13 ----- 22
4. Lime (%) CaO 1 ----- 8

5. Magnesium oxide (%) MgO 1.8 ----- 5
6. Ferric oxide (%) Fe2O3 7.5 ----- 15
7. Titanium oxide (%) TiO2 0.3 ----- 2.2
8. Sulphates (%) SO3 0.9 ----- 2
9. Organic matter (%) --- 0.4 ----- 3.6
10. LOI (%) --- 4.8 ----- 16.5
11. pH --- 6.7 ----- 8.9
Holtz and Gibbs (1956)`s classification is based on the swell potential of undisturbed
specimens that were inundated under 6. 9 KPa (1 psi) pressure.
40
Seed et al (1962) `s criterion is based on the swell potential of remolded specimens that were
compacted at their standard proctor maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
values and inundated under 6.9 KPa pressure. Table. 2.6(a) gives the expansivity as below:
TBALE 2.6(a) Classification of expansive soils/black cotton soils
Degree of Holtz and Gibbs`s classification of Seed et al’s classification of

Expansion Percent Swell Percent Swell
low 0 ------ 10 0 ------ 1.5
Medium 10 ------ 20 1.5 ----- 5
High 20 ------ 35 5 ------ 25
Very High > 35 >25
The Atterberg limits and swell potentials of clay depend on the quantity of water that clay can
imbibe. Higher the plasticity index, greater the quantity of water that can be imbibed by the
soil and hence greater would be its swell potential. Likewise, a low shrinkage limit indicates
that a soil would begin to swell at low water content. Together, the USBR (USA) uses three
parameters to indicate the criterion for identification of expansive soils as shown in Table
2.6(b).
TABLE 2.6(b) Identification criterion for expansive clays (USBR, USA)
Colloidal content PI (=LL–PL), % Shrinkage Limit Degree of Expansion

(%) (%)
> 15 < 18 <10 Low
13 ------ 23 15 ------ 28 10 ------ 20 Medium
20 ------ 31 25 ------ 41 20 ------ 30 High
> 28 >35 > 30 Very High
In addition to index properties, the swell potential of clay soils can also be indirectly
estimated from differential free swell (DFS) test (IS 2720 part 40-1977). The degree of
41
expansivity and possible damage to lightly loaded structures may be qualitatively assessed
from Table 2.6(c).
TABLE 2.6(c) Degree of expansiveness and free swell (IS: 2720 part 40-1977)
Degree of
DFS (%) REMARKS
Expansiveness
< 20 Low Soil vol. in water – soil vol. in kerosene

DFS =[{ ---------------------------------------------- *100] (%)
20 --- 35 Moderate Soil vol. In kerosene oil
In areas where soils have high to very high DFS,
35 --- 50 High
conventional shallow foundations may not be used.
> 50 Very High
Also, one of the earliest methods (Altmeyer, 1955) is based on shrinkage limit and Linear
shrinkage as given in Table 2.6(d).
TABLE 2.6(d) Identification of potential expansion on “SL & LS”(Altmeyer, 1955)
Degree of expansion Shrinkage limit (%) Linear shrinkage (%)
Non-Critical > 12 0 ---- 5
Marginal 10 ---- 12 5 ---- 8
Critical < 10 >8
TABLE 2.6(e) Degree of expansion based on clay colloid, LL & N-values (Chen, 1975)
Colloid Liquid Penetration Probable Expansion as a Degree Of

Content limit Resistance %age based on loading of Expansion
< 200 sieve LL (%) N 45 KPa
< 30 < 30 < 10 <1 Low
30 --- 60 30 --- 40 10 --- 20 1 ----- 5 Medium
60 --- 95 40 --- 60 20 --- 30 3 ---- 10 High
> 95 > 60 > 30 > 10 Very High
42
2.2 BEHAVIOUR OF BLACK COTTON SOILS / EXPANSIVE SOILS
2.2.1 Why are expansive soils “EXPANSIVE”?
The clay particles that comprise of expansive soils are different, depending on the type of the
clay mineral. However, the clay mineral that has the greatest ability to expand and contract is
a type of clay mineral called smectite. Smectite soils, which include such specific clay
minerals as montmorrillonite and bentonite, have a surface electrical charge that attracts
water molecules and free cations (which have attracted free water molecules themselves).
The individual smectite clay particles are weakly bonded and insert themselves between the
previously bonded clay particles. If the soil becomes wetter, more water molecules are
attracted to the clay particles and the water molecules push the adjacent clay particles farther
and farther apart, resulting in an increase in volume of the soil mass, or what is known as
“SWELLING (Expansion, or Heave).
The opposite happens when the soil begins to dry out and gives up moisture. The loss of
water molecules permits clay particles to move closer together and the result is a reduction in
volume of the soil mass, or what is known as SHRINKAGE (or Contraction). Thus, due to
these phenomena, reactive clay soils are known to cause adverse effects on all engineering
structures and are one of the most costly natural hazards. Hence the name suggests
“EXPANSIVE” soils not only expansive but also “EXPENSIVE”.
2.2.2 What can cause the soil to Swell or Shrink?
As already discussed, highly plastic clay soil swells when it gets wetter and it shrinks when it
dries out, but there are a number of reasons why that happens. Because of an electrical
imbalance in the particle arrangement of clay particles. Attraction of water molecules close
enough to the surface of clay particles cause swelling of soils (due to moisture increase) and
vice versa. In climates that experience seasons that have a definite wet period and an equally
defined dry period, the climate affects the soil water content. Obviously, the soil is wetter
during and immediately following the “rainy” season. The soil will generally be drier during
and immediately following the dry season. Sometimes, a long-term dry spell, or drought, will
impact a location. During drought periods, the soil will become drier than normal and will
dry out to a deeper depth than normal (causing a deeper active zone).
Trees, shrubs, and bushes naturally suck up some water from the soil to survive. As a result,
during dry seasons, these plants can dry up the soil as they attempt to remain live. This causes
43
the shrinkage of soils and hence cracking. The soil also gives up water to the atmosphere in
the form of evaporation when the relative humidity of atmosphere is less. Plant transpiration
can actually remove more water from the soil. When drought period is over, and water is
once again available in the soil, the cracks will close as soil expands and becomes wetter and
hence the swelling occurs.
2.2.3 Why do expansive soils “HEAVE”?
When the term “HEAVE” is used with respect to expansive soils, it usually means that the
soil surface is moving upward. Expansive soils in partly saturated state will experience the
mobilization of swelling pressure upon imbibation of water at constant volume. For the cases
of overburden pressures less than swelling pressure, the soils will swell reflecting heave of
soil layers. An expansive soil that is getting wetter will increase in volume or heave in every
direction. Generally the swelling nature of soils has been attributed to the expanding lattice
structure of the montmorrillonitic minerals present in the soils. Now it can be said that soils
with high liquid limit (> 50%), PI > 12%, LS > 8%, low void ratio, and under low overburden
pressure exhibit swelling characteristics upon saturation. In void-ratio versus pressure plot,
the increase in volume with release of pressure takes place along a rebound line from an
equivalent preconsolidation pressure.
For the soil to heave or expand upward, it must push the soil above it upward, too. If the
heaving soil is near the surface, it is very easy for the underlying swelling soil to push up the
soil above it. However, the deeper the swelling soil, the greater the amount of soil above that
must be pushed up. Conversely, if the soil is drying out, the soil will also change in volume I
every direction but in a direction opposite to that which occurs when it is getting wet i.e., the
soil shrinks in volume. When the shrinks, one soil particle does not resist shrinkage by an
adjacent soil particle like it resisted swelling by the same particle. Thus during shrinking,
every particle is free to reduce in size by giving up water and results in cracks in the soil.
In short, expansive soils heave in all directions when the soil particles acquire additional
water. But the upward movement of the surface becomes significant when the lateral
expansion of the wetter clay particles is prevented from swelling any more in the horizontal
direction. Thus, the soil continues to expand in the vertically upward direction. When the soil
begins to dry out, the soil particles shrink in all directions, creating cracks in the soil, and
causing the ground surface to recede downward.
44
Heave of expansive soil or of structures founded on expansive soil occurs as follows:
1. A continuous heave starting soon after the construction activity and terminating during
the life of the structure.
2. A seasonal heave and construction mostly around the periphery of the building due to
rainfall and evaporation of sub-soil moisture; and
3. Local heave due to broken water supply or sewage lines, or poor drainage.
2.2.4 How much will the soil Heave or Shrink?
The magnitude of swell or shrink is dependent on a number of factors. These factors that
most frequently impact the amount of soil volume change are: -
1. Mineralogical composition of the clay soil
2. Amount of clay in the soil
3. Soil structure and fabric
4. Initial soil water content or the initial soil suction
5. Initial density of soil
6. Soil and pore water chemistry
7. Thickness of the expansive soil stratum
8. Thickness of the active zone
9. Location of the expansive soil stratum (more shrink or swell/heave if the stratum is near
the ground surface)
10. Site climate
Amounts of swell/heave or shrink have been measured and reported which range from
negligible amounts to more than 600 mm.
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SWELLING AND SHRINKING

CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK COTTON SOILS
The magnitude of swell or shrink is dependent on a number of factors. These factors that
most frequently impact the amount of soil volume changes are: -
2.3.1 Factors influencing swelling characteristics of black cotton soils
The capability of a soil to swell is defined by its swelling potential. Swelling potential is
defined as the percentage swell of a laterally confined sample on soaking under a surcharge
of 6.9 kPa(1 psi) after being compacted to maximum dry density at optimum moisture
45
content in the standard AASHO compaction test(Seed et al, 1962). Factors, which may affect
the swelling potential, are as below:
2.3.1.1 Initial moisture content
The magnitude of swelling is inversely proportional to the initial moisture content of the soil
(as shown in Fig. (2.8), other parameters being the same (i.e. dry density, surcharge), i.e.,
ρs=1/w
Such a relationship has been substantiated by the earlier researchers (Holtz and Gibbs, 1956;
Lambe, 1960; Wiseman and Zeiflen, 1960; Seed et al, 1962; Parcher and Liu, 1965;
Vijayvergiya and Ghazzaly, 1973, EI Sohby and Rabbaa, 1981; and Chen, 1988).
Depending on the ambient conditions there is a limit to the amount of water that will be
imbibed by an unsaturated soil mass (Parcher and Liu, 1965). The imbibation of water occurs
in response to the hydration, tendency of the soil particle surface and of the exchangeable
cations (Yong and Warketin, 1975, and Mitchell, 1976). The initial moisture content is one of
the basic factors governing the magnitude of swelling of soils. In such cases, there exists
limiting moisture content, the “swelling moisture content” at which swelling does not occur.
Thus, the initial state of the soil significantly influences the overall magnitude of swelling.
It has also been reported in the literature that with an increase in soil density, the swelling
moisture content decreases. This is due to the fact that the number of contact points between
particles increases with an increase in density, with the thickness of the water film at these
contact points being smaller than at the free surface of the particles.
2.3.1.2 Initial dry density
The single most important factor affecting the swelling characteristic of a given expansive
soil is its dry density (Chen, 1988). It has also been established that the effect of density on
swelling is practically independent of the initial moisture content. On the other hand, when
the soil density was high, the initial moisture content in a specimen had a great effect on
swelling than in the case of low density specimens. Several researchers (Holtz, 1948; Holtz
and Gibbs, 1956; Seed and Chen, 1959; Yevnin and Zaslavsky, 1970; Vijayvergiya and
Ghazzaly, 1973; Gromko, 1974; EI Sohby and Rabbaa, 1988; Sridharan et al, 1986; Chen;
1988) have established that the swelling capacity of expansive soil increases with increase in
the dry density. The long-range repulsion forces increases in magnitude with decreasing
inter-particle repulsion (Lambe, 1953).
46
20
Clay of undisturbed structure
Clay
Swelling of soils, εSW (%) 15
Clay of disturbed structure

10
5 15 25 35 45
Water content (%)
Fig. 2.8 (a) Swelling of clays as a function of their moisture content
1.9
εsw = 16%
Dry unit weight, γd (kN/m3)
1.8
εsw=14%
εsw =13%
1.7
εsw = 11%
1.6
εsw = 8%
1.5
5 10 20 30
Water content (%)
Fig. 2.8 (b) Swelling of a soil as a function of unit weight and moisture content
47
2.3.1.3 Atterburg limits
Holtz and Gibbs (1956) have demonstrated that the plasticity index (PI) and the liquid limit
(LL) are useful indices for determining the swelling characteristics of most clays. Seed et al
(1962) likewise indicated that (PI) could be an indicator of the swelling characteristic of most
clays.
Vijayvergiya and Ghazzaly (1973) had shown that all other factors being the same (i.e., dry
density, surcharge) the expansive soil with higher liquid limit exhibit a greater swelling
capacity. Apparently, as both the liquid limit and swelling capacity of the clays depend on the
amount of water the clay tries to imbibe, the inter- relationships between liquid limit and
swelling capacity are not surprising (Chen, 1988).
2.3.1.4 Overburden pressure
It is well recognized that if sufficient load is applied on expansive clay, the detrimental
volume increase can be controlled (Holtz and Gibbs, 1956; Brackly, 1975; Chen, 1988). Data
of these workers have shown that all other factors being the same, the swelling capacity of
compacted expansive clay decreases substantially with increase in surcharge (over burden)
pressure.
2.3.1.5 Aging effects
Gizienski and Lee (1965), Nalzeny and lin (1967) have reported a decrease in swelling
capacity because of aging effects. A mechanism similar to thixotropic hardening was invoked
by these workers to explain the aging effects. Kassiff and Baker (1971) had also observed
that the aging of their compacted soils reduced its swelling capacity. The bonds formed
during aging of soil were however lost upon subsequent wetting and drying of the silty clay.
2.3.2 Factors influencing shrinking of expansive soils
Factors that influence swelling are also expected to influence the shrinkage, but to different
degree. The amount of shrinkage is a function of:
(a). Type and amount of clay,

(b). Initial moisture content, and
(c). Other factors like the depositional environment, which determines both particle
arrangement and overburden pressure and the degree of weathering (Yong and
Workentin, 1966).
48
2.3.2.1 Type and amount of clay
The magnitude of shrinkage of a soil decreases with decrease in the amount of clay sized
particles in the soil. Sand and silt sized particles reduce total shrinkage because they dilute
the clay content and decrease the volume of water held by the soil. Generally, a soil deposit
having montmorrillonite or illite as the dominant clay mineral, shrinks more than the soils
having other clay minerals (Yong and Warkentin, 1975; Chen, 1988)
2.3.2.2 Initial water content
All other factors being same, the magnitude of shrinkage of a given soil increases with
increase in the initial content (Chen, 1988). High swelling clays containing the
montmorrillonite mineral, have high water holding capacity and exhibit higher magnitude of
shrinkage (Yong and warkentin, 1973)
2.3.2.3 Other factors
Other factors influencing the magnitude of shrinkage include the depositional environment,
which determines the particle arrangement, overburden pressure and the degree of
weathering. Overburden pressure consolidates the sediments and decreases the water content
as a result of which the magnitude of shrinkage is affected. Repeated cycles of wetting and
drying will overcome the influence of depositional environment for surface soil. The total
shrinkage of a soil with a random soil fabric is less than that of a soil with parallel particle
orientation (Yong and Warkentin, 1975).
49
2.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPANSIVE SOILS
Expansive soil is an expensive material. Expansive soils occurring above water table undergo
volumetric changes with changes in water content. Increase in moisture content causes the
following effects: -
1. Expansive soils expand and contract due to change in moisture content of the soil,
causing structural Problems through differential movement of the structure resulting in
severe damage to the foundations, buildings, roads, retaining walls, canal linings etc.
2. A second effect of expansive soils is the additional horizontal pressure applied to

foundation walls in basements and crawl spaces. Increased water content in the soils
adjacent to the foundation wall will cause the soils to expand and increase the lateral
pressure on the foundation wall. If the foundation wall does not have sufficient strength,
minor cracking, bowing or movement of the wall may occur. Serious structural damage or
failure of the wall may also occur.
3. A third effect associated with claystone (a type of expansive soils) is the movement of
soils on unstable slopes. Expansive claystone soils found as a layer under a more rigid top
layer of soils, become unstable as the moisture content increases, allowing the claystone
and top layers of the soil to move. If the soil is located on a slope, the top layer of soil can
creep (slow movement) down hill or even cause a landslide (sudden and dramatic
movements). Consequently, a house with an inadequate foundation built on unstable
slopes can be subjected to creeping of the structure down slope or to failure of the
structures in a landslide. Thus, summarizing, consequences are:
2.4.1 Geologic Context
2.4.1.1 Swell
In California's prevailing arid environment (rainfall = 10-20 in/yr.) Tertiary rocks form hills
in which the claystones are exposed as landslide-prone terrain flanked by clay-rich weathered
colluvial soils. Fig. 2.9(a) shows Swelling due to imbibation of water.
50
Fig. 2.9(a) Swelling due to imbibation of water
2.4.1.2 Trigger
Temporary equilibrium of intact claystone beds is usually disrupted by excavation of over

lying weight of rock, which triggers gradual swell on the order of 5 to 15%. Fig. 2.9(b) shows
trigger due to removal of load
Fig. 2.9(b) Trigger due to removal of load
2.4.1.3 Construction Damage
Uplift pressures may approach 10,000 psf, far in excess of foundation bearing pressures.
Housing damage follows certain patterns with acceptable tolerances depending on structure
type. Swimming pools and decks are especially susceptible to damage. Attempts to limit
access of moisture rarely succeed because lawn watering, concrete base course and back fill
51
allow widespread seepage. Fig. 2.9(c) shows Construction Damage due to Heaving and Fig
2.9(d) shows Construction Damage due to seepage.
Fig.2.9© Const. Damage due to Heaving Fig.2.9(d) Const. Damage due to seepage
2.4.2 Creep & Settlement
Structures built over fills or colluvium are subject to long term creep, typically one half inch
per year). Pavements are subject to the combined efforts of swell, creep, and bearing failure
as moisture content of soils increases (Fig. 2.9(e) & (f))
Fig. 2.9(e) Const. Damage due to creep Fig.2.9(f) Damage due to settlement
2.4.3. Landslide
Deep fills build from expansive soils is subject to settlement of up to several inches over
decades following construction. Fill compaction induces preconsolidation pressures of about
3000 psf; hence, shallow fill soils swell typically 5%. At 50 ft. depth the fill compresses
about 2% (Fig. 2.9(g))
52
Weak claystone beds are often Expansive claystone beds may also cause
the source of landslides. deadly construction trench failures.
Fig. 2.9(g) Damage due to land slide and trench failures due to expansive soils
2.5 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
2.5.1 Pre-Construction Solutions
Prior to building the structure, a soil test of the site should be performed to ensure that the
soils are stable or to determine the approximate effect the soils will have on the structure.
This will assist in determining if the soils are capable of property supporting the structure. In
addition, information on the soils can ensure that the foundation is designed to withstand
theeffects of the existing soil conditions, and assist in the development of plans for long-term
maintenance.
2.5.2 Post-Construction Solutions
For structures already in existence, several possible solutions to counter the effects of
expansive soils are available. Common preventative solutions include proper soil
maintenance such as maintaining a uniform and constant moisture level in the soil. This may
involve introducing moisture into the soils, excessive or isolated saturation of the soil through
proper drainage and grading techniques that prevent swelling. For structures affected by
expansive soils, further movement can be prevented by providing various methods of
underpinning (to prevent vertical movement and / or sliding) and /or reinforcing of the
foundation walls (to withstand lateral pressure).
53
2.6 PREVENTIVE DESIGN CONCEPTS
2.6.1 Planning and building sitting
Identify and avoid expansive claystone beds, especially in cut areas.
2.6.2 Special foundation
Deep piers and footings (Fig. 10a), and in more recent years use of rigid (waffle-type or post-
tensioned) slabs, are the principal preventive techniques in use in Northern California. During
the 1970's "deep piers" often meant 3.6m Piers with 3 or 4 #4 bar reinforcing.
2.6.3 Fill blanket
Replacement of the influential upper few feet of expansive bedrock with a blanket of stable
compacted fill can control damage by eliminating the most unstable zone and stabilizing the
water content of the deeper rock. Irregular watering may still cause differential movement
though the effects may be delayed. Bedrock stratigraphy, fill thickness, permeability,
expansivity and structural design are all factors to be considered in this preventive design
approach (Fig. 10b).
Fig. 10(a) Special foundation Fig. 10(b) Fill blanket
54
PA
P RT
AR FL
T –– IIII F YA
LY SH
AS H
2.7 FLY ASH
2.7.1 General
Fly ash is a very small particle mineral residue that results from the burning of powdered coal
in utility boilers. The individual particles are very small, like talcum powder, and are carried
up and out of the boiler in the flow of exhaust gases leaving the boiler after the coal is
consumed. Hence the term " Fly Ash". The Fly Ash particles are removed from the stack
gases using electrostatic precipitators, FGD systems or bag houses, which permit only a low
concentration of particulates to be released into the atmosphere, and are collected and stored
dry for recycling. Thus, two purposes are achieved here:
(1). Fly ash is prevented from escaping into the air as pollution, and
(2). The collected material is sold as a resource to industry.
Since the particles solidify while suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are
generally spherical in shape (Ferguson et. al., 1999). Fly ash particles, which are collected in
electrostatic precipitators, are usually silt size (0.074 - 0.005 mm). Fly ash is a pozzolan: a
silica, alumna, and calcium based material which, in the presence of water, will chemically
combine with the free lime contained in the fly ash and produce a cementitious material with
excellent structural properties. Some fly ashes contain enough calcium compounds to be self-
hardening when mixed with water. All fly ash can be used as a direct replacement for
Portland cement in making concrete, in addition to many other applications. Fly ash closely
resembles volcanic ashes used in production of the earliest known hydraulic cements about
2,300 years ago. Those cements were made near the small Italian town of Pozzuoli - which
later gave its name to the term "pozzolan."
A pozzolan is a siliceous or siliceous / aluminous material that, when mixed with lime and
water, forms a cementitious compound. Fly ash is the best known, and one of the most
commonly used, pozzolans in the world. The difference between fly ash and Portland cement
becomes apparent under a microscope. Fly ash particles are almost totally spherical in shape,
allowing them to flow and blend freely in mixtures. That capability is one of the properties
making fly ash a desirable admixture for concrete.
55
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in 1989 defined fly ash as the
finely divided residue that results from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and does
not include residue from the burning of municipal refuse.
2.7.2 Material Description
The fly ash produced from the burning of pulverized coal in a coal-fired boiler is a fine-
grained, powdery particulate material that is carried off in the flue gas and usually collected
from the flue gas by means of electrostatic precipitators, bag houses, or mechanical collection
devices such as cyclones. In general, there are three types of coal-fired boiler furnaces used
in the electric utility industry. They are referred to as dry-bottom boilers, wet-bottom boilers,
and cyclone furnaces. The most common type of coal burning furnace is the dry-bottom
furnace. When pulverized coal is combusted in a dry-ash, dry-bottom boiler, about 80 percent
of all the ash leaves the furnace as fly ash, entrained in the flue gas. When pulverized coal is
combusted in a wet-bottom (or slag-tap) furnace, as much as 50 percent of the ash is retained
in the furnace, with the other 50 percent being entrained in the flue gas. In a cyclone furnace,
where crushed coal is used as a fuel, 70 to 80 percent of the ash is retained as boiler slag and
only 20 to 30 percent leaves the furnace as dry ash in the flue gas.. During 1996, the most
recent year for which ash statistics are currently available, the electrical utility industry in the
United States generated approximately 53.5 million metric tons (59.4 million tons) of coal fly
ash. Until 1996, the amount of fly ash produced annually had remained roughly the same
since 1977, ranging from 42.9 to 49.7 million metric tons (47.2 to 54.8 million tons).
The major constituents or elements of fly ash are heterogeneous glassy and crystalline phases
of silicon, aluminum, iron calcium and magnesium. A chemical analysis will show fly ash
compounds occurring as oxides of these elements; however they occur as aluminosilicate
glass interspersed with a small fraction of crystalline compounds such as quartz, mullite,
hematite, magnetite and elemental siliceous or aluminosilicate glass.
Class F ash is produced from the burning of anthracite or bituminous coal. Class F ash
contains silica, aluminum and iron in combinations of greater than 70%. Class C fly ash is
produced from the burning of lignite or sub-bituminous coal. Class C fly ash generally
contains more calcium and less iron with its lime (CaO) content in the range of 15% to 30%.
This makes the Class C fly ash cementious in addition to pozzolanic. A general flow diagram
of fly ash production in a dry-bottom coal-fired utility boiler operation is presented in Figs.
2.9 and 2.10
56
Fig. 2.11 Production of fly ash in a dry-bottom utility boiler with electrostatic Precipitator.
Fig. 2.12 Production of fly ash with electrostatic precipitator.
2.7.3 Overview of utilization
About 75% of India’s energy supply is coal based and shall be so for the next few decades.
There are about 82 utility thermal power stations, in addition to several captive power plants,
using bituminous coal (with ash content > 30 %) and produce approximately 100 million
tonnes of fly ash per annum.
57
Considering that the ninth plan (1997-2002) has proposed a pivotal place to thermal power
generation, it is estimated that it shall increase at an annual rate of around 8-10%. The fly ash
produced as a result of burning of Indian coal has tremendous potential to be utilized for
different applications. Rough estimates of existing utilization are around 10% (1998) of the
total generated as against 3-5% (1994). In absolute terms it has increased about three folds.
However, the road is less travelled as compared to countries like Belgium, Germany, and
Netherlands where utilization levels are more than 90%.
Fly ash disposal and utilization shall continue to be an important area of national concern due
to India's dependence on thermal power generation for its energy supply. The scenario with
respect to fly ash management has undergone considerable improvement over the past few
years. Due to increasing environmental concern and growing magnitude of the problem it has
become imperative to manage fly ash. More importantly because fly ash' has tremendous
potential to be utilized.
Several areas of fly ash utilization wherein technology demonstration projects have been
completed or are underway include mine filling, construction of roads, embankments,
hydraulic structures, raising of dykes, manufacture of several building components like
bricks, blocks, tiles and its use in agriculture. The future poses challenge to the scientist and
technologists, engineers towards sound management of fly ash. The technical know-how is
available in the country. A beginning has been made towards enhanced facilitation for
adoption / implementation of better management practices / appropriate technologies towards
safe disposal and utilization of fly ash. Broad estimates of ash production and utilization in
different parts of India Utility Thermal Power Stations) are as follows:
Fly ash Utilization

Sr.No. Zone Name generation (Million Utilization
(Million tonnes) tonnes) (%)
1 Southern zone 13.5 0.8 6
2 Western zone 16.5 0.8 5

3 Central zone 18 2.84 15.8
4 Eastern zone 10.2 2.94 28.8
5 Northern zone 15.5 2.3 14.8
Total all in million tonnes 73.71 9.68 13.1
58
Fly Ash Mission (FAM) has worked towards ‘confidence building’ in fly ash based
technologies. Fifty-five Technology Demonstration projects have been undertaken at nearly
21 locations across the country in diverse areas. An attempt has been made to manage flyash
in ‘Mission Mode’. A national spread of project sites has been planned to reach to a larger
spectrum of technologists, engineers, users, and entrepreneurs. Active co-operation of several
ministries, departments, academic & research institutions, entrepreneurs etc. has been the
highpoint of this mission. Power utilities, NTPC, MOEF, MOP have contributed in a major
way in participating in the ‘confidence building’ activities for safe disposal and utilization
technologies for flyash applications government has taken a view to give special focus and
thrust to fly ash utilization. Fly ash has great potential for important uses in various sectors,
the main utilization being building and construction industry. The extent of fly ash utilization
in some of the countries is given as below:
Percentage Percentage
Country Country
utilization utilization
West Germany 80 Belgium 65

Holland 70 Britain 55
Denmark 65 USA 25
France 65 India 10
2.7.4 Fly ash applications
Fly ash can be used for multifarious applications. Some of the major application areas of fly
ash are the following:
• Brick manufacturing
• Cement manufacturing
• Part replacement of cement in mortar and concrete
• Roads and Embankment construction
• Dyke raising
• Structural fill for reclaiming low-lying areas
• Hydraulic structures
• Stowing material for mines
• Agriculture and Forestry
59
• Other medium and high value added products (tiles, wood, paints, lightweight
aggregate, extraction of alumina, cenospheres, etc.)
2.7.5 Fly Ash Classification
Fly ash is a pozzolanic material and has been classified into two classes, F and C, based on
the chemical composition of the fly ash. Class F fly ash is produced from burning anthracite
and bituminous coals. This fly ash has siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which
itself possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to
form cementitious compounds (Chu et. al., 1993). Class C fly ash is produced normally from
lignite and sub-bituminous coals and usually contains significant amount of calcium
hydroxide (CaO) or lime (Cockrell et. al., 1970). This class of fly ash, in addition to having
pozzolanic properties, also has some cementitious properties (ASTM C 618-99). According
to ASTM C 618, the chemical requirements to classify any fly ash are shown as below:
Fly Ash Class

Properties
Class F* Class C
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
70.0 50.0
plus iron oxide (Fe2O3), min, %
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), max, % 5.0 5.0

Moisture Content, max, % 3.0 3.0
Loss on ignition, max, % 6.0 6.0
* The user may approve the use of class F fly ash containing up to 12% loss of ignition if acceptable
performance results are available.
Colour is one of the important physical properties of fly ash in terms of estimating the lime
content qualitatively. It is suggested that lighter color indicates the presence of high calcium
oxide and darker colors suggest high organic content (Cockrell et. al., 1970).
2.7.6 Material properties
2.7.6.1 Physical Properties
Fly ash consists of fine, powdery particles that are predominantly spherical in shape, either
solid or hollow, and mostly glassy in nature. The carbonaceous material in fly ash is
60
composed of angular particles. The particle size distribution of most bituminous coal fly
ashes is generally similar to that of a silt (less than a 0.075 mm or No. 200 sieve). Although
subbituminous coal fly ashes are also silt-sized, they are generally slightly coarser than
bituminous coal fly ashes.
The specific gravity of fly ash usually ranges from 2.1 to 3.0, while its specific surface area
(measured by the Blaine air permeability method) may range from 170 to 1000 m2/kg. The
color of fly ash can vary from tan to gray to black, depending on the amount of unburned
carbon in the ash. The lighter the colour, lower will be the carbon content. Lignite or
subbituminous fly ashes are usually light tan to buff in color, indicating relatively low
amounts of carbon as well as the presence of some lime or calcium. Bituminous fly ashes are
usually some shade of gray, with the lighter shades of gray generally indicating a higher
quality of ash.
2.7.6.2 Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of fly ash are influenced to a great extent by those of the coal burned
and the techniques used for handling and storage. There are basically four types, or ranks of
coal, each of which varies in terms of its heating value, its chemical composition, ash content,
and geological origin. The four types, or ranks, of coal are anthracite, bituminous,
subbituminous, and lignite. In addition to being handled in a dry, conditioned, or wet form,
fly ash is also sometimes classified according to the type of coal from which the ash was
derived.
The principal components of bituminous coal fly ash are silica, alumina, iron oxide, and
calcium with varying amounts of carbon, as measured by the loss on ignition (LOI). Lignite
and subbituminous coal fly ashes are characterized by higher concentrations of calcium and
magnesium oxide and reduced percentages of silica and iron oxide, as well as a lower carbon
content, compared with bituminous coal fly ash. Very little anthracite coal is burned in utility
boilers, so there are only small amounts of anthracite coal fly ash.
Table 2. 7 compares the normal range of the chemical constituents of bituminous coal fly ash
with those of lignite coal fly ash and subbituminous coal fly ash. From the table, it is evident
that lignite and subbituminous coal fly ashes have a higher calcium oxide content and lower
loss on ignition than fly ashes from bituminous coals. Lignite and subbituminous coal fly
ashes may have a higher concentration of sulfate compounds than bituminous coal fly ashes.
61
The chief difference between Class F and Class C fly ash is in the amount of calcium and the
silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. In Class F fly ash, total calcium typically ranges
from 1 to 12 percent, mostly in the form of calcium hydroxide, calcium sulfate, and glassy
components in combination with silica and alumina. In contrast, Class C fly ash may have
reported calcium oxide contents as high as 30 to 40 percent. Another difference between
Class F and Class C is that the amount of alkalis (combined sodium and potassium) and
sulfates (SO4) are generally higher in the Class C fly ashes than in the Class F fly ashes.
Table 2.8 presents typical composition of the fly ash.
TABLE 2.7 Normal range of chemical composition for fly ash produced from
different coal types (expressed as percent by weight)
Component Bituminous Sub bituminous Lignite
SiO2 20-60 40-60 15-45

Al2O3 5-35 20-30 10-25
Fe2O3 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO 1-12 5-30 15-40
MgO 0-5 1-6 3-10
SO3 0-4 0-2 0-10
Na2O 0-4 0-2 0-6
K2O 0-3 0-4 0-4
LOI 0-15 0-3 0-5
Although the Class F and Class C designations strictly apply only to fly ash meeting the
ASTM C618 specification, these terms are often used more generally to apply to fly ash on
the basis of its original coal type or CaO content. It is important to recognize that not all fly
ashes are able to meet ASTM C618 requirements and that, for applications other than
concrete, it may not be necessary for them to do so.
The loss on ignition (LOI), which is a measurement of the amount of unburned carbon
remaining in the fly ash, is one of the most significant chemical properties of fly ash,
especially as an indicator of suitability for use as a cement replacement in concrete.
62
TABLE 2.8 Typical composition of class F and class C fly ash (% by weight)
Oxide Class F Class C
SiO2 49.10 53.79

Al2O3 16.25 15.42
Fe2O3 22.31 5.00
TiO2 1.09 1.68
CaO 4.48 18.00
MgO 1.00 3.40
Na2O 0.05 0.50
K2O 1.42 0.50
SO3 0.73 1.44
LOI 2.55 0.80
Other 1.02 0.27
2.7.6.3 Atterberg Limits
Atterberg limits include liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. The values of liquid
limit and plastic limit are useful in the classification of soils. They also provide an overall
idea for the engineering properties of the soils. Since, the ash is silty in nature, it is very
difficult to conduct a liquid limit test using Casagrande method, but one can get the liquid
limit value using cone penetration method, and one – point method as per IS standard
methods. The liquid limit of the fly ash is found to range between 43 to 49 %
(Rajaskhar, 1995). This liquid limit is due to the fabric characteristics, not due to the
plasticity characteristics. Since, fly ash is non-plastic, plastic limit cannot be determined, and
its shrinkage limit varies with the initial water content.
2.7.7 Engineering Properties
2.7.7.1 Compaction characteristics
The density of ash is an important parameter since it controls its strength, compressibility
and permeability. Compaction is a process of increasing the density of the material by
packing the particles closer together with reduction in the volume of air. The degree of
compaction of ash is measured in terms of dry density. The compacted unit weight depends
63
upon the amount and method of energy application and material properties such as grain size,
gradation, particle shape, plasticity and the moisture content at compaction. The maximum
dry density of fly ashes varies from 0.91 to 1.41 g/cc and optimum moisture content varies
from 18 to 45 % under standard Proctor compactive effort (Skarzynska et al., 1989). The
lower are densities because of lower specific gravity of fly ash.
The variation of dry density with moisture content for fly ashes is smaller compared to the
variation of a well-graded soil, both having the same median grain size (Moulton, 1978).
Toth et al (1988) have reported that fly ash has less sensitivity to variation in dry density
with moisture content compared with natural soils. The tendency for fly ashes to be less
sensitive to variation in moisture content than natural soils could possibly be explained by the
higher air void content of fly ash. Natural soils have between 1 and 5 % air voids at
maximum dry density whereas fly ash contains 5----15 % air voids at maximum dry density
(Moulton, 1978). The higher void content could tend to limit the build-up of pore pressures
during compaction, thus allowing the fly ash to be compacted over a larger range of water
contents.
Sridharan, Pandian and Srinavas (2000) have studied the standard Proctor compaction test on
thirteen fly ashes obtained from different thermal power plants in India as per
IS: 2720(part-7)-1980 and ASTM (1995) and reported that for coal ashes, the change in water
content does not have an appreciable effect on dry density values compared to natural soils.
Because of the variation of density with respect to the moisture content is relatively small,
fly ash can be easily handled with conventional equipment due to its light weight and can be
compacted over a relatively wide range of moisture contents. This property certainly reveals
that the moisture content in fly ash can be conveniently controlled in the field if it is utilized
as an embankment fill.
2.7.7.2 Permeability characteristics
The property of ash, which permits percolation, or seepage of water under a gradient is
known as permeability and the coefficient of permeability is defined as the velocity of flow,
which will occur through the soil or ash under a unit hydraulic gradient. The coefficient of
permeability of ash depends upon grain size, degree of compaction and pozzolanic activity
(Pandian and Balasubramanian, 1999). The range of coefficient of permeability values for
Indian fly ashes varies from 10-4 to 10-6 cm/sec (Rajasekar, 1995). As seen from literature,
64
permeability of most of the fly ashes is in the order of 10-5 cm/sec. The permeability of fly
ashes is considerably high and less in a narrow range and dissipation of the pore pressure will
be quicker. Any small variation in permeability of fly ash is not likely to adversely affect its
use for most of the geotechnical applications.
With addition of lime, the long-term permeability decreases with time because of pozzolanic
reactivity of the fly ash. This aspect is very useful in the utilization of ash as a low permeable
barrier to reduce the migration of solutes leading to possible ground water pollution.
Compressibility and consolidation characteristics
Compressibility characteristics of fly ash depend on initial density, degree of saturation,

extent of self-hardening and void ratio. Of all the factors influencing compressibility of fly
ash, initial void ratio appears to be the most important. Partially saturated ashes are less
compressible compared to fully saturated ashes (Yudhbir and Honjo, 1991). The value of
compression index varies from 0.19 to o.24 at compacted condition and 0.24 to 0.61 at
hydraulically placed condition in lagoons (Yudhbir and Honjo et al, 1991). The
compressibility of class C fly ash reduces with curing time due to the cementation bonds
developed by the free calcium.
To estimate the settlement of structures placed on a fly ash embankment or fills, one-
dimensional consolidation tests are required. Since primary consolidation for fly ash will be
completed in about a minute, it is difficult to take the time compression readings manually for
coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) calculations using classical deformations versus time plots.
Webb and Huhhes (1987) used an automatic recording system for taking the consolidation
readings at very small time intervals. They have reported Cv values of the order 1.9 to 19 cm2/
minute. These high rates of consolidation suggest that in most cases primary consolidation
will be practically complete when the fill construction is over.
This high rate of consolidation of fly ash is favorable particularly for its use as embankment
and reclamation fills. Equally important is the secondary consolidation, which accounts for
20 – 30 % of the total compression, which depends on the nature of the fly ash and the
duration of curing.
2.7.7.3 Strength characteristics
For any engineering application of ash, its strength characteristics are essential. In a general
sense, strength means shear strength only. In some special cases as for checking the short-
65
term stability of foundations and slopes where the rate of loading is fast but drainage is very
slow, one of the most common tests is the unconfined compression test. Both total strength
and effective strength parameters are required in designs. Because of the high rate of
consolidation of fly ash in most cases primary consolidation will be practically complete
when the fill construction is over. So the effective strength parameters will be quickly
realized in case of fly ash construction fills. Strength properties of the fly ashes get affected
by variations in density, moisture content, particle size distribution and chemical
composition. The friction angle varies from 28 degrees to 38 degrees and apparent cohesion
varies from 0 to 0.45 kg/cm2 at standard Proctor compaction (Dayal et al, 1989).
Mclaren and Digioia (1972) reported that the shear strength of class F fly ash is primarily
dependent on the cohesion component when it is in a partially saturated state. When the
sample is fully saturated or dried, it loses its cohesive part of the strength. Its frictional
component depends on the density of the sample.
In case of class C fly ash, the dominant shear strength component is cohesive strength due to
cementitious reactions. Class C fly ashes gain considerable cohesive strength when exposed
to moisture and allowed to cure due to the free calcium present. The self-hardening
properties of fly ash depend on its physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics.
Among the chemical constituents present in fly ash, free lime, which is a fraction of total lime
present, will control its self-hardening properties. The carbon present in the fly ash
suppresses the reactivity.
2.7.7.4 Special properties
Fly ash has been widely used in many of the geotechnical applications. Due to its low
permeability, it is used as liner materials in waste containment facilities. It has been identified
that fly ash not only retards the contaminant migration, but also retains the contaminant
cations through chemical reactions. The retention of heavy metal ions like lead and zinc by
fly ash is through chemical reactions. The retention characteristics of fly ash mainly depend
on the amount of free calcium oxide present in it (Pandian et al, 1996). Fly ash retains more
amount of metal ions at a higher initial pH conditions compared to low initial pH conditions
(Sridharan et al, 1996). It is also possible to improve the capacity of fly ash to retain metal
ions by adding lime (Pandian et al, 1995, Rajaskhar et al, 1995).
66
2.8 FEATURES OF FLY ASH
• Spherical shape: Fly ash particles are almost totally spherical in shape, allowing them
to flow and blend freely in mixtures.
• Ball bearing effect: The "ball-bearing" effect of fly ash particles creates a lubricating
action when concrete is in its plastic state.
• Higher Strength: Fly ash continues to combine with free lime, increasing structural
strength over time.
• Decreased Permeability: Increased density and long-term pozzolanic action of fly ash,
which ties up free lime, results in fewer bleed channels and decreases permeability.
• Increased Durability: Dense fly ash concrete helps keep aggressive compounds on the
surface, where destructive action is lessened. Fly ash concrete is also more resistant to
attack by sulfate, mild acid, soft (lime hungry) water, and seawater.
• Reduced Sulfate Attack: Fly ash ties up free lime that can combine with sulfate to
create destructive expansion.
• Reduced Efflorescence: Fly ash chemically binds free lime and salts that can create
efflorescence and dense concrete holds efflorescence producing compounds on the
inside.
• Reduced Shrinkage: The largest contributor to drying shrinkage is water content. The
lubricating action of fly ash reduces water content and drying shrinkage.
• Reduced Heat of Hydration: The pozzolanic reaction between fly ash and lime
generates less heat, resulting in reduced thermal cracking when fly ash is used to replace
Portlandcement.
• Reduced Alkali Silica Reactivity: Fly ash combines with alkalis from cement that
might otherwise combine with silica from aggregates, causing destructive expansion.
• Workability: Concrete is easier to place with less effort, responding better to vibration
to fill forms more completely. Ease of Pumping. Pumping requires less energy and
longer pumping distances are possible.
• Improved Finishing: Sharp, clear architectural definition is easier to achieve, with less
worry about in-place integrity.
• Reduced Bleeding: Fewer bleed channels decreases porosity and chemical attack.
Bleed streaking is reduced for architectural finishes. Improved paste to aggregate
contact results in enhanced bond strengths.
67
• Reduced Segregation: Improved cohesiveness of fly ash concrete reduces segregation
that can lead to rock pockets and blemishes.
• Reduced Slump Loss: More dependable concrete allows for greater working time,
especially in hot weather.
2.9 CENOSPHERES
Fly ash that is formed during the process of coal combustion in typical steam power plant
generation contains a certain amount of fine spherical particles known as 'cenospheres'. These
hollow glass particles have also been called glass beads, hollow ceramic spheres and micro
spheres. Due to their unique combination of spherical shape, controlled sizing (after
processing), relatively high strength in uniform compression, good thermal and acoustical
insulating and dielectric properties, many high value applications can be made with these
materials. Some of their general physical characteristics include: 20um-200um in diameter
and are spherical, coherent, non-porous shells of silicate glass. The thickness of the shell is
about 10% of the radius. True particle densities of the individual sphere range from 0.40-0.60
gm/cc, and their bulk densities are 0.25-0.40 gm/cc.
The cenospheres are formed at an estimated temperature of 1400°C and the formation and
size are governed by the viscosity and surface tension of the fused silicate glass, by the rate of
change in particle temperature and by the rate of diffusion of gases in the silicate. The molten
spheres harden at 1000°C, trapping the gases, which are formed internally through catalytic
action of ferric oxide (Fe2O3), or carbonaceous material present. The composition of
cenospheres is somewhat variable, but the principal constituents are aluminum, silicon and
oxygen. The range is:
Typical composition of Cenospheres (% by weight)
SiO2 55-61%
Al2O3 26-30%
Fe2O3 4-10%
CaO 0.2-0.6%
MgO 1.0-2.0%
Na2O, K2O 0.5-4.0%
LOI 0.01-2.0%
68
Cenospheres have various applications which include lightweight mineral fillers in composite
polymeric materials of different kinds such as: cryogenic technology; fabrication of acoustic
and thermal insulating materials; a filler for paints and varnishes; fabrication of composite
polymeric putties (automobile, for example) and compounds for filling in technological
surface defects; fabrication of polymeric composites that focus on special properties for
electronics and electrical engineering and additional applications. Mineral filler applications
in ceramics provide many exciting possibilities as well.
Processed cenospheres are chemically inert and are exempt from classification as a hazardous
waste as determined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In addition, they
are considered reclaimable under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(42 U.S.C. §§6901-6992-15) and their reuse is labeled as environmentally sound.
2.10 WHAT IS A POZZOLAN?
A Pozzolan is a finely divided material that reacts with calcium hydroxide and alkalies to
form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
More than 2000 years ago, Greeks and Romans built structures that survive today that took
advantage of the pozzolan-lime reaction. The Romans used a mixture of lime and pozzolana
(a fine volcanic ash) to produce a hydraulic cement (hardening under water). Romans used
pozzolana cement from Pozzuoli, Italy near Mt. Vesuvius to build the Appian Way, the
Roman baths, the Coliseum and Pantheon in Rome, and the Pondu Gard aqueduct in south
France. Vitruvius reported a 2 parts pozzolana to 1 part lime mixture. Animal fat, milk, and
blood were used as admixtures (to improve performance.) These structures still exist today.
2.10.1 Natural pozzolan
Pozzolans are present on earth's surface such as diatomaceous earth, volcanic ash, opaline
shale, pumicite, and tuff. These materials require further processing such as calcining,
grinding, drying, etc.The Aegean island of Santorini has natural deposits of volcanic ash
(Santorin earth.) In the United States, volcanic tuffs and pumicites, diatomaceous earth, and
opaline shales are found principally west of the Mississippi River in Oklahoma, Nevada,
Arizona, and California. Natural pozzolans have been used in dams and bridges to lower the
heat of hydration and increase resistance of concrete to sulfate attack and control the alkali-
silica reaction. Usually the pozzolanic deposit must be in the vicinity of the project to support
mining and processing costs.
69
2.10.2 Artifical pozzolan
Fly ash is an artificial pozzolan produced when pulverized coal is burned in electric power
plants. The glassy (amorphous) spherical particulates are the active pozzolanic portion of fly
ash. Fly ash is 66-68% glass. Class F fly ash (see ASTM C 618) readily reacts with lime
(produced when Portland cement hydrates) and alkalies to form cementitious compounds.
Class C fly ash also may exhibit hydraulic (self-cementing) properties. Hungry Horse,
Canyon Ferry, Palisades, Yellowtail dams all contain portland cement-fly ash concrete .A
pozzolan requires the presence of a reactive alumino-silicate glass. These glassy particulates
must be fine enough to provide a sufficient reactive surface area for the solid-state chemical
reactions.
Fig. 2.13 Fly Ash Images

*********
70
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DM ET HO
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OD S
3.1 GENERAL
This chapter explains the materials used in this study alongwith their physical and chemical
properties. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to evaluate various physical
and engineering properties for their effective applications in geotechnical engineering in
particular and in civil engineering in general.
3.2 MATERIALS
In the present investigation, two types of soils, black cotton soil and red soil and two fly
ashes have been chosen for evaluating the effect of fly ash on various properties of black
cotton soil, and its stabilization for its effective use as well as bulk utilization of fly ashes.
Red soil, relatively an inert material has also been chosen but much emphasis is on the
improvement of black cotton soil and bulk utilization of fly ash. For the present study, black
cotton soil was collected from Davengere District of Karnataka State and two fly ashes
namely, Badarpur fly ash (from Badarpur thermal power station (UP), and Neyveli fly ash
(from Neyveli thermal power station Tamil Nadu) are used. These two fly ashes were chose
for this study as they represent the extreme cases based on calcium content among many
Indian fly ashes. Before attempting to bring out the volume change behavior, it is worthwhile
to study the basic properties, which does have an influence on their engineering behavior.
3.3 PROPERTIES AND METHOD OF TESTING OF SOILS
3.3. 1 Physical properties
3. 3.1.1 Specific gravity
Specific gravity is frequently needed in analyzing the soil for most of the geotechnical
purposes. Specific gravity was determined as per IS: 2720 (part 3)-1980 and ASTM D 854 –
58 using density bottle and water. A value of 2.71 was obtained for black cotton soil and 2.69
for red soil (collected from IISc campus).
71
3.3.1.2 Particle size distribution curve
The particle size distribution was determined as per IS: 2720 (part 4) -1980 and ASTM D 422
– 63 (1955). For particles of size more than 75 micron, sieve analysis was carried out and for
the particles of size finer than 75 micron, hydrometer analysis was carried out. Fig.3.1 shows
the particle size distribution curves for the materials used.
0.002 0.075 4.75
Clay size Silt size Sand size G

100
80 BCSOIL
RED SOIL
Percent finer (%)
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)
Fig. 3.1 Particle size distribution curves for BC Soil and Red Soil
As seen from Fig.3.1, most of the particles of soil are of clay size and the test results are
presented in Table 3.1
3.3.1.3 Index properties / Atterberg limits
Atterberg limits include liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit. The values of liquid
limit and plastic limit are very useful in the classification of soils.
• Liquid limit test
The liquid limit test for all the samples was carried out with the Casagrande device and the
cone penetration method as per IS: 2720 (part5)-1985 and IS: 2720 (part 2)-1973. Liquid
limit tests were carried out to secure a minimum of five points for plotting the flow curve.
The consistency of the specimens was adjusted so that the number of blows were between 10
and 40 in the Casagrande device, and the penetration was between 15 and 25 mm in the cone
72
penetration method. The entire test was repeated for each specimen and the average of the
three liquid limit values is reported in Table 3.1
• Plastic limit test
The plastic limit values for the various samples were determined using the standard method
as per IS: 2720 (part 2)-1973 and ASTM D424-59, 1971.The plastic limit values reported are
an average of the three determinations (Table 3.1).
• Shrinkage limit test
The value of shrinkage is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage properties of
cohesive soils. Soil samples as prepared for liquid limit test were taken in the shrinkage cup
without inclusion of air bubbles, weighed and kept for air dry until the colour of the soil pat
changed and then oven dried for 24 hours. Shrinkage limit is determined using the standard
method as per IS: 2720 (part 6)-1978. The shrinkage limit values reported are an average of
three determinations. The test results are presented in Table 3.1
3.3.1.4 Free swell index test
The free swell method forms a very simple test of identifying expansive soils (Sridharan et al
1986). The presence of swelling clay in a soil introduces complications in a wide variety of
engineering problems. The free swell test was Conducted according to the procedure as per
IS 2720 (part 40) -1977. Two 10 grams specimens of an oven dry soil sample passing through
425 – micron IS Sieve werw taken. Each soil specimen is poured in each of the two
graduated cylinders of100 ml capacity. One cylinder is then filled with kerosene and the other
with distilled water up to the 100-ml mark. After removal of entrapped air (by gentle shaking
or stirring with a glass rod), the soils in both the cylinders are allowed to settle. Sufficient
time (not less than 24 hours) is allowed for the soil sample to attain equilibrium state of
volume without any further change in the volume of the soils. The final sediment volume of
soil in each cylinder is read out. The level of the soil in kerosene is read as the original
volume of the soil sample, since kerosene being a non-polar solvent, is considered not to
cause any swelling of the soil. The level of the soil in water is read as its free swell level. The
percent free swell index is calculated as:
 V − Vk 
FSI =  d  * 100

(%)
 Vk 
73
Where, Vd = The volume of the soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder
containing distilled water, and
Vk = The volume of the soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder
containing kerosene oil.
The test results are presented in Table 3.1
TABLE 3.1 Properties of Soils
Sr. Soils
Property
No. BC Soil Red Soil
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Fine sand (%) 10 30
Silt (%) 27 30
1
Clay (%) 63 40
Percentage finer 75 micron (%) 94 70
2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Gm 2.71 2.69
ATTERBERG LIMITS
Liquid limit (%) 84 42

3
Plastic limit (%) 25.4 18.2
Shrinkage limit (%) 8.3 15.6
4 CLASSIFICATION SYMBOL CH CI
COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS
5 3
Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m ) 14.4 17.3
Optimum moisture content (%)
28.6 18.4
6 Free swell index (%) 65 11
7 Swelling pressure (kPa) 230 ----
74
3.3.2 Engineering Properties of Soils
The density of soils is an important parameter since it controls its strength, compressibility
and permeability. Compaction is the process of increasing the density of material by packing
the particles close together with reduction in volume of air.
The compaction tests were conducted using a specially fabricated apparatus (IISc mould),
th
which required only about 1/10 of soil needed for the standard proctor test. Also the time
and effort involved to carry out the compaction test were less. The apparatus consists of
mould of internal diameter 3.81cm and a height 10cm(and volume of 114 cm3). A removable
collar of 3.36cm in height and 3.81cm diameter was used. A hammer of 980 gm in weight
and a height of fall of 26cm were used. The number of blows required to achieve standard
proctor energy per layer is 48 and in 3 layers. The samples were compacted to form 3.33cm
layer in the mould.
The test results of the compaction test are presented in a plot of dry unit weight versus water
content as shown in Fig. 3.2. From the plot, maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture
content were determined as 14.4 kN/m3 and 28.55 % for BC Soil, and 17.3 kN/m3 and 18.35
% and Red Soil respectively.
20
19
18 BC SOIL
Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
RED SOIL
17 ZAV_BC: G= 2.71
ZAV_RED: G= 2.69
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Water content (%)
Fig. 3.2 Dry unit weight – water content relationships for soils
75
3. 3.2.2 Consolidation test
To estimate the settlement of structures placed on soils, one-dimensional consolidation tests

are required. The black cotton soil samples were prepared by compacting at 0.95 γdmax and
corresponding water content on dry side of optimum and tested in a fixed ring consolidometer
using brass rings of 60mm diameter and 20mm height as per IS : 2720 (part 15) - 1986. The
height of specimen after compaction is 15mm (using 5mm brass spacer). After equilibrium
was attained as indicated by nearly constant readings in a vertical dial, a pressure increment
ratio of 1 was used for subsequent load applications. Each pressure increment was maintained
normally for about 24 hours and readings were recorded before changing the next pressure
increment (up to 800 kPa). The test results are presented in the form of “e-logp curve” and
compression versus square root of time. The coefficient of consolidation Cv values are also
calculated by using rectangular hyperbola method (Sridharan et al, 1985).
The swelling of the specimens under nominal surcharge can be calculated by allowing the
specimen to swell under nominal load of 6.25 kpa freely to reach its maximum possible limit.
The value of free swell can be calculated by deducting the initial height of the specimen from
the swollen height. The test results are presented in detail in Chapter 5
The property of soil that permits percolation or seepage of water under a unit gradient is
known as permeability and the coefficient of permeability is defined as the velocity of flow
which will occur through the soil under a unit hydraulic gradient. In the present study, fixed
consolidation rings were used to measure the permeability of the soils by falling head method
as below:
aL h1
k = 2.303 * log10
At h2
Where, k = coefficient of permeability (m/sec)

2
a = cross sectional area of the burette (m )
2
A = cross sectional area of the soil sample (m )
t = time for the head drop from h1 to h2 in seconds
h1 = initial height of the fluid in the pipe (m)
h2 = final height of the fluid in the pipe (m)

L = sample height for corresponding load increment (m)
76
The values of coefficient of permeability are also calculated from the consolidation data
obtained in each case by using the relation:
k = Cv mv γw
where mv is coefficient of volume change and γw is unit weight of water. The test results are
discussed in detail in Chapter 5
3.3.2.4 Strength characteristics
For any engineering application of soil, its strength characteristics are essential. In some
special cases, as for checking the short-term stability of foundations and slopes where the rate
of loading is fast but drainage is very slow, one of the most common tests is the unconfined
compression test.
Unconfined compression strength test is the simplest and quickest test for determining the
shear strength of cohesive soils. The samples were prepared and compacted at 0.95γdmax and
corresponding water content on dry side of optimum and tested in an unconfined compression
testing machine. The test results are discussed in detail in Chapter 6
3.3.3 Chemical Properties of the Soils used
3.3.3.1 Chemical composition
For majority of black cotton soils, the composition of the soil shows considerable variation
with different depth horizons, especially in its clay content.
The chemical compositions of the soils used in the present study were analyzed by standard
methods and are presented in Table 3.2 It is seen that the black cotton soil is very rich in
silica (49.2 %) followed by alumina (24 % and iron (5.8 %.). The red soil is very rich in silica
(42 %) followed by alumina (40 %) and iron (6.4 %). The red soil has more alumina than
black cotton soil. Silica, alumina and iron have the capacity to adsorb metal ions (Weng et al,
1994) and Ca, Mg, Na and K impart alkalinity to the soil.
77
TABLE 3.2 Chemical analysis of Soils used
Sr. No. Description Soils
Chemical Composition BC Soil Red Soil
SiO2 49.2 42
AlO3 24 40
TiO2 0.7 0.4
Fe2O3 5.8 6.4
1 MnO 0.2 bd
MgO 0.4 0.2
CaO 0.4 0.3
K2O 0.12 0.1
Na2O 0.1 0.2
LOI (900 oC) 18.1 10.00
Main clay mineral Montmorrill-onite. Kaolinite
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY 67 13

TOTAL (meq/100 gm)
Ca++ 40.22 5.74

2
Mg++ 24.09 5.62
K+ 0.91 0.43
Na+ 1.74 0.87
bd : below detection; LOI : loss on ignition
78
3.3.3.2 Cation exchange capacity
The cation exchange capacity is the quantity of exchangeable cations required to balance the
negative charge on the surface of the clay particles. Cation exchange capacity is expressed in
milliequivalent per 100 gm of dry clay. In the test procedure, excess salts in the soil are first
removed and the adsorbed cations are replaced by saturating the soil exchange sites with a
known species. Cation exchange capacity is related to clay mineralogy. High cation exchange
capacity values indicate a high surface activity. In general, swell potential increases as the
cation exchange capacity increases, a thicker diffused double layer and greater swelling are
associated with lower cation concentrations and/or the presence of cations with low valence
(Mitchell, 1976). Thus, for the same soil mineralogy, more swelling would occur in a sample
having exchangeable sodium cations than in a sample with calcium or magnesium cations.
The total cation exchange capacity of black cotton soil is about 67 meq/100 gm of dry clay
and that of red soil is about 13 meq/100 gm of dry clay. The test results are presented in
Table 3.2.
3.4 PROPERTIES OF FLY ASHES
Two fly ashes, Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash were used in the present study. The
physical and engineering properties of the fly ashes are necessary for a proper evaluation of
its suitability for use as a geotechnical material
3.4.1 Physical Properties of Fly Ashes
The physical properties of the fly ashes, viz. the specific gravity, grain size distribution and
Atterberg limits are of prime importance.
3.4.1.1 Specific gravity
Specific gravity of the fly ashes was determined as per ASTM D854-92 (1995) and IS:
2720(part 3)-1985 using density bottle and water and kerosene. As per the code practice, de-
airing can be done either by using a vacuum pump or by heating using a water bath or sand
bath. The application of a vacuum resulted in the removal of the fly ash particles of lower
specific gravity in addition to the entrapped air. Hence, de-airing was done by very slow
heating using sand bath and kerosene oil. Specific gravity of Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly
ash as obtained were 2.18 and 2.64 respectively.
79
3.4.1.2 Particle size distribution
The particle size distribution was determined as per IS: 2720 (part 5)-1985, IS: 10077-1982
and ASTM D422-63 (1955). Grain size analysis was done by wet sieving of 100 gm (minus
425 micron IS Sieve) of fly ash using 75 micron IS Sieve. The portion retained on 75 micron
Sieve was dried and sieved using sieves of 300 micron, 212 micron and 150 micron sizes.
The material passing through 75 micron was collected carefully and air-dried and the grain
size distribution analysis was performed by hydrometer analysis. Fly ash being an inert
material, no dispersing agent was used. The grain size distribution for both fly ashes is shown
in Fig. 3.3.
0.002 0.075 4.75
Clay size Silt size Sand size G

100
BADARPURFLY ASH
80 NEYVELI FLY ASH
Percent finer (%)
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)
Fig. 3.3 Particle size distribution curves for Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash
As seen from Fig. 3.3, most of the ash particles are of silt size. Relatively, Badarpur fly ash is
finer than Neyveli fly ash. The test results are presented in Table 3.3
3.4.1.3 Liquid limit
Since fly ashes are of silt size, liquid limit tests for all the samples were carried out with the
cone penetration method and one point method as per IS: 2720(part 5)-1985 and
IS: 10077-1982. The advantage claimed in favour of cone penetration method is, it is easy
and simple in operation coupled with good reproducibility. But in the case of fly ashes, there
is a tendency for the ash in the cup to liquefy at the surface. Furthermore, there is variation of
water content at different depths in the cup and hence the one point method is preferred
80
where full volume of the cup is taken for water content determination. The liquid limit values
of 50 % and 40 % were obtained for Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash respectively. But
these high values of liquid limits for Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash are due to fabric
characteristics (due to the flocculated structure of the fly ash) and not due to plasticity
characteristics.
Dayal et al (1989) used Casagrande method as per IS: 2720 (part 5)-1985 to determine liquid
limit of six ash samples. But it was noted that for none of the six ash sample pastes placed in
Casagrande cup, it was possible to cut clean and straight grooves even with ASTM tool
meant for low plasticity soil.
Since fly ashes are typically silt sized, non-plastic and freely draining materials, plastic limit
of fly ashes could not be determined. Li and Dutton (1991) commented that plastic limit tests
on fly ashes are often unsuccessful.
Shrinkage limit is important for stabilized fly ash used as liners. Cracking can lead to the
development of secondary permeability. Shrinkage cracking also plays an important role if
fly ash is used in rigid pavements. Since fly ashes are silt sized and non-plastic, shrinkage
cannot be determined. Very limited studies are available on the shrinkage behaviour of fly
ashes.
3.4.2 Engineering Properties of Fly Ashes
The tests carried out to determine the engineering properties of the fly ashes include
compaction characteristics, permeability characteristics, compressibility characteristics and
unconfined compression strength characteristics.
Faber and Digioia (1976) have reported that the shape of the compaction curve is generally
similar to that obtained for cohesive soils. The unit weight of ash is an important parameter
since it controls its strength, compressibility and permeability. The degree of compaction of
fly ash is measured in terms of dry unit weight.
A specially fabricated mould was used for the determination of dry unit weight (sec.3.3.2.1
for details). However, the choice of compaction method depends on the type of material to be
densified. Coal-ash is non-plastic and uniformly graded indicating the need for vibratory
densification, but the finesse of the particles also suggests that high pressure might be
81
necessary. Thus, fly ash compaction behaviour might be expected to be a hybrid experience
with fine and coarse-grained soils. The compaction tests were carried out to secure a
minimum of six points for plotting the compaction curve. The test results are plotted in the
form of a curve depicting the dry unit weight -water content relationship (Fig. 3.4), and are
also presented in Table 3.3. The maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content for
Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash are 10.55 kN/m3, 38 % and 12.6 kN/m3, 33%
respectively. The variation of dry unit weight with moisture content for fly ashes is lesser
compared to the variation of a well-graded soil, both having same medium grain size
(Moulton, 1978). The fly ashes possess a higher void content (5 – 15 %) at maximum dry unit
weight, which tend to limit the build-up of pore-pressure during compaction, thus allowing
the fly ash to be compacted over a large range of water contents.
Gray and Lin (1972) have reported the engineering properties of compacted fly ash and
summarized that properly compacted and stabilized fly ash has the requisite properties for use
in load bearing fills or highway sub-bases.
Digioia and Brendel (1981) reported that the vibratory compaction would be very effective
since the coal ash compaction is not sensitive to water content.
20
BFA
18 NFA
ZAV::NFA-G =2.64
ZAV::BFA-G =2.18
16
14
12
10
8
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Water content (%)
Fig. 3.4 Dry unit weight – water content relationships for fly ashes
82
22
BC Soil, BFA, NFA,
Nor. dry unit weight (kN/m3) Red Soil, ZAV-BC Soil: G= 2.71
20
ZAV-BFA: G= 2.18
18 ZAV-NFA: G= 2.64
ZAV-Red Soil: G= 2.69
16
14
12
10
8
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Water content (%)
Fig. 3.5 Dry unit weight – water content relationships for fly ashes and soils
The consolidometer permeameter system (fixed ring) offers the best means for quantitatively
assessing the coefficient of permeability of clays/ashes under confined state. The samples are
prepared as per IS: 2720 (part 1) and compacted at 0.95 γdmax and corresponding water
content on dry side of optimum. After placing the oedometer cell in position, the samples are
soaked with water under a surcharge of 6.25 kpa. Water is allowed to flow upwards through
the samples from the bottom. Sufficient time was allowed till the air bubbles are removed
from the samples. The time periods required for full saturation of samples was well within 24
hours. After saturation and change of next increment of pressure, the permeability test was
conducted by falling head method. The coefficient of permeability is calculated equation as
given in section 3.3.2.3
-7
As seen from literature, permeability of most of the fly ashes is in the order of 10 m/sec.
The permeability of fly ashes is considerably high and dissipation of the pore pressure will be
quicker. Any small variation in permeability of fly ash is not likely to adversely affect its use
for most of the geotechnical applications.
83
The coefficient of permeability of ash depends upon grain size, degree of compaction and
pozzolanic activity (Pandian and Balasubramania, 1999). The range of coefficient of
-6 -8
permeability values for Indian fly ashes varies from 10 to 10 m/sec (Rajasekar, 1995).
Detailed study of permeability of soil-fly ash mixes is presented in Chapter 5.
3.4.2.3 Consolidation and compressibility characteristics
One-dimensional consolidation tests were conducted on compacted samples as per IS 2720

(part 15) -1986. In this study, fly ash samples (Badarpur and Neyveli) were compacted at
their 0.95 γdmax and corresponding water content on the dry side of optimum and tested in
fixed ring consolidometers using brass rings of 60mm diameter and a height of 20mm. The
inner surface of the rings was lubricated with silicon grease to minimize the side friction
between rings and the specimens. Filter papers were used to avoid particles clogging the
pores of the porous stone. Entire assembly is mounted in the consolidation cell and positioned
with a loading frame. After equilibrium has attained, a pressure increment ratio of 1 is
adopted and each pressure is maintained for 24 hours. At each pressure increment, time –
deformation curves are obtained. A detailed investigation of compressibility of soil, fly ash
and soil-fly ash mixes is presented in Chapter 5.
3.4.2.4 Unconfined compression strength
Raymond (1961) reported that effective stress induced by capillary action is largely
responsible for immediate un-soaked unconfined compressive strength of fly ashes.
It was noted by Leonards and Bailey (1982) that the unconfined compression strength values
for fine ash are higher than those determined for the coarse ash specimens. This is due to the
difference in capillary tension between the coarse and fine samples.
Digioia and Nuzzo (1972) and Faber and Digioia (1976) indicated that age hardening could
be best correlated with the amount of free lime present in the fly ash.
Singh (1996) studied the unconfined compression strength of fly ashes as a function of free
lime present in them. It was found that fly ashes having higher free lime content show higher
strength.
In the present study, fly ash samples were prepared and compacted at their 0.95 γdmax and
corresponding water content on the dry side of optimum and tested in a unconfined
84
compression testing machine. It has been seen that as curing period increases, unconfined
compression strength also increases. This is because of free lime and reactive silica present in
the fly ash. This is observed in case of Neyveli fly ash where the strength increases very fast
within 7 days of curing period. For Badarpur fly ash, no such influence is seen because of the
absence of free lime and reactive silica. To support this fact, 8.5 % of lime (Ca (OH) 2) (being
the calcium difference between Badarpur and Neyveli fly ash), was added to Badarpur fly ash
to make it at par with Neyveli fly ash from lime considerations and tested. But no such
change was observed and it indicates that Badarpur fly ash has no reactive silica. The test
results are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
3.4.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FLY ASHES USED
3.4.3.1 Chemical composition
Chemical composition of fly ashes depends mainly on the origin of coal, combustion
conditions, degree of pulverization and removal efficiency of pollution control devices.
Chemical composition of the fly ashes was determined by conventional methods after fusion
with carbonate and is reported in Table 3.4
The presence of carbon suppresses the reactivity. The amount of free lime present (Sherwood
and Ryley, 1966) directly influences the self-hardening property of fly ash on addition of
water. Finesse of fly ash is also expected to contribute to high reactivity. The American
classification of coal ash relates to the amount of CaO, which demonstrates self-hardening
properties. The ashes with low lime content are called class F fly ashes and those with high
lime content are called class C fly ashes.
Silica, alumina and iron have the capacity to adsorb metal ions (Weng et al, 1994), and Ca,
Mg, Na and K impart alkalinity to the fly ash. The constituents most likely to affect the index
and engineering properties of fly ashes are silica, free lime, iron and carbon.
85
TABLE 3.3 Properties of fly ashes
Sr. Fly ashes

Property
No. BFA NFA
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Fine sand fraction %) 10 10
Silt size fraction (%) 87 85
1 Clay size fraction (%) 3 5
Percentage finer 75 micron 93 89
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 6.7 1.07
Coefficient of curvature, Cc 1.5 0.8
2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Gm 2.18 2.64
ATTERBERG LIMITS
3 Liquid limit (%) 50 40
Plastic limit (%) NP NP
Shrinkage limit (%) 36 38
4 CLASSIFICATION SYMBOL
COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS
3
Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m ) 10.55 12.6
5 Optimum moisture content (%) 38 33
3 12.83 12.65
Normalized maximum unit weight (kN/m )
Normalized optimum moisture content (%) 31.3 32.9
N P: Non-plastic
86
TABLE 3.4 chemical analyses of fly ashes used
Sr. No Description Fly ashes
Chemical Composition BFA NFA
SiO2 57.5 36.5
AlO3 33 41
TiO2 1.4 1.4
Fe2O3 4.8 4.5
MnO bd <0.1
1 MgO 0.2 3.8
CaO 0.5 9.00
K2O 0.4 0.1
Na2O 0.2 0.4
LOI (900 oC) 1.5 3.5
Free lime (part of CaO) ---- 3.2
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY 71 3.23

TOTAL (meq/100 gm)
Ca++ 58.94 1.07

2
Mg++ 4.52 0.95
K+ 0.2 0.09
Na+ 7.39 1.12
bd : below detection; LOI : loss on ignition
87
3.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.5.1 Specific gravity
3.5.1.1 Fly ashes
For fly ashes specific gravity varies over a wide range unlike soils where specific gravity lies
in the vicinity of 2.65. Even for fly ash from same thermal power station, the specific gravity
varies significantly. This is because of factors such as changes in boiler load, firing
conditions, differential settlement in lagoons in lagoon ash, degree of pulverization of coal,
design of furnace etc.,
The reasons for a low specific gravity could also be either due to the presence of hollow
cenospheres from which the entrapped air cannot be removed or the variation in the chemical
composition (in particular, iron content), or both (Pandian et al, 1998). Even in the same fly
ash, specific gravity of coarser particles are lesser because of higher carbon content (Barber,
1970). Because of low specific gravity, it has low unit weight.
3.5.2 Particle size distribution
3.5.2.1 Soils
The results of grain size analysis are presented in Fig. 3.1. The position and the shape of a
curve indicates the type and gradation of the soil. As seen from the Fig. 3.1, grain size curve
for black cotton soils represents the soil particles ranging from fine sand to clay size fraction
(0.2mm --- 0.001mm). The percentage finer than 75 micron IS Sieve is 94 %, and the clay
size fraction passing 2 micron is 63%. It has an activity value of 0.93. Black cotton soil can
readily be compacted to a very dense condition, and will develop high shearing resistance and
bearing capacity. For red soil, the percentage finer than 75 micron IS Sieve is 70 %, and the
particle sizes of the range of fine sand 30 %, silt 30 % and clay is 40 %. The test result are
presented in Table 3.1
3.5.2.2 Fly ashes
Coal ashes are predominantly silt sized, non-plastic and freely draining materials (Pandian et
al, 1998). The test results for Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash are plotted in the form of
graph as shown in Fig.3.3. As seen from the fig., Neyveli fly ash is primarily composed of
particles of a single size (0.02mm). It contains insufficient fines to fill voids between the
88
larger particles and consequently will have an open, porous structure despite compaction. As
a result it will be more easily displaced under load and will have less supporting power. This
curve is termed as poorly graded or as a uniform material, since it is composed primarily of
uniform size.
On the other hand, Badarpur fly ash represents the ash particles ranging from fine sand to
clay size fraction. Badarpur fly ash is slightly finer than Neyveli fly ash and covers a wider
range of particles compared to Neyveli fly ash.
The coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature are in the range of 6.7, 1.07 and
1.5, 0.8 for Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash respectively. Hence, Badarpur fly ash can be
termed as well graded material compared to Neyveli fly ash. It can be seen that these two fly
ashes contain a low percentage of clay size (2 to 3 %). The majority of particles are silt-sized
(85 to 87 %).
3.5.3 Consistency limits
Consistency limits are extensively used in geoteccnical engineering and these include; liquid
limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. Almost all Indian fly ashes, as per ASTM C618-894a,
belong to class F. Fly ash is essentially non-plastic, hence plastic limit and shrinkage limit
cannot be determined.
3.5.3.1 Liquid limit
Extensive research work which has been carried out, has shown that the liquid limit of clays
is primarily controlled by:
(1). The shearing resistance at particle level, and

(2). The thickness of the diffused double layer.
Although the liquid limit of montmorrillonitic clays is also governed by shearing resistance
at the particle level, the contribution due to the diffuse double layer overrides and primarily
governs the liquid limit (Sridharan et al, 1986). The effects due to diffuse double layer arise
because of negative charge on the clay particles. The negatively charged particles bind with
cations to provide electrical neutrality. The thickness of the diffuse double layer varies
depending on the negative charge on the clay particles, type of exchangeable cations, nature
of pore fluid and the temperature. The primary clay mineral present in black cotton soil is
montmorrillonite and hence its behaviour is essentially controlled by the thickness of the
89
diffuse double layer. For kaolinite clay mineral, the shearing resistance at particle level
controls its behaviour.
On the other hand, the liquid limit of fly ashes is exhibited due to the flocculated structure of
the fly ashes and not due to the plasticity characteristics.
3.5.3.1.1 Effect of Fly ash on liquid limit
The factors controlling the liquid limit behaviour of fly ash are not well known. Among the
consistency limits., liquid limit is an important physical property for use in classification and
for correlations with engineering properties. Table 3.5 presents the consistency limits of black
cotton soil and various soil-fly ash mixes. It can be seen from this table that addition of fly
ash decreases the liquid limit of black cotton soil. The decrease is continuous with an increase
in the percentage of fly ash. The plastic limit first increases and then decreases which shows
that the behaviour changes from expansiveness to non- expansiveness in nature.
With the addition of fly ash, the following factors alter the liquid limit:
(1). The effect of free lime in fly ash will be as that of added lime.
(2). The effect of the coarser size fraction of fly ash, which acts as a dilutent and decreases
the liquid limit of black cotton soil.
A continuous decrease in liquid limit with an increasing percentage of fly ash shows that the
dilutent factor is dominant. Although the immediate effect of lime (present in fly ash) is also
to decrease the liquid limit, its effect is negligible because at low percentage of fly ash (10%)
the amount of free lime available is very less (Fig.3.5), and at higher percent fly ash, the
amount of soil itself is small.
For soil-fly ash mix the lime content is only the free lime content of the fly ash. In fly ash,
lime will be available in both the combined and free state. Lime in the combined state is not
available for the reaction. Only the lime in the free state will be available for the reaction and
this lime is termed as free lime. It is further seen that for the same percentage of fly ash (for
example, BC+BFA: 40+60, and BC+NFA: 40+60 mixes), Badarpur fly ash (BFA) decreases
the liquid limit of black cotton soil more than Neyveli fly ash does (Table 3.5). This is
because Neyveli fly ash with higher reactivity is more flocculative than Badarpur fly ash.
Curing has little influence except for the higher percentage of Neyveli fly ash where the
liquid limit increases.
90
TABLE 3.5 Index properties of soil-fly ash mixes
Soil-Fly ash mix Index Properties
BC SOIL BFA LL (%) PL (%) PI (%) SL (%)
100 0 84 25.4 58.6 8.3
80 20 72 33 39 47.5
60 40 63 31.6 31.4 46
40 60 53 32.5 20.5 30.85
20 80 52 NP** --- 36.9
0 100 50 NP --- ---
0 100+Ca* 46 NP --- 38
BC SOIL NFA LL (%) PL (%) PI (%) SL (%)
100 0 84 25.4 58.6 8.3
90 10 81 45 36 12.1
80 20 76 49 27 38.2
60 40 66 54 12 54.6
40 60 56.5 45 11.5 52.36
20 80 53 NP ---- 43.92
0 100 40 NP ---- ---
*: 8.5 % of lime was added to Badarpur fly ash to make it at par with Neyveli fly ash in
terms of lime content.
**: NP-Non-plastic
91
Addition of lime to black cotton soil-fly ash mixture decreases the liquid immediately.
Immediately upon addition of lime, the diffuse double layer thickness decreases causing a
decrease in the liquid limit. The liquid limit of black cotton soil-fly ash mixes however
increases with curing. This is due to flocculation. The variation of liquid limit, dry density
and water content with percent fly ash is shown in Fig. 3.6, and Fig. 3.7. The variation of
compression index {=0.007(LL – 10)}, and void ratio with percent fly ash is shown in Fig.
3.8 and variation of compression index with liquid limit is shown in Fig. 3.9
90
LL v/s Fly Ash

80 LL :: BCNFA
LL : :BCBFA
Liquid limit (%)
70
60
50
Badarpur fly ash + CaO (8.5%)
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fly ash content (%)
Fig. 3.6 Variation of liquid limit with percent fly ash
92
15 40
Optimum moisture content (%)

14
Badarpur fly ash

+
35
CaO (8.5%)
13
12
Badarpur fly ash 30
Neyveli fly ash
11
Badarpur fly ash
Neyveli fly ash
10 25
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Fly ash content (%) Fly ash content (%)
Fig. 3.7 Variation of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content with
percent Fly ash.
1.2 0.55
0.50 Cc v/s LL
Comp. Index (C c), Void ratio (e)
1.0 Cc :: BCNFA
0.45 Cc :: BCBFA
Compression index (C c)
0.8
e, Cc v/s Fly ash 0.40
e :: BCNFA
0.6 Cc :: BCNFA 0.35
e :: BCBFA
Cc :: BCBFA 0.30
0.4
0.25
0.2
0.20
0.0 0.15
0 20 40 60 80 100 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fly ash content (%) Liquid limit (%)
Fig. 3.8 Variation of Compression index, Fig.3.9 Variation of compression index

void ratio with percent Fly ash with liquid limit
93
3.5.3.1.2 Effect of fly ash on plastic limit
The physical mechanisms controlling the plastic limits of the soils are:
(1). Amount of coarser fraction
(2). Thickness of diffuse double layer
(3). Fabric of clays
Addition of coarser fraction, reduction in the diffuse double layer thickness and flocculation
of particles increase the shearing resistance at particle level and cause an increase in the
plastic limit. The effect of cementitious compounds is negligible because after remolding the
sample the percent of the strength contributed by them is very small. As can be seen from
Fig. 3.10, addition of fly ash increases, the plastic limit of black cotton soil increases with
increasing addition of fly ash.
70
60
PL, P I :: FA
50 PL : NFA
PL (%), PI (%)
PI : NFA
40 PL : BFA
PI : BFA
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fly ash content (%)
Fig. 3.10 Variation of plastic limit and plasticity index with percent Fly ash
The increase in plastic limit on addition of fly ash is due to:
(1). Lime content imparted to the soil from fly ash which causes reduction in the diffuse
double layer thickness and flocculation of the clay particles, and
(2). Increase in the amount of finer soil particles with coarser fly ash particles.
94
For the same percent of the fly ash, the increase in plastic limit is marginally greater with
Neyveli fly ash than with Badarpur fly ash (for example, mix: (40 + 60), the values are 56.5
% and 53 % for NFA and BFA respectively). This is because, Neyveli fly ash is a little
coarser than Badarpur fly ash, and it also indicates that the effect of lime is not very much
compared to the dilution effect of ash (due to coarser fraction).
Furthermore, the increase in plastic limit is sharp for the lower percentage of Neyveli fly ash
addition (10 % addition of NFA increases PL from 25.4 to 45 %) and more gradual for the
higher percentage. At a higher percentage of Neyveli fly ash addition, although the lime
content increase, the percentage of soil available for the lime effect is negligible, and hence it
shows a marginal decrease. For any percentage of fly ash, the effect of curing is negligible.
3.5.3.1.3 Plasticity index
Since plasticity index is a parameter derived from liquid limit and plastic limit (PI=LL – PL),
no separate mechanism has been proposed for the plasticity index variation of soil-fly ash
mix. Generally, the decrease in plasticity index indicates an improvement in the workability
of the soils. The effect of addition of fly ash and / or lime on the plasticity index of black
cotton soils is shown in Fig. 3.10. From Fig. 3.10, it indicates that addition of fly ash
continuously decreases the plasticity index of black cotton soil. Compared to Badarpur fly
ash, Neyveli fly ash is more effective in reducing the plasticity index of black cotton soil due
to its higher free lime content. Curing increases the plasticity index slightly and is reflected
only at higher lime contents.
95
3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained in this study, the following, it is summarized and concluded as
under:
1. Because of the lower values of specific gravity, coal ash can find wide applications in
geotechnical engineering practice. Hence its accurate determination is important. Specific
gravity decreases with increase in the size of the ash particles. Determination of specific
gravity using kerosene as a medium is suggested as a well suited method since de-airing
becomes a very simple. The lower value of specific gravity favours its use as a backfill
material for retaining walls, etc,.
2. Fly ashes consist predominantly of silt sized fraction with some clay size fraction. The
grain size distribution curve shows that Neyveli fly ash is a poorly graded with its
coefficient of uniformity, Cu = 1.5 and coefficient of curvature, Cc = 0.8. From grain size
distribution results, the coal ashes can be classified as sandy silt to silty sand. The
hydrometer analysis for the fractions of coal ash passing 75 micron IS Sieve can be
carried out without using the dispersing agent.
3. For coal ashes free swell index test is not much important since the fine material of clay
size fraction is very much less. The higher sediment volume in kerosene, CCL4 and
benzene than water is due to flocculation.
4. The index properties of black cotton soil are significantly altered by the addition of fly
ash. The extent of variation depends on the particle size distribution, free lime content and
pozzolanic reactivity of the fly ash. The effect of lime on the properties of a soil is to a
major extent by cation exchange and flocculation. The pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash
influences soil properties by formation of gelatinous pozzolanic reaction compounds, and
the effect of fly ash is dependent upon the lime content.
5. Coarser and inert fly ash particles reduce the clay activity leading to consequent changes
in soil properties.
6. Liquid limit is the important parameter from point view of compressibility. Since coal
ashes are non-plastic in nature, one-point method has been suggested for determination of
liquid limit. Ashes are essentially non-plastic, hence plastic limits and shrinkage limits
cannot be determined. While flocculation and formation of pozzolanic reaction
96
compounds increase the liquid limit of the soil, reduction in the diffuse double layer
thickness reduces the liquid limit. The effect of the coarseness of the fly ash particles is to
decrease the liquid limit. Decrease in liquid limits and increase in shrinkage limits clearly
indicates that after addition of fly ash to the black cotton soil, it tends to become non-
expansive in nature.
7. Decrease in plasticity index also indicates the reduction in plasticity of expansive soil on
addition of fly ash. Whatever be the effect of fly ash on the liquid and plastic limit of the
soil, generally it decreases the plasticity index of the soil as seen from Fig.3.10
8. For any geotechnical application, classification is the important. The lower group index
value favours its use as sub-base material. Fly ash is classified as ML by unified
classification system and ML to MI as per IS classification system. From the pozzolanic
point of view, the Indian coal ashes fall in the category of class F (except Neyveli fly ash,
which is class C).
9. Qualitatively, the effect of grain size distribution, lime content and pozzolanic reactivity
on free swell volume is similar to that of liquid limit. Pozzolanic reaction compounds
however have a considerably larger influence on the free swell volume than on the liquid
limit. The free swell volume, which takes place after addition of lime and / or fly ash
cannot be taken as a measure of swelling potential.
10. Comparison of liquid limit of various ashes can be made only after their normalization.
11.In view of the good physical properties, they can be used beneficially in most of the
geotechnical applications.
********************************
97
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
For stabilization of soil with fly ash in most of the occasions, soil needs to be mixed and
compacted with fly ash. Hence it is essential to understand the compaction behavior of soils
with fly ash. In fact, most of the methods of determining the requirement of additives such as
lime, cement and fly ash depend on strength test carried out on soil additive mixture
compacted at their respective maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. In
many geotechnical engineering applications, fly ash along with lime has been used for the
stabilization of soils. This chapter brings out the compaction behavior of different fly ashes
added to black cotton soil. Understanding the mechanisms responsible for changes in
compaction behavior by addition of fly ash and/or lime helps to select proper type and
amount of fly ash to be added for any given soil type. Before studying the effect of fly ashes
and/or lime on compaction behavior of soils, it is necessary to understand the compaction
behavior of soils and fly ashes alone. Hence compaction behavior of black cotton soil and
two fly ashes has been studied and reported in this chapter.
4.2 COMPACTION BEHAVIOUR OF BLACK COTTON SOILS
In soil engineering, compaction is any process by which the soil particles are artificially re-
arranged and packed together into a closer state of contact by mechanical means in order to
decrease the porosity of the soil and thus increase the dry density of the soil, or unit weight of
the solid particles. The compaction process is accompanied by the expulsion of only air.
The compaction process may be accomplished by rolling, tamping, or vibration. In practice,

soils of medium cohesion are compacted by means of various kinds of rollers; for example,
by smooth and sheeps foot rollers, or by pneumatic tires, Non-cohesive soils are most
effectively compacted by vibration. Compaction:
1. increases the unit weight of the soil, thus increasing its shear strength and bearing
capacity,
2. decreases the tendency of the soil to settle under repeated loads, and
98
3. brings about a low permeability of the soil.
The degree of compaction of a soil is characterized by its dry unit weight and it depends
upon:
1. Water content, 2. Amount of compactive effort, 3. The nature of the soil, and 4. The
method of compaction.
A change in either moisture content or compactive effort brings about a change in unit
weight. Temperature affects the surface tension of water, viscosity, and density of water and
the amount of manipulation likewise influences density of soil. To determine the soil
moisture- unit weight relationship of a soil intended for making a fill, and to check and
compute the achieved moisture unit weight relationship in a rolled fill of the same soil as
tested before in the laboratory, two types of tests are needed:
1. A standard compaction laboratory test, and
2. A field density test.
The ratio of the field unit weight to the standard laboratory unit weight of a soil is termed the
relative compaction. In practice, a relative compaction between 90 % and 97 % is often
specified. Hence the most demanding parameters are:
1. Optimum moisture content (OMC),
2. Maximum dry unit weight/ (MDD), and
3. Degree of compaction or relative compaction.
4.2.1 Structure and engineering behaviour of compacted cohesive soils
An increase in density would produce a soil, which is more strong, less compressible and less
permeable, is intuitively visualized. Where the compaction does not lead to significantly
different structures in a soil, this logic is true to a large extent. But when structural changes
become important, the logic fails. In such soils, therefore, the effect of compaction on
structure and consequently on the engineering behavior has to be properly understood.
4.2.1.1 Structure
Fig 4.1(a) illustrates the effect of compaction on soil structure. For a given compactive
effort, the soil tends to have a flocculated structure on the dry side of optimum, whereas on
wet side of optimum, the structure tends to be more dispersed. The soil structure at point À`
is more flocculated than at point `C` though dry density is same in both cases. For a given
99
molding water content, if the compactive effort (CE) is increased, the soil tends to become
more oriented (dispersed), especially on the dry side of optimum. Similarly; the soil structure
at pointÈ` is more oriented than at point À`. For wet side of optimum, the fabric at point
`D` is more oriented than at point `C`, but the effect is much less significant than at dry side
of optimum. Among the different methods of compaction, the kneading compaction (such as
the one induced by sheepsfoot rollers) produces a more oriented structure as compared to
either static or impact type compaction. Thus, summarizing---- soil fabric becomes more
dispersed as the compaction water content is increased, as the “CE” is increased and as one
uses a method of compaction that induces more shearing strains in the soil such as the
kneading compaction.
4.2.1.2 Permeability
For a given compactive effort (CE), the permeability decreases sharply with increase in water
content on the dry side of optimum. The minimum permeability occurs at or slightly above
optimum moisture content. Beyond optimum moisture content, the permeability may show a
slight increase, but it always remains much smaller than on the dry side of optimum. The
sharp decrease in permeability on the dry side of optimum is on account of the improved
orientation of particles, which results in a decrease in the size of voids. The slight increase in
permeability on the wet side of optimum is due to the effect of a decrease in the dry unit
weight, which is more pronounced than the effect of improved orientation
4.2.1.3 Compressibility
Fig 4.1(b) shows the effect of compaction on the compressibility of a cohesive soil. At
relatively low stress level, a soil compacted wet side of optimum is more compressible than
the flocculated soil on the dry side of optimum, because the strong interparticle bonds in a
flocculated structure do not allow the particles to be displaced. At high stress levels, the
opposite is true because once the bonds are broken; the flocculated structure with its lager
void volume can undergo a larger volume decrease.
4.2.1.4 Swelling
A soil on the dry side of optimum at pointÀ` in Fig. 4.1(a) has a higher water deficiency
and a more random particle arrangement. It can, therefore, imbibe more water than a soil on
the wet side of optimum at point`C`, and in the process, swells more.
100
4.2.1.5 Shrinkage
Soils compacted on the wet side of optimum tend to exhibit more shrinkage upon drying
than those compacted dry side of optimum. The more orderly, nearly parallel orientation of
particles (points C and D in Fig. 4.1(a)) allows the particles to pack more efficiently as
compared to the randomly oriented particles on the dry side of optimum.
4.2.1.6 Stress-strain Relationship
Soils compacted on the dry side of optimum, with their strong interparticle bonds, resist
deformation upon application of deviator stress, the stress-strain curve rises steeply to a peak
and then falls off as the interparticle bonds are broken (Fig. 4.1(c)). Soils compacted wet side
of optimum have a flatter stress-strain curve without any peak. At higher strains, both kinds of
samples will have similar particle arrangement and have about the same strength.
101
High compactive effort
Compacted unit weight

E
B
D
A C
Low compactive
effort
Molding water content

Fig. 4.1 (a). Effect of compaction on structure (after Lambe, 19958)
Dry compacted or
Dry compacted or undisturbed sample
undisturbed sample
Void ratio
Void ratio
Wet compacted or
Remolded sample
Wet compacted or
remolded sample
Remolded for both sample
Stress - natural scale Stress – log scale

(i). Low stress consolidation (ii). High stress consolidation
Fig. 4.1 (b). Effect of compaction on compressibility (after Lambe, 1958)
600
Deviator stress (kN/m2)
500 Dry compacted

400
300 Wet compacted
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Axial strain (%)
Fig. 4.1(c). Effect of compaction on stress-strain behavior of cohesive soils
102
4.2.1.7 Construction pore water pressure
During the compaction of a man-made fill in layers, the soil below will be subjected to
normal and shear stresses. These induce pore water pressures. Soil compacted wet side of
optimum will have higher pore water pressure compared to soils compacted dry side of
optimum which have initially a negative pore pressure.
4.3 COMPACTION BEHAVIOR OF FLY ASHES
Coal is the chief source of energy in India and it will continue to do so in near future. The
present generation of fly ash of all the thermal power plants in the country is about 100
million tones per annum. These coal-based thermal power plants all over the world face a
serious problem of handling and disposal of ash. There are numerous possible usages in
which coal ash, a by-product of thermal power generation, can be utilized. However, it has
been seen that potential for utilization of ash currently remains very small in relation to the
quantum of ash generated, in most of the applications especially those which seek to utilize
ash for manufacture of building products. The percentage utilization of fly ash in various
constructions is rather limited in India compared to other countries.
Fly ash has many uses in civil engineering projects and bulk utilization of coal ash can be
accomplished only in geotechnical engineering applications such as the construction of
embankments, as a fill material, or as a sub-base material for stabilization of soils etc., In
almost all these applications fly ashes are invariably compacted. The engineering properties
of fly ash i.e., strength, compressibility and permeability are modified by compaction.
Furthermore, many fly ashes are self-pozzolanic. The development of the pozzolanic strength
of fly ash is greatly enhanced by compaction. This is because when the particles are closely
packed, cementation is more effective. Thus, compaction behavior of fly ashes assumes great
importance in all these applications.
The density of coal ashes is an important parameter since it controls the strength,
compressibility and permeability. Raymond (1961) commented that fly ashes show low dry
densities unlike soils. This being due to their low specific gravity (due to large cenospheres)
and particle structure. Gray and lin (1972) have reported that the specific gravity depends on a
variety of factors, such as gradation, particle shape, chemical composition etc.
Digioia and Nuzzo (1972) carried out a modified proctor compaction test as per ASTM D
1557-70 on seven fly ashes and found that the shape of the compaction curves is generally
103
similar to those obtained for cohesive soils, and the compaction parameters of these samples
have no relationship with their specific gravity due to the fact that the fly ash with the highest
maximum dry unit weight had the lowest specific gravity. Faber and Digioia (1976) have
reported that the shape of the compaction curve of fly ashes is generally similar to that
obtained for cohesive soils.
Toth et al (1988) have reported that fly ash has less sensitivity to variation in dry unit weight
with moisture content compared with natural soils. The tendency for fly ashes to be less
sensitive to variation in moisture content than natural soils could possibly be explained by the
higher air void content of fly ash. Natural soils have between 1 and 5 % air voids at maximum
dry unit weight whereas fly ash contains 5----15 % air voids at maximum dry unit weight
(Moulton, 1978). The higher void content could tend to limit the build-up of pore pressures
during compaction, thus allowing the fly ash to be compacted over a larger range of water
contents.
Yudbhir and Honjo (1991) based on several sources of data concluded that:
• High-calcium lignite fly ashes, with specific gravity of 2.6 and practically no carbon give
3
maximum dry unit weight value of 17 – 18.5 kN/m with an optimum water content
(OMC) range of 12 --- 15 %
• ow-calcium fly ashes with a higher carbon content give maximum dry unit weight
3
values as low as 9.3 kN/m and OMC of about 45 % for a specific gravity of 1.9
• A large no. of fly ashes have maximum dry unit weight values varying between 10.3 and
3
16 KN/m with specific gravity varying between 2 and 2.4
De Santayana and Mazo (1994) studied the standard compaction curves of six different fly
ashes and concluded that:
• Fly ashes have a peak in the compaction curve like soils

• Fly ashes show low dry unit weight values compared with soils due to low specific gravity
• Dry density of fly ashes is less sensitive to water contents i.e., relatively flatter
compaction curves.
• The maximum dry unit weight and OMC of different fly ashes lie within a wide range.
Singh (1996), based on several data sources, concluded that the shape of the compaction
curve of fly ash is generally similar to that obtained for cohesive soils and argued that in
104
general, maximum dry unit weight decreases and OMC increases as the specific gravity of fly
ashes decreases.
Digioia and Brendel (1998) reported that vibratory compaction will be very effective since the
coal ash compaction does not depend on water content. Furthermore, fly ash being a silty non-
cohesive material, can be compacted effectively with rubber tired rollers during compaction
Sridharan et al (2000) have studied the standard proctor compaction characteristics of thirteen
fly ashes obtained from different thermal power plants in India as per IS: 2720(part-7)-1980
and ASTM (1995) and reported that the compaction curves resemble those of cohesionless
sands or sandy gravel which supports the fact that fly ashes can be classified as silty sand or
sandy silt in nature. They further reported that compaction curves have four distinct points of
dry density and corresponding water content in the following order:
• Dry unit weight (at air dried condition----minimum)
• Minimum dry unit weight (due to capillary forces)
• Maximum dry unit weight (at OMC)
• Unit weight / Dry density (close to saturation)
They further reported that for coal ashes, the change in water content does not have an
appreciable effect on dry unit weight values. Also, high dry unit weight obtained in the air–
dried state can not be recommended for construction purposes because handling of coal ash in
the air-dried state can cause enormous dust pollution. The compaction curves are flatter in
nature compared to those of soils, which are sensitive to variation in water content.
4.3.1 Normalized dry unit weight -water content plots
To appreciate the real order of degree of compaction and corresponding water contents of
different ashes and comparing the same with soils, the compaction curves are plotted in terms
of normalized plots. Hence the conventional unit weight -water content is modified in terms
of normalized dry density (γdn) and normalized water content (wn), which accounts for the
large variation in specific gravities of coal ashes.
Normalized dry unit weight (kN/m3); γdn = γd {Gstd / Gm} ----------------------- (1)
Normalized water content; wn = w { Gm / Gstd }---------------------- (2)
Where, γd = Dry unit weight of given material (kN/m3)
w = Water content corresponding to dry unit weight of a given material
105
Gm = Specific gravity of a given material
Gstd = The standard value of specific gravity with respect to which the plots are
normalized.
A specific gravity of 2.65 has been adopted as the standard specific gravity in this
investigation since it represents that for most of the soils. Figs. 4.2(a) to 4(c) shows the
conventional and normalized plots for some Indian coal ashes. It is seen that the values of
normalized unit weights for fly ashes increase whereas the values of normalized water content
decrease compared to their actual dry unit weights and water contents. An empirical equation
for fly ashes proposed by Sridharan and Pandian (2000) with regression coefficient(r) under
normalized condition is given as:
γdn = 22.58 – 0.040 wn + 0.03*e wn

-2 2
--- & r = 0.96 for fly ashes--------(3)
γdn = 24.27 – 0.051 wn + 0.04*e-2 wn2 ---- & r = 0.97 for soils & fly ashes -----(4)
(Equations valid for normalized water content between 4 ---- 60 % only)
106
25
20
Normalized unit weight (kN/m3)
15
10
5
0 20 40 60 80
Normalized water content (%)
(b)
0
0.5
1
Void ratio (e)
1.5
2.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Volume water content, wG (%)
(a)
Fig. 4.2. Dry unit weight-water content relation for Indian coal ashes and soils
107
4.4 COMPACTION BEHAVIOR OF BLACK COTTON SOIL-FLY ASH MIXES
In India, a wide variety of soils are met with. Broadly these soils can be grouped as highly
plastic clayey soils--“BLACK COTTON SOILS”, silty soils (alluvial), sandy soils (desert
sand) and soil-gravel mixes (murrum) with low to highly plastic fines.
Studies carried out on some of these soils have shown that the strength characteristics of these
materials can be improved to a great extent when mixed with fly ash. Keeping in view, the
above-cited fact, two fly ashes were chosen for stabilizing black cotton soils in the present
investigation. The quantity of fly ash needed for optimum improvement depends on the nature
of soil. Based on the degree of improvement, the soil-fly ash mixes could be used for sub-
grade improvement in case of problematic soils and/or in the sub-base course layers of
pavements. In literature there are many studies on the compaction of soils and fly ashes alone
and studies on the behavior of soil-fly ash mixes in particular is limited. Hence in the present
investigation, an attempt has been made to study the compaction behavior of soil-fly ash
mixes without any additives with special reference to the stabilization of black cotton soils.
The behavior of these mixes will be presented in the subsequent sections.
4.4.1 Materials used
The materials used for the current study have been discussed in section 3.2(Chapter 3). The
physical properties are listed in Table 4.1.
TABLE 4.1 Physical properties of materials used
MATERIALS
MATERIAL PROPERTY
RED SOIL BC SOIL BFA NFA
Specific gravity 2.69 2.71 2.18 2.64

Liquid limit (%) 42 84 50 40
Plastic limit (%) 18 25.4 NP NP
Plasticity index (%) 24 58.6 ---- -----
Varies with Varies with
Shrinkage limit (%) 15.6 8.3 initial water initial water
content content
Free swell index (%) 11 65 ----- ----
108
The particle size distribution curves of these materials are shown in Fig. 3.1(Chapter 3). The
chemical composition of oven dried BC Soil and the two fly ashes were analyzed by standard
methods and are presented in Table 3.2(Chapter 3).
4.4.2 Experimental programme
Following combinations (Table 4.2) of black cotton soil and fly ash mixtures have been
prepared for conducting the compaction tests to study the compaction behavior of soil-fly ash
mixes in the stabilization of black cotton soils.
TABLE 4.2 Experimental Programme
SR. NO. BC SOIL + BADARPUR FLY ASH BC SOIL + NEYVELI FLY ASH
1 100 + 0 100 + 0
2 80 + 20 90 + 10
3 60 + 40 80 + 20
4 BC + BFA 40 + 60 BC + NFA 60 + 40
5 20 + 80 40 + 60
6 0 + 100 20 + 80
7 0 + 100+Ca(8.5%)* 0 + 100
*: 8.5 % of Lime (Ca (OH) 2) by weight was added to BFA to make it at par with NFA in terms of lime
content, (the lime content difference between the two fly ashes).
SR. NO. RED SOIL+BADARPUR FLY ASH RED SOIL + NEYVELI FLY ASH
1 100 + 0 100 + 0
2 80 + 20 80 + 20
3 RS + BFA 60 + 40 RS+ NFA 60 + 40
4 40 + 60 40 + 60
5 20 + 80 20 + 80
6 0 + 100 0 + 100
The Soil and fly ash samples were mixed in the dry state in the soil-fly ash weight ratios as
given in above tabular form.
109
4.4.3 Methods of testing
Compaction tests were carried out using a specially made apparatus consisting of a mould of
internal diameter of 3.81cm and height of 10cm. A removable collar of 3.3cm in height and
3.81cm diameter was used. A hammer of 980 gm in weight and a height of fall of 26cm were
used. The number of blows required to achieve standard proctor energy per layer is 48 and in
three layers. The samples were compacted to form 3.3cm layer in the mould with 48 blows
evenly distributed by a hammer using 26cm of free drop. The results of the compaction tests
are presented in a plot of dry unit weight versus water content. From the plot, maximum dry
unit weight and corresponding water content (OMC) are determined (Figs. 4.3 to 4.5).
4.4.4 Strength tests

Unconfined Compression Strength tests were required to support the proposed mechanism of
compaction behavior of soil-fly ash mixes. Soil-fly ash specimens were prepared by mixing
required quantity of dry soil–fly ash and water (0.95 γdmax and corresponding water content
dry side of optimum) and statically compacted in a ucc mould of height 7.62cm and diameter
3.81cm and tested under a constant strain rate of 0.625 mm/min. The load dial readings were
plotted against deformation and the point of failure was identified. The failure was noticed by
bulging phenomenon in the case of BC soil and as brittle failure for fly ashes. Figs. 6.1 and
6.2 show the stress-strain characteristics of black cotton soil, fly ashes and soil-fly ash mixes.
The test results are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
110
4.5.1 Compaction behaviour of black cotton soil
Figs. 4. 3 to 4.5 show the compaction curves of black cotton soil and red earth (red earth has
been collected from IISc campus, being an inert material compared to black cotton soil). The
dry unit weight increases with increase in water content upto the point of maximum dry unit
weight and further increase in water content beyond this point decreases the dry unit weight.
The water content corresponding to maximum dry unit weight is termed as optimum moisture
content (OMC).
20
19 BC Soil BFA
NFA Red Soil
18 ZAV:BC Soil -G = 2.71

17 ZAV:BFA -G = 2.18
16 ZAV:NFA -G = 2.64
ZAV:Red Soil -G = 2.69
15
14
ZAV LINES
13
12
11
10
9
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Water content (%)
Fig. 4.3 Dry unit weight – water content relationship for soils and fly ashes
17
BC SOIL + BFA
16 100 : 0
80 : 20
15 60 : 40
40 : 60
14 20 : 80
0 : 100
13 ZAV: BC-G=2.71
. ZAV:BFA-G=2.18
12
11
10
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Fig. 4.4(a). Normalized dry unit weight-water content relationships

for BC Soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes
111
17
BC SOIL + NFA
100 : 0
16
80 : 20
60 : 40
15 40 : 60
20 : 80
14 0 : 100
ZAV: BC-G=2.71
13 ZAV:NFA-G=2.64
12
11
10
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Fig. 4.4(b). Normalized dry unit weight -water content relationships

for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes
20
RED SOIL + BFA
Normalized unit weight (kN/m3 )
19 100 : 0 80 : 20
18 60 : 40 40 : 60
20 : 80 0 : 100
17 ZAV: RED-G = 2.69
ZAV: BFA-G = 2.18
16
15
14
13
12
11
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Normalized water content (% )
Fig. 4.5(a). Normalized dry unit weight -water content relationships

for Red soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes
112
20
RED SOIL + NFA

19 100 : 0 80 : 20
60 : 40 40 : 60
18
20 : 80 0 : 100
17 ZAV: RED-G = 2.69
ZAV: NFA-G = 2.64
16
15
14
13
12
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Fig. 4.5(b). Normalized dry density-water content relationships

for Red soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes
The maximum dry unit weight (maxm. dry density) and optimum moisture content for black
cotton soil are 14.4 kN/m3 (1.44 g/cc) and 28.55%, and for red earth soil 17.3 kN/m3 (1.73
g/cc) and 18.35%, with specific gravity values of 2.71 and 2.69 respectively.
For black cotton soils, thickness of diffuse double layer (DDL) increases with water content
(Lambe.1958). Due to increase in thickness of diffuse double layer, particles can mobilize
higher repulsive pressure and resist the compactive effort (CE) at lower unit weight compared
to red earth soil. With increase in water content, negative pore water pressure decreases and
tends to increase the unit weight and at the same time thickness of diffuse double layer also
increases and tends to decrease the unit weight. On the dry side of optimum, the increase in
dry density with water content shows that the effect of decrease in negative pore pressure is
more than the increased thickness of diffuse double layer. As such, particles come closer to
mobilize higher repulsive pressure to resist the compactive effort. However, at higher water
content, compactive effort is resisted by positive pore water pressure mobilized. This positive
pore water pressure prevents the particles to come closer. The repulsive force further aids this
process. As such there is a continuous decrease in unit weight. As seen from Fig 4.3,
maximum unit weight of black cotton soil is less than unit weight of red soil.
113
For red soils, the contribution from repulsive pressure is negligible and it is the shear
resistance at their particle level, which controls their engineering behavior. Red soil has
shown higher density and lower water content compared to black cotton soil. Particles of red
soil are much coarser than black cotton soil and as such the size of pores are also larger.
Hence the pore water pressure is considerably lower. This has resulted in the higher dry unit
weight and lower optimum moisture content for red soil.
4.5.2 Compaction behavior of black cotton soil-fly ash mixes
For stability of soil, various types of additives such fly ash, rice husk ash etc. are being used.
As per the experimental program, the compaction curves of black cotton soil with different
percentages of fly ash (NFA::10, 20, 40, 60, 80%) and (BFA::20, 40, 60, 80 %) have been
expressed in terms of dry unit weight -water content relationship to see the effect of additives
on the dry unit weight and water content of the soil(Figs. 4.3 to 4.5).
The maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content of Badarpur fly ash and
3 3
Neyveli fly ash alone are 10.5kN/m (1.05 g/cc), 38%, and 12.6 kN/ m (1.26 g/cc), 33%
respectively. Compared to soils, fly ashes exhibit lower unit weight and higher optimum
moisture content. The increase in optimum moisture content is due to the presence of hollow
cenospheres in fly ashes as well as increase in surface area of solids.
Decrease in dry density is because of the low specific gravity (due to large cenospheres,
Pandian et al. 1998) resulting in low unit weight.
Furthermore, it is observed that addition of fly ash to black cotton soil increases optimum
moisture content and decreases the dry unit weight of soil- fly mixes in the increasing order of
percentage of fly ash contents (for both BFA and NFA) as seen from Figs 4.6 and 4.7. Up to
40 % addition of BFA and 80 % NFA to black cotton soil, the compaction curves exhibit
sharp well-defined peaks at maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Beyond
this, the compaction curves become little flatter. This is because till this percentage of fly ash,
black cotton soil controls the compaction behavior. Table 4.3 presents the results of
compaction tests conducted on various black cotton soil-fly ash mixes.
114
15 40
Badarpur fly ash
Neyveli fly ash 38 Badarpur fly ash
Optimum moisture content- OMC (%)

Neyveli fly ash
14
36
BFA + 8.5% CaO

34
13
32
12
30
28
11
26
10 24
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 4.6 Variation of dry unit weight Fig. 4.7 Variation of moisture content
with Fly ashes with Fly ashes
The compaction curves of fly ashes are flatter which indicate that it is not sensitive to water
content. To achieve the required compaction, precise control of water content may not be
required during compaction. This aspect is useful since fly ash can be compacted over a large
range of water content without appreciable change in its dry density. It is further observed that
the curves for soil-fly ash mixes when normalized, come closer and closer and no changes
occur in the shape of the curves compared to the volume based plots. Thus normalization of
dry unit weight and water content not only helps in eliminating the effects of specific gravity
of the material but also changes the shapes to resemble the conventional compaction plots for
soils without sacrificing any of the advantages of the volume-based plots.
It is further observed that, though BFA and NFA have almost the same particle size
distribution curves, NFA has a higher maximum dry unit weight and lower water content.
This is due to the difference in surface characteristics of the two fly ashes. The surface of
BFA is rougher than NFA, and due to this roughness, BFA develops shear resistance on the
dry side of optimum at a lower dry unit weight. On the wet side of optimum a considerable
amount of positive pore water pressure will build-up as the surface roughness restricts the
flow of water.
115
TABLE 4.3 (a) Compaction characteristics of soil-fly ash mixes
DRY UNIT WEIGHT & WATER CONTENT

PERCENTAGE SPECIFIC
MATERIAL (by weight) GRAVITY
CONVENTIONAL NORMALIZED
γdmax w γdnmax wn
BC SOIL BFA Gm 3 (%) 3 (%)
(kN/m ) (kN/m )
100 0 2.71 14.4 28.55 ****** *****
80 20 2.604 14.35 27.85 17.44 22.91
60 40 2.498 13.7 29 16.65 23.86
40 60 2.392 12.9 30.7 15.68 25.26
20 80 2.286 11.8 33.24 14.34 27.35
0 100 2.18 10.55 38.25 12.82 31.47
0 100+Ca (8.5%) 2.182 10.57 34.96 12.85 28.79
Gm
γdmax w γdmax wn
RED BFA 3 (%) 3 (%)
(kN/m ) (kN/m )
100 0 2.69 17.3 18.35 ****** ******
80 20 2.59 15.4 20.5 15.76 20.04
60 40 2.49 13.95 24.76 14.85 23.27
40 60 2.38 12.9 28.86 14.36 25.92
20 80 2.28 11.7 31 13.6 26.67
0 100 2.18 10.55 38.25 12.82 31.47
0 100+Ca (8.5%) 2.182 10.57 34.96 12.85 28.79
116
TABLE. 4.3 (b) Compaction characteristics of soil-fly ash mixes
PERCENTAGE SPECIFIC DRY UNIT WEIGHT & WATER CONTENT

MATERIAL (by weight) GRAVITY
CONVENTIONAL NORMALIZED
γdmax w γdmax wn
BC SOIL NFA Gm (kN/m )
3 (%) (kN/m )
3 (%)
100 0 2.71 14.4 28.55 ****** *****
90 10 2.703 13.93 30.13 13.983 30.02
80 20 2.696 14 28.2 14.053 28.09
60 40 2.682 13.5 30.7 13.55 30.58
40 60 2.668 13.35 32.55 13.4 32.43
20 80 2.654 13.2 30.6 13.25 30.48
0 100 2.64 12.6 33 12.65 32.88
RED NFA Gm
γdmax w γdmax wn
(kN/m )
3 (%) (kN/m )
3 (%)
100 0 2.69 17.3 18.35 ****** ******
80 20 2.68 16.00 19.6 16.18 19.38
60 40 2.67 15.2 22.65 15.31 22.48

40 60 2.66 14.2 25.56 14.25 25.46
20 80 2.65 13.2 25.67 13.2 25.67
0 100 2.64 12.6 33 12.65 32.88
4.5.3 Effect of fly ash on the compaction behavior of black cotton soil
The effect of addition of fly ash compaction is least for black cotton soil. Addition of coarse
fly ash reduces the repulsive pressure and pore water pressure, and improves the gradation.
These factors lead to increase in maximum dry unit weight. Thus, particles come closer to
mobilize the repulsive force and pore water pressure thereby leading to increase in maximum
dry unit weight. Due to the presence of fly ash some amount of compactive effort might have
been required to overcome the shear resistance. The percent of fly ash, at which maximum
dry unit weight is maximum, can be taken as the optimum percent of fly ash. On further
117
addition of fly ash, the skeleton is formed by fly ash and frictional characteristics control the
behavior. With increase in frictional resistance, the amount of soil filling the voids of the fly
ash particles decreases leading to decrease in maximum dry unit weight and increase in
optimum moisture content (OMC). The relative effects of addition of two fly ashes (BFA and
NFA) on maximum dry unit weight/ (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) of black
cotton soil are shown in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7
4.5.4 Mechanisms controlling compaction behavior
As seen from dry density – water content relationship plots, for all sample combinations, dry
unit weight initially increases with increase in water content, reaches a maximum value and
then decreases with further increase in water content.
The decrease or increase in dry unit weight is due to variation in the negative pore water
pressure or positive pore water pressure with change in water content. Effective negative pore
water pressure is the product of negative pore water pressure and the fraction of the unit area
through which the negative pore water pressure is transmitted between the particles
(Sridharan, 1968).
It is known that as the degree of saturation increases, the negative pore water pressure
decreases but the fraction of the unit area through which the negative pore water pressure is
transmitted between the particles increases (Sridharan, 1968; Rao and Rekhi, 1978; Fredlund
and Rahardjo, 1993). Thus, as the water content increases, the effective negative pore water
pressure initially increases, and reaches a maximum and then decreases until it becomes zero
(Sridharan. 1968). Bishop and Henkel (1962) have reported that for a partially saturated soil,
the positive pore water pressure developed increases with an increase in the water content.
Fly ash particles are of silt size (Sridharan et al, 1996), and most particles are spherical in
shape (Helmuth, 1987). Fly ash is a non-plastic material and the shearing resistance at the
particle level primarily controls its engineering behavior.
At lower water content, the decrease in dry unit weight with an increase in water content is
due to the increase in shear resistance, which is a result of an increase in the negative pore
water pressure.
118
1. Addition of fly ash to black cotton soil increases the optimum moisture content and
decreases maximum dry unit weight. Increase in optimum moisture content is due to the
presence of hollow cenospheres in fly ash as well as the fabric. Decrease in maximum dry
unit weight is due to low specific gravity of fly ash resulting in low unit weight.
2. The compaction curves are flatter in nature compared to soils, which are sensitive to
variation in water content. Hence, it is easy for field compaction
3. The presentation of compaction in terms of normalized parameters is suggested with out

sacrificing the advantages of the volume-based representation. Practicing engineers would
prefer this presentation.
4. Finer fly ashes give a lower dry unit weight, higher range of water content and higher
optimum moisture content for the same compactive effort as they have larger surface area.
Similarly, rough-surfaced fly ashes give a lower dry unit weight and wider compaction
curves for the same compactive effort.
5. Since shear resistance-mobilized resists the compactive effort, the shear strength on the dry
side of optimum at all water contents and for all fly ashes is essentially the same. Further,
the strength of samples on the wet side of optimum is reduced due to the build-up of a
positive pore water pressure.
6. The maximum dry unit weights and optimum moisture contents for black cotton soil, fly
ashes and soil-fly ash mixes are presented Table 4.3.
7. Since the dry unit weights in coal ashes are less sensitive to compacting water content, it is
recommended that field compaction can be carried out at dry side of optimum taking care
of the dust problem.
8. Lastly, the bulk utilization of fly ashes being primary concern, with good shearing
resistance available at low densities, field compaction can be carried out as required by the
field engineer taking care of the dust pollution.
*********
119
CH
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LIID AT ON
TIIO AN
NA DP
ND ER
PE ME
RM AB
EA TY
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BIIL Y
BE
B HA
EH AV OR
VIIO OF
RO SO
FS OIIL FL
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AS HM XE
MIIX ES
S
5.1 GENERAL
A knowledge of consolidation and permeability is essential in a number of engineering

problems such as settlement, seepage and stability of the structures. Excessive heave,
settlement, low shear strength and internal erosion of some soils cause damage to many civil
engineering structures such as spread footings founded on black cotton soils; roads,
highways, and airport runways constructed on expansive subgrade; and earth dams
constructed with dispersive soils. Swelling of black cotton soils cause more damage to
structures, particularly light buildings and pavements, than any other natural hazards,
including earthquakes and floods (Jones and Holtz, 1973).
In practice, lime has been used as an effective additive to improve the engineering properties
of soils and prevent damage to structures. Lime treatment in cohesive soils generally reduces
swelling and improves soil plasticity, workability, and bearing capacity (EI-Rawi and Awad,
1981; Locat et al, 1990; Tuncer and Basma, 1991; Abdul Jauwad, 1993; Narasimha Rao and
Rajasekaran, 1996). Lime stabilization has been successfully used in various projects such as
erosion control (Machan et al, 1977), dam construction (Perry, 1997), lime column
foundations (Broms and Boman, 1979), and road foundation treatment. Pure lime
stabilization is very effective but can be expensive in large projects. With this in mind, and to
improve the behavior of expansive soils, attempts have been made to utilize low-cost local
materials including waste products, Hence, the present study deals with soil-fly ash
stabilization as an effective alternative in the ground modification of compressible clays such
as black cotton soils.
The proper use of fly ash can reduce the relatively high cost of pure cement or pure lime
stabilization, especially as fly ash is a waste material discarded in relatively large quantities.
120
5.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Few data are available concerning the compressibility and permeability /hydraulic
conductivity of fly ash-treated soils. Fossberg (1965) reported that the treated clay behaved
like a preconsolidated material because of cementation of particles. Basma and Tuncer (1991)
noted an increase in the immediate settlement and a decrease in the primary consolidation,
with an increase in percent lime and curing time. The findings of hydraulic conductivity
studies of fly ash treated soils are limited and require further investigation.
Ghazali et al (1991) observed a reduction in the hydraulic conductivity of chemically treated

kaolin clay due to the decreased rate of consolidation.
Tarashi et al (1980) and Locat et al (1996) also recorded a reduction in the hydraulic
conductivity of treated soils whereas Townsend and Kklm (1966), Broms and Boman (1979)
and Brandel (1981) concluded that hydraulic conductivity of soils should increase with fly
ash treatment.
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the role of fly ash as the primary stabilizing
agent on the behavior of soil. The effectiveness of fly ash in reducing the plasticity and swell
potential of black cotton soil and the possibility of this admixture in improving the
compressibility and hydraulic characteristics of black cotton soils are investigated.
5.3 MATERIALS
5.3.1 Soil and fly used
In the present investigation, two types of soils, black cotton soil and red soil, and two fly
ashes have been chosen for evaluating the effect of fly ash on various properties of black
cotton soil, for its effective use for the bulk utilization of fly ashes as given in section 3.2
(Chapter 3)
5.3.2 Lime
In this study, naturally available commercial high calcium hydrated lime Ca (OH)2 was used
as an additive to Badarpur fly ash to make it at par with Neyveli fly ash in terms of lime
content.
121
5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The various soil-fly ash mixes used for conducting the consolidation tests are given in section
4.4.2 (Chapter 4)
5.5 METHOD OF TESTING
5.5.1 One-dimensional consolidation tests
5.5.1.1 Immediate test series
Oven dried soil samples were prepared as per IS Standard Method (IS: 2720-1973 part 10).
The test procedure is explained in sections 3.3.2.2 and 3.4.2.3(Chapter 3) For immediate test
series, the soil-fly ash samples were prepared and immediately tested in a fixed ring
consolidometer as per IS : 2720 (part 15) – 1986. The readings of the dial compression were
recorded for each combination with time and the test results are presented in a plot of
compression versus square root of time. These load-settlements are used for determination of
t90, which in turn is used for the determination of coefficient of consolidation, Cv.
5.5.1.2 7 Days and 28 Days curing series
For 7 and 28 days curing test series, samples were prepared as described above for each
series and mix and were cured in a dessiccator at 100 % relative humidity. The samples were
removed from the dessiccator at the end of the required curing periods and tested in a fixed
ring consolidometer as per IS : 2720 (part 15) – 1986. The readings of the dial compression
were recorded for each combination with time and the test results are presented in a plot of
compression versus square root of time.
5.5.2 Permeability behavior of soil-fly ash mixes
The property of soil and / or ash, which permits percolation or seepage of water under a
gradient is known as permeability. This parameter is important in designing the liners to
contain leachate migration, dyke to predict the loss of water as well as for stability of slopes
and as a sub-base material. The coefficient of permeability of ash depends upon grain size,
degree of compaction and pozzolanic activity.
The consolidometer permeameter system (fixed ring) offers the best means for quantitatively
assessing the coefficient of permeability of clays/ashes under confined state. The samples are
122
prepared as per IS: 2720 (part 1) and compacted at 0.95γdmax and corresponding water content
on the dry side of optimum. After placing the oedometer cell in position, the samples are
soaked with water under a surcharge of 6.25 kpa. Water is allowed to flow upwards through
the samples from the bottom. Sufficient time was allowed till the air bubbles are removed
from the samples. The time periods required for full saturation of samples was well within 24
hours. After saturation and change of next increment of pressure, the permeability test was
conducted by falling head method and the coefficient of permeability is given by the relation
as below:
aL h
k = 2.303 * log10 1
At h2
where, k = coefficient of permeability (m/sec)

a = cross sectional area of the burette (m2)
A = cross sectional area of the soil sample (m2)
t = time for the head drop from h1 to h2 in seconds
h1 = initial height of the fluid in the pipe (m)
h2 = final height of the fluid in the pipe (m)
L = sample height for corresponding load increment (m)
The values of coefficient of permeability are also calculated from the consolidation data
obtained in each case by using the relation,
k = Cv mv γw
where mv is coefficient of volume change, Cv (m2/sec)is coefficient of consolidation, and γw

is unit weight of water.
123
5.6.1 Compressibility characteristics
The geotechnical engineer plays a vital role in predicting the magnitude and rate of settlement
of foundations due to structural loads. The compressibility characteristics viz, compression
index, which gives the magnitude of settlement and coefficient of consolidation, Cv which
gives the rate of settlement are determined by a standard consolidation test.
The time-compression curves for soil-fly ash mixes for different curing periods (immediate
series, 7 days and 28 days series) are given in Fig. 5.1 and Fig. 5.2. It has been observed that
the trend of compression behavior is almost same for all mixes. These curves are used for the
determination of t90 by Taylor’s method, which is used for the determination of coefficient
of consolidation. The coefficient of consolidation can also be determined by rectangular
hyperbola method (Sridharan and Prakash, 1985) and a typical plot of the same is shown in
Fig. 5.3
2400 2500
IMM. Test Series
IMM. Test Series @ 100 kPa BC Soil @ 50 kPa
BC Soil : 100% 2400
Comp. divins.(1divin.= 0.002 mm)
BC Soil @100 kPa

2350 BFA : 100% BC Soil @200 kPa

NFA : 100% BC Soil @400 kPa
2300
BCNFA : 80+20 BC Soil @800 kPa
BCNFA : 60+40
2300 RSBFA : 80+20 2200
2100
2250
2000
2200
1900
2150 1800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
t Square root of time (min.) t Square root of time (min.)
Fig. 5.1 Time-compression curves for soil-fly ash mixes for immediate test series
124
1250 1600
7 Days curing series @ 200KPa 28 Days curing series @ 200KPa
BCNFA : 0+100 BCNFA : 0+100
Compression divins.(1divin.= 0.002 mm)

Compression divins.(1divn. = 0.002 mm)
BCNFA : 20+80 1550 BCNFA : 20+80

1200 BCNFA : 40+60 BCNFA : 40+60
BCNFA : 60+40 BCNFA : 60+40
BCNFA : 80+20 1500 BCNFA : 80+20
1150 BCNFA : 90+10 BCNFA : 90+10
BFA-Ca : 100+(8.5%) BFA-Ca : 100+(8.5%)
1450
1100
1400
1050
1350
1000 1300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
t Square root of time(min.) t Square root of time(min.)
Fig. 5.2 Time-compression curves for soil-fly ash mixes for different curing periods
1.2 2500
Rectangular Hyperbola Method Cv by Taylor`s Method
BC Soil : 100%
2400 BC Soil @400 kPa
1.0 Cv = (0.24 * m * hav2)/c
y = 0.0034x + 0.0105
2300 Cv =( Tv * hav2 / t90) (m2/sec)
0.8 m = 0.0034 = slope of line
t/d (min./mm)
c = 0.0105 = constant term Tv = Time factor corresponding

2200
90 % consòl.=( 0.848)
0.6 90 %
2100
0.4 t90 = 1.732 min.

m 2000
da 0% en
ns & et e
co 0% n b lin
oli 9 we
60 %
(6 ortio St.
0.2
n)
1900
p est
tio
B
a a = 1.15 x
x
0.0 1800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time, t (min.) t Square root of time (min.)
5.3(a). Rectangular hyperbola method 5.3(b). Taylor’s method
Fig. 5.3 A Typical plots determination of determination of t90
125
5.6.2 Compression behavior of soil-fly ash mixes
Marked changes were observed in the compression behavior for soil-fly ash mixes as can be
seen from Figs.5.4 and 5.5. From figs. 5.4 and 5.5, it is observed that Badarpur fly ash is
having less void ratio compared to Neyveli fly ash. It is further observed that as the fly ash
content increases, void ratio increases since fly ash is a coarser material.
5.6.2.1 Compression index
Compression index (Cc) which is the slope of the linear portion of e-logp curve indicates the
amount of compression undergone by the soil or fly ash. The amount of primary
consolidation is computed using compression index obtained from a plot of void ratio versus
log pressure. Generally, it can be seen that the more dense a soil is initially, the less
compressible it will be.
Fig. 5.6 shows the variation of compression index with pressure for different curing periods,
and it is observed that compressibility increases with increase in effective consolidation
pressure and as the fly ash content increases, compression index decreases. It can also be seen
that with increase in curing time, the compressibility decreases. This is due to the
cementation bonds, which are formed (during the curing period) between free lime and
reactive silica and thereby improving the compressibility characteristics of the black cotton
soil. As the fly ash content increases, the composite soil can resist the compressive loading
better and consequently shows lesser compressibility. The Cc values vary from 0.2 t0 0.4 for
red and black cotton soils; 0.1 to 0.07 for Badarpur and Neyveli fly ashes for the immediate
test series for the pressure range between 5 kPa (0.05 kg/cm2) to 800 kPa (8.0 kg/cm2)
respectively.
For 7days and 28 days curing time, the Cc values for Neyveli fly ash reduces further to 0.011.
The general trend is that as the curing time increases, Cc values decreases, but with increase
in pressure, these values increase.
126
1.25 1.25
BC + BFA
1.20 1.20 BC : NFA
100 : 0
1.15 80 : 20
100 : 0
60 : 40
1.15 80 : 20
1.10 60 : 40
40 : 60
1.05 1.10 40 : 60
20 : 80
Void ratio (e)

Void ratio (e)
20 : 80
1.00 0 : 100 1.05 0 : 100
BFA +
0.95 BFA+
CaO(8.5%) 1.00
0.90 CaO(8.5%)
0.85 0.95
0.80 0.90
0.75
0.85
0.70
0.80
0.65
0.60 0.75
4 101 102 103 104 105 4 101 102 103 104 105
Pressure (kPa) Pressure (kPa)
5.4(a). BC Soil-BFA mixes 5.4(b). BC Soil-NFA mixes
1.30
Badarpur Fly Ash

1.25 Badarpur Fly Ash + 8.5% Lime
Neyveli Fly Ash
1.20
Void ratio (e)
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
101 102 103
Pressure (kPa)
5.4(c). NFA v/s (BFA + CaO) mixes
Fig. 5.4 e-log p relationship for black cotton soil- fly ash mixes for immediate series
127
1.6 1.6
RED SOIL+BFA RED SOIL+NFA
1.5 100 : 0 1.5 100 : 0
80 : 20 80 : 20
1.4 1.4
60 : 40 60 : 40
1.3 40 : 60 1.3 40 : 60
Void ratio (e)
20 : 80 20 : 80
1.2 1.2
0 : 100 0 : 100
Void ratio (e)

1.1 1.1
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
100 101 102 103 4 101 102 103
Fig. 5.5(a). e-logp relationship for Red Soil-Fly ash mixes for immediate test series
1.4 1.25
BC+NFA : 7D
0 : 100, 80 : 20 1.20 BC+NFA - 28D
1.3 60 : 40, 40 : 60
20 : 80, 90 : 10 1.15 90:10
BFA+CaO (8.5%) 80:20
1.10 60:40
1.2
40:60
Void ratio (e)
Void ratio (e)
1.05 20:80
1.1 0:100
1.00
BFA+CaO
0.95
1.0
0.90
0.85
0.9
0.80
0.8 0.75
100 101 102 103 101 102 103 104 105
Fig. 5.5(b). e-logp relationship for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes for different curing series
128
0.45 0.45
BC+BFA BC+NFA
0.40 0.40
100 : 0 100 : 0
80 : 20 80 : 20
0.35 0.35
60 : 40 60 : 40
Compression Index
40 : 60 40 : 60
0.30 0.30
Compression index
20 : 80 20 : 80
0 : 100 0 : 100
0.25 0 : 100+Ca 0.25
0.20 0.20
0.15 0.15
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00 1
101 102 103 10 102 103

5.6(a). BC-BFA (Imm Series) 5.6(b). BC-NFA (Imm. Series)
0.25 0.25
BC+NFA : 7 D BC+NFA : 28 D
90 : 10 90 : 10
80 : 20 80 : 20
0.20 0.20
60 : 40 60 : 40
40 : 60 40 : 60
Compression Index
Compression Index
20 : 80 20 : 80
0.15 0 : 100 0.15 0 : 100
0 : BFA-CaO (8.5%) 0 : BFA-CaO(8.5%)
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00
101 102 103 101 102 103
5.6(c). BC-NFA (7D Series) 5.6(d). BC-NFA (28D Series)
Fig. 5.6 Variation of compression index with pressure
129
5.6.2.2 Effect of fly ash on swelling characteristics
Fig. 5.7(a) shows the heave and collapse behavior of soil-fly ash mixes for different curing
periods. The red soil, being a relatively inert material, does not undergo any swelling.
Fig. 5.7(b) shows the effect of fly on the swelling characteristics of the soil-fly ash mixes. It
is seen that as the percent fly ash content increases, the swell potential shows considerable
decrease. This reduction in swelling characteristics of black cotton soil on addition of fly ash
can be attributed to the reduction of amount of suction consequent upon addition of fly ash.
The plastic fines contribute most to suction and swelling nature of black cotton soils. With
the addition of non-plastic fines of fly ash, the swelling nature is reduced. It is further
observed that with increase in curing time, both swelling as well as collapse potential are
reduced.
7 7
6 Badarpur Fly Ash 6 BFA - IMM

Neyveli Fly Ash NFA - IMM
5 5 NFA - 7D
Swell potential (%)
Swell potential (%)
NFA - 28D
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
Collapse (%)
Collapse (%)
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fly ash content (%) with BC Soil Fly ash content (%) with BC Soil
Fig. 5.7(a). Heave and collapse behavior of soil-fly ash mixes
130
0.08 0.08
0.06 0.06
Swelling Potentail (%)

Swelling Potentail (%)
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02
0.00 0.00
-0.02 -0.02
-0.04 IMM. Test Series -0.04 IMM. Test Series

BC + BFA BC + NFA
-0.06 -0.06
Collapse (%)
100 : 0 100 : 0
Collapse (%)
80 : 20 -0.08 80 : 20
-0.08
60 : 40 60 : 40
-0.10 40 : 60 -0.10 40 : 60
20 : 80 20 : 80
-0.12 0 : 100 -0.12
0 : 100
-0.14 -0.14
4 10 1
102 3
10 4 101 102 103
5.7b(i). BC-BFA (IMM. Series) 5.7b(ii). BC-NFA (IMM. Series)
0.12 0.10
Swell (%) v/s pressure Swell (%) v/s pressure
0.10 0.08
7 BCNFA : 90+10 28 BCNFA : 90+10
0.08
Swelling (%)
Swelling (%)
days BCNFA : 80+20 days BCNFA : 80+20

0.06
0.06 curing BCNFA : 60+40 curing BCNFA : 60+40
test BCNFA : 40+60 0.04 test BCNFA : 40+60
0.04 series BCNFA : 20+80 series BCNFA : 20+80
0.02 BCNFA : 0+100 0.02 BCNFA : 0+100
BFA-CaO : 100+(8.5%) BFA-CaO : 100+(8.5%)
0.00 0.00
-0.02 -0.02
Collapse (%)
Collapse (%)
-0.04
-0.04
-0.06
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10 -0.08
-0.12 -0.10
4 101 102 103 4 101 102 103
5.7b(iii). BC-NFA (7D Series) 5.7b(iv). BC-NFA (28D Series)

Fig. 5.7(b) Variation of swell-potential of soil-fly ash mixes for different curing periods
131
5.6.2.3 Coefficient of consolidation, Cv
Coefficient of consolidation, Cv, the parameter governing the time-rate of consolidation, has
been determined at different percentages of fly ash by Taylor’s method and Rectangular
hyperbola method (Sridharan and Prakash, 1985). Cv is not really a constant but is a function
of the stress increment for a given soil; but since both coefficient of permeability (k) and
coefficient of compressibility (av) decrease with a decrease in void ratio, Cv which is a
function of the ratio [k{1+eo}/av], remains more or less the same within a considerable
pressure range. The coefficient of consolidation is determined by:
(a). Square root of time fitting method
This method was developed by Taylor (1948). In this method, a plot of the compression
readings and square root of time is used and the time required for 90 % consolidation (t90) is
determined. Then the coefficient of consolidation is obtained as
Cv = [Tv * hav2]/t90 (m2/sec)
where, Tv = 0.848 for 90 % consolidation(time factor), and
hav = average length of drainage path
(b). Rectangular hyperbola method
This method was proposed by Sridharan and Rao(1981) and improved by Sridharan and
Prakash(1985) and, Sridharan, Murthy and Prakash (1987). This method can be used for
almost all types of soils. In this method, a plot of time-compression versus time (t/d v/s t ) is
used(as shown earlier in Fig.5.3) in which the straight line portion is obtained in between 60
– 90 % consolidation. The coefficient of consolidation is obtained as
Cv = [0.24*m*hav2]/ c
where, mv is the slope of straight line portion of t/δ vs t plot
c is the vertical intercept of straight line
hav is the average length of drainage path.
132
The variation of coefficient of consolidation with pressure is shown in Figs. 5.8(a) and 5.8(b)
for immediate and 7 and 28 days of curing periods. From Fig. 5.8(a) for immediate test series,
Cv shows a different trend with increasing pressure. In fact, primary consolidation for fly ash
will be completed in about one minute. It is difficult to take the time-compression readings
manually for coefficient of consolidation determination by classical deformation versus time
plots.
0.035 0.025
BC + NFA
0.030 100 : 0; 80 : 20
0.020 60 : 40; 40 : 60
20 : 80; 0 : 100
0.025
Cv (m 2 /sec * 10- 4)
Cv (m 2 /sec * 10- 4)
BC + BFA
100 : 0 0.015
0.020
80 : 20
60 : 40
0.015 40 : 60
0.010
20 : 80
0 : 100
0.010
0.005
0.005
0.000 0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 5.8(a) Variation of coefficient of consolidation with pressure for immediate series
133
0.008 0.008
Cv-R vs Pr. for 7D Cv-T vs Pr. for 7D
0.007 0.007 B
B NFA : 100%
NFA : 100%
C C NFA : 80%
0.006 NFA : 80% 0.006
+ + NFA : 60%
NFA : 60%
C v (m2 /sec * 10- 4)

N NFA : 40% N NFA : 40%
Cv (m2 /sec * 10- 4)
0.005 F NFA : 20% 0.005 F NFA : 20%

A NFA : 10% A NFA : 10%
0.004 BFA+CaO(8.5%) 0.004 BFA+CaO(8.5%)
0.003 0.003
0.002 0.002
0.001 0.001
0.000 0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
5.8b(i). Cv v/s Pressure (7D Test Series)
0.016 0.020
Cv-R vs Pr. for 28D Cv-T vs Pr. 28D
B 0.018 B
0.014
C NFA : 100% C NFA : 100%
+ NFA : 80% 0.016 + NFA : 80%
0.012 N NFA : 60% N NFA : 60%
Cv (m2 /sec * 10- 4)
NFA : 40% 0.014

C v (m2 /sec * 10- 4)
F F NFA : 40%
0.010 A NFA : 20% A NFA : 20%
0.012
NFA : 10% NFA : 10%
0.008 BFA+CaO (8.5%) 0.010 BFA+CaO(8.5%)
0.006 0.008
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.002
0.002
0.000 0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
5.8b(ii). Cv v/s Pressure (28D Test Series)
Fig. 5.8(b) Variation of coefficient of consolidation with pressure
134
5.6.2.4 Preconsolidation pressure
An important aspect of the determination of the magnitude of settlement is the realistic

estimation of the Preconsolidation pressure pc. The Preconsolidation pressure may be defined
as the pressure under which a soil deposit has been fully consolidated. A soil may show a
Preconsolidation pressure caused by a variety of factors including overburden pressure (that
may or may not have been reduced because of erosion), desiccation, temporary overloading,
sustained seepage force, and so forth.
In the present study, Log-Log Method (Sridharan, et al, 1985) has been used for a more
accurate determination of Preconsolidation pressure. The method consists of plotting both the
pressure and corresponding void ratio in logarithmic scale, which results in two distinct
straight lines. The intersection point of these two straight lines gives the required
Preconsolidation pressure on the abscissa scale. In laboratory testing, Preconsolidation
pressure may be termed as pseudo pressure because no such loading is applied or removed it
from the sample. Whatever be the value of Preconsolidation pressure obtained, it is due to the
compactive effort at which the sample has been prepared.
For each combination of mix, the Preconsolidation pressure was determined by Log-Log
method and the variation of consolidation pressure with percent fly ash is shown in Fig. 5.9.
300
Pc v/s Fly ash (%)
Preconsolidation Pressure (kPa)
BCNFA : IMM series, BCBFA : IMM series

250 BCNFA : 7 D curing series, BCNFA : 28 D curing series
200
150
100
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fly ash content (%) with BC Soil
Fig 5. 9 Variation of Preconsolidation Pressure with percent Fly ash
135
From Fig. 5.9, it is seen that as the percent fly ash increases, the Preconsolidation pressure
goes on changing.. The mechanism for the variation of this pressure may be attributed to the
soil-fly ash matrix skeleton where mix has to be adjusted and accordingly the particles get
disturbed. Also the cementation bonding has its own affect on the strength of the sample. The
pressure values vary from 108 kPa to 186 kPa for BCBFA immediate series, 83 kPa to 226
kPa for BCNFA immediate series, 120 kPa to 218kPa for 7 days series, and 118 kPa to 176
kPa for 28 days curing series for different percentages of fly ash respectively.
5.6.3 Permeability characteristics
The permeability tests were conducted on all soil-fly ash samples following the procedure
explained in section 5.5.2
The hydraulic conductivity of the natural and treated soils were also obtained form the
consolidation data from standard one-dimensional consolidation test, and is given by as:
aCγ
k= v v w
1+ e
Where k is the hydraulic conductivity, Cv is the coefficient of consolidation, av is the

coefficient of compressibility, γw is the unit weight of water, and e is the void ratio.
The consolidometer was modified to measure the permeability using the falling head method.
The test results are plotted in Figs.5.10, 5.11 and 5.12. The increase in permeability with an
increase in curing time is explained by the development of the cementitious matrix due to
pozzolanic reaction. The formation of stronger lime particle aggregates results in the soil
becoming more granular in nature and results in higher resistance to compression at
comparable stress levels. This produces a soil with a more open fabric and results in an
increase in hydraulic conductivity. The permeability measured by falling head method for
Neyveli fly ash is in the range of 1.94*10-7 cm/sec for 7 days curing and 2.03*10-5 cm/sec for
28 days curing series.
136
1.20 1.25
1.15 BC + BFA: IMM
1.20 BC + NFA: IMM
100 : 0
100 : 0
1.10 80 : 20
1.15 80 : 20
60 : 40
1.05 60 : 40
40 : 60 1.10 40 : 60
1.00 20 : 80
20 : 80
Void ratio (e)
Void ratio (e)

0.95
0 : 100 1.05 0 : 100
0.90 1.00
0.85 0.95
0.80
0.90
0.75
0.85
0.70
0.80
0.65
0.60 0.75
10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5
Permeability (m/sec * 10-2) Permeability (m/sec *10-2)
Fig. 5.10 Variation of permeability with void ratio for black cotton soil-fly ash mixes for
immediate test series.
1.20 1.20
e vs k : 7D RH e vs k : 28D RH
NFA :100% NFA : 100%
1.15 NFA : 80%
1.15 NFA : 80%
NFA : 60% NFA : 60%
1.10 NFA : 40% 1.10 NFA : 40%
NFA : 20% NFA : 20%
NFA : 10% 1.05 NFA : 10%
Void ratio (e)
1.05
Void ratio (e)
BFA-CaO
: (100+8.5%)
1.00 1.00
0.95 0.95
0.90 0.90
0.85 0.85 "k" = Cv * mv * yw

"k"=Cv* mv* yw; Cv=(0.24* m* hav2) /c Cv = ( 0.24 * m * hav2)/c
0.80 -10 0.80
10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3
Permeability (m/sec*10-2) Permeability ( m/sec*10-2)
Fig.5.11 Variation of permeability with void ratio for black cotton soil-fly
ash mixes for 7 Days and 28 Days curing series.
137
10-5 10-6
Pr vs k : 7D "k" = Cv * mv * yw
Cv = By Taylor`s method
NFA : 100% NFA : 80%
10-6 NFA : 60% NFA : 40% = (0.848 * hav2 / t90)
Permeability (m/sec*10-2)
-7
NFA : 20% NFA : 10% 10
BFA-CaO : (100+8.5%)
10-7
10-8
10-8
Pr vs k : 7D
-9
10
10-9 NFA : 100% NFA : 80%
"k" = Cv * mv * yw NFA : 60% NFA : 40%
NFA : 20% NFA : 10%
Cv = (0.24 * m * hav2) / c BFA-CaO : (100+8.5%)
-10
10 10-10
101 102 103 101 102 103
Fig. 5.12(a). Variation of permeability with pressure for 7 days curing period
10-6 10-3
"k" = Cv * mv * yw "k" by falling head method
Cv = (0.24 * m * hav2) / c
10-7
10-4
10-8
10-5 p vs k :28D series

-9 Pr vs k-RH: 28D
10
NFA : 100% NFA : 80% NFA : (100%) NFA : ( 80%)
NFA : 60% NFA : 40% NFA : ( 60%) NFA : ( 40%)
NFA : 20% NFA : 10% NFA : ( 20%) NFA : ( 10%)
BFA-CaO : (100+8.5%) BFA-Ca : (100+8.5%)
10-10 10-6
101 10 2 3
10 101 102 103
Fig. 5.12(b) Variation of permeability with pressure for 28 days curing period
138
From the study of compressibility characteristics of soil-fly ash mixes, it can be concluded
that: -
1. Addition of fly ash to black cotton soils reduces their swelling. Free swell index is
reduced by the addition of fly ash. Swell potential and swelling pressure also decrease
significantly as percentage of fly ash increases.
2. Compression index of the composite sample decreases indicating improvement in

compressibility characteristics. With increase percent fly ash and curing time, the
compression index decreases indicating improvement in compressibility of the composite
sample due to the formation of cementitious bonds. Neyveli fly ash has higher resistance to
deformation when subjected to pressure compared to Badarpur fly ash. This is because of
self-hardening property of Neyveli fly ash due to the presence of free lime.
3. Coefficient of consolidation of fly ash treated clays also decreases with increase in
percent fly ash. However, at larger axial pressures, the effect of fly ash on the coefficient of
consolidation becomes less significant. The time required for the end of primary
consolidation and beginning of the secondary consolidation is shortened in fly ash treated
soils. The primary consolidation gets over within a very short interval of time. This high rate
of consolidation of fly ashes is favorable practically for its use as embankment and
reclamation fills and other applications. Casagrande`s method and Taylor’s method are not
suitable for finding the coefficient of consolidation. However, Cv value can be calculated by
Rectangular hyperbola method.
4. The use of pozzolanic fly ash in ground improvement is an effective means of waste
management, and it is particularly useful for reducing the porosity of blended soils.
5. The results from permeability tests indicate that Neyveli fly ash has higher void ratio than
Badarpur fly ash for a given effective consolidation pressure. However, for a given void ratio,
the permeability of Neyveli fly ash is less compared to that for Badarpur fly ash. For
example, for immediate testing, at 200 kPa, void ratio of Neyveli fly ash is 1.17 with a
coefficient of permeability value of 1.5*10-6 cm/sec compared to 1.12 and 6*10-6 cm/sec for
Badarpur fly ash. This is because of the less effective void space available for the flow of
water. The reduction in the effective void space is due to the presence of free lime, which
causes cementation in Neyveli fly ash. At lower consolidation pressure Badarpur fly ash
139
exhibits higher permeability values. At higher consolidation pressures, the order of
permeability are almost same for both the fly ashes. This is because the reduction in the pore
space available for flow for Badarpur fly ash is more compared to Neyveli fly ash with
increasing consolidation pressures. The appreciable decrease in permeability with increase in
pressure in the case of Badarpur fly ash is due to the higher decrease in void ratio
experienced by it (compared to Neyveli fly ash). The cementation caused by free lime in
Neyveli fly ash resists volume decrease and hence Neyveli fly ash experiences comparatively
a lower decrease in void ratio compared to Badarpur fly ash.
6. The permeability of a porous media depends on the interconnectivity of its pore channels
also. Badarpur fly ash has less amount of free lime. Hence, floc formation or cementation due
to free lime which is the main cause for the loss of interconnectivity is almost zero in the
Badarpur fly ash. Therefore, the decrease in permeability values of Badarpur fly ash due to
floc formation does not arise at all. However, for Neyveli fly ash, even if the void ratio is
high, the cementation due to free lime reduces the interconnectivity of pores resulting in a
reduced permeability.
7. Consolidation pressure has negligible effect on the permeability of Class ‘C’ (Neyveli) fly
ash which has lower permeability value compared to Class’F’ fly ash
8. For Neyveli fly ash high preconsolidation pressure is noticed with increase in curing time
and is due to cementation. But there is not much difference between the values for 7 days and
28 days curing time, which indicates that almost all the cementation takes place within 7 days
itself.
9. With increase in percent fly ash, void ratio and permeability of the composite samlpes
increase. This indicates that the addition of fly ash to fine grained soils makes it granular
leading to higher coefficient of permeability. The plasticity of fine-grained soils is reduced
and workability increased.
10. This study has shown that treatment of soils using fly ash can be used effectively in the
stabilization of problematic soils. More importantly, it offers an interesting potential for
making use of an industrial waste.
********
140
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.6.1 Principle of Unconfined Compression Test
Essentially, the unconfined compression test is a special case of the triaxial compression test
of soils where the compression and shear strengths of a soil prism, or cylinder, are measured
under zero lateral stress (σ2 = σ3 = 0)
σ1
σr
σn σn τ
τ σn
α
τ= 0
σ1
σ1 ( α= 450 + (φ)/2; φ = Angle of internal friction)
Fig. 6.1 Principle of unconfined compression test
The test is based on the assumption that there is no moisture loss during the test. The
unconfined compression test is applicable to undisturbed. Slightly disturbed (remolded), and
undisturbed cohesive soils. Cohesionless soils (sands and gravels) can not be subjected to this
kind of test because they do not form unsupported prism and cylinders.
141
6.1.2 Purpose and Application of unconfined Compression test
The unconfined compression test is the simplest and quickest test for determining cohesion
and shear strength of the cohesive soils for which no lateral support is offered. The shear
strength is taken as equal to half the compressive strength. These values are used for checking
the short-term stability of foundations and slopes, where the rate of loading is fast but
drainage is very slow.
The unconfined compression test has an advantage over the Direct shear test because of the
more uniform stresses and strains imposed. Another advantage of the UCT is that the failure
surface will tend to develop in the weakest portion of the clay sample. An indication of
typical values of shear strength is given by the following classification of clay based on
consistency:
TABLE No. 6.1 Unconfined Compression Strength Values
Sr. No. SOIL CONSISTENCY qu KN/m2 qu kg/cm2

1 Very Soft < 25 < 0.25
2 Soft 25 --------- 50 0.25 ------- 0.50
3 Medium 50 --------- 100 0.50 ------- 1.00
4 Stiff 100 -------- 200 1.00 ------- 2.00
5 Hard 200 -------- 400 2.00 ------- 4.00
6 Very Hard >400 >4.00
The results obtained from unconfined compression tests are approximate. However:
1. They serve as a direct, quantitative measure of the consistency of cohesive soils, giving a
clue to the danger of rupture of embankment slopes or other earth masses;
2. They provide basic information on the strength properties, thus permitting us to estimate
the possible bearing capacity of the soil in foundations and earthworks;
3. They give the stress-strain relationship under rapid failure conditions, and
4. They permit comparison of soil samples taken from various boreholes of approximately
similar soil formation, thus saving most of the expensive and time consuming shear tests.
Knowledge of the shear strength of soils is of fundamental importance to civil Engineers as it
forms the basis of the analysis of all stability problems.
142
6.1.3 Review of Soil-Fly Ash Mixes
Low strength soils can be a problem for many geotechnical engineering applications. The low
strength may be due to ingress of water in clayey soils, dispersion of clayey soils in certain
environments, the low density of certain deposits, seepage etc. While mechanical
compaction, dewatering and earth reinforcement can improve the strength of soils, other
methods such as addition of admixtures are technically and economically more advantageous.
The widespread availability of fly ash in India (more than 100 million tonnes per year) has
promoted its use to stabilize soils.
Soil-fly ash and soil-lime-fly ash mixtures have proved to be very effective & economical for
use in base and sub-base layers of pavement systems (Torrey, 1978). Dispersive soils, which
are highly susceptible to erosion, on mixing with fly ash and curing for a sufficient period of
time not only become resistant to erosion but also gain in strength (Indrarthna et al, 1991).
For soils having large voids, fly ash slurry has been injected to fill the voids. It has been
postulated that this action creates stronger seams and helps to mend possible stability of a
slope by decreasing water filtration (Borden and Baez, 1991). Uppal and Dhawn (1968)
reported that mixtures of lime and fly ash are useful for stabilization of various soils of
classes CL, ML, SC and CH.
Goecker et al (1956) showed that a lime-fly ash mixture improved the consistency, shrinkage
and unconfined compressive strength of a wide variety of soils such as glacial till,
glaciofluvial gravel alluvial gravel, river deposits, friable loess and Beaumount clay.
It was noted by Leonard and Bailey (1982) the unconfined comp. Strength values for fine ash
are higher than those were determined for the coarse ash specimens. This is believed due to
difference in capillary tension between the coarse and fine samples.
Yudbhir and Honjo (1991) considered unconfined comp. Strength of fly ashes as a measure
of self-hardening property of fly ashes. To br more correct, it should be soaked unconfined
comp. strength which avoid contribution from capillary stress. As seen in literature, there is a
wide variation in ucc strength from o to about 20000 kpa.
Sherwood and Pyley (1966); and Raymond (1961) reported that the fraction of lime, present
as free lime in the form of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide controls self-hardening
characteristics of fly ashes.
143
Singh (1996a) studied the ucc strength of fly ashes as a function of free lime present in them.
It was found that fly ash having higher free lime content shows higher strength.
Vasquez and Alonso (1981) based on their results concluded that self setting (self-
pozzolanic) fly ashes either alone or accompanied by lime, if larger strength are required, can
be effective agent to stabilize sandy soil.
Mateos and Davidson (1962) attempted to find a optimum amount of the lime and fly ash
admixtures for stabilizing various textured soils for maximum ucc strength. But based on
their study, no conclusion could be drawn for the amount of lime and fly ash. However,
recommended amount of lime for sandy soils and clayey soils were about 5 % & 7 %
respectively.
As seen from above review, no role of soil-fly admixtures on the ucc strength of black cotton
soils is known or not much work has done in this regard. Thus an attempt has been made to
study the behavior of ucc strength of black cotton soils with different percentage fly ash
contents. Hence, the study of effect of addition of fly ash on the ucc strength of different
types of soils in general, and black cotton soils in particular is necessary for effective use of
fly ash for stabilization of soils.
6.2 MATERIALS USED
The materials used for the current study have been discussed in section 3.3 (Chapter 3). The
physical properties are listed in table 1 as below:
TABLE 6.2 Physical Properties Of Materials Used
MATERIALS
MATERIAL PROPERTY
BC SOIL BFA NFA
Specific Gravity 2.71 2.18 2.64
Liquid Limit (%) 84 50 40
Plastic Limit (%) 25.4 NP NP
Plasticity Index(%) 58.6 ---- -----
Shrinkage Limit (%) 8.3 Varies with initial Varies with initial
water content water content
Free Swell Index (%) 65 ----- ----
144
The particle size distribution curves of these materials are shown in Fig. 3.1(CHAPTER NO.
3). The chemical composition of oven dried BC Soil and the two fly ashes were analyzed by
standard methods and are presented in Table No. 3.2(CHAPTER NO. 3)
6.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The various soil-fly ash mixes used for conducting the consolidation tests are given in section
4.4.2 (Chapter 4)
6.4 METHOD OF TESTING
6.4.1 Immediate Test Series
Oven dried Soil Samples were prepared as per IS Standard Method (IS: 2720—1973 part 10)
and tested under a constant strain rate of 0.625 mm/min. The test specimens of height 7.62
cm and diameter 3.81cm were prepared by statically compacting the mixtures in a mould @
0.95 γdmax and corresponding water content dry side of optimum. The specimen was centrally
placed on the lower plate of UCT machine and motor was switched on. The readings of the
load dial gauge were taken at regular intervals of strain dial gauge reading. Loading was
continued until three or more consecutive readings of the load dial gauge showed a
decreasing or a constant or a strain of 20 % has been reached. The load dial readings were
plotted against deformation and the point of failure was identified. The failure was noticed by
bulging phenomenon in the case of BC soil and as brittle failure for fly ashes. Fig. 6.2 and 6.3
shows the stress-strain characteristics of black cotton soil, fly ashes & soil-fly ash mixes. The
test results are presented in Table 6.3 and 6.4.
6.4.2 7 Days and 28 Days Curing Test Series
For 7 and 28 Days curing test series, samples were prepared as described above for each
series and mix and were cured in a desiccator at 100 % humidity. The samples were removed
from the desiccator at the end of the required curing periods and tested for ucc strength as per
the standard method as described before. The stress-strain curves and test results are
presented in Fig. 6.2 to 6.5 and Tables 6.3 and 6.4 respectively.
145
3.5 3.5
BC Soil: IMM. Test BC Soil (100%) : IMM. Test
BC Soil: 7 D. Test BCBFA (80+20) : IMM. Test
3.0 BC Soil: 28 D. Test 3.0 BCBFA (60+40) : IMM. Test
BCBFA (40+60) : IMM. Test
BCBFA (20+80) : IMM. Test
2.5 2.5
Stress (kPa * 102)
Stress (kPa * 102)

BFA (100): IMM. Test
BFA +CaO (8.5%): IMM. Test
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Strain (%) Strain (%)
6.2(a). BC Soil 6.2(b). BC Soil+BFA (IMM) mixes
0.6 0.6
BCBFA(20+80) : IMM. Test
BFA(100%) : IMM. Test BCBFA(20+80) : 7 D Test
0.5 BFA(100%) : 7 D Test 0.5 BCBFA(20+80) : 28 D Test
BFA(100%) : 28 D Test
Stress (kPa * 102)
0.4
Stress (kPa * 102)
0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6.2(c). Badarpur fly ash 6.2(d). BC Soil+BFA (20+80) mixes
Fig. 6.2 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes for different curing periods
146
1.6 2.5
BCBFA(40+60) : IMM. Test BCBFA(60+40) : IMM. Test
1.4 BCBFA(40+60) : 7 D Test BCBFA(60+40) : 7 D Test
BCBFA(40+60) : 28 D Test BCBFA(60+40) : 28 D Test
2.0
1.2
Stress (kPa * 102)
Stress (kPa * 102)

1.0
1.5
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6.3(a). BC Soil+BFA (40+60) mixes 6.3(b). BC Soil+BFA (60+40) mixes
3.0 1.8
BCBFA(80+20) : IMM. Test BFA+CaO (8.5%): IMM. Test
BCBFA(80+20) : 7 D Test 1.6 BFA+CaO (8.5%): 7 D. Test
2.5 BCBFA(80+20) : 28 D Test BFA+CaO (8.5%): 28 D. Test
1.4
Stress (kPa * 102)
Stress (kPa * 102)
2.0 1.2
1.0
1.5
0.8
1.0 0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6.3(c). BC Soil+BFA (80+20) mixes 6.3(d). BFA+ CaO(8.5%) mixes
Fig. 6.3 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Badarpur fly ash mixes for different curing periods
147
3.5 4.0
BC Soil: IMM. Test BC Soil (100%) : IMM. Test
BC Soil: 7 D. Test BCNFA (90+10) : IMM. Test
3.0 3.5 BCNFA (80+20) : IMM. Test
BC Soil: 28 D. Test
BCNFA (60+40) : IMM. Test
3.0 BCNFA (40+60) : IMM. Test
2.5
Stress (kPa * 102)

Stress (kPa * 102)
2.5 NFA (100%) : IMM. Test

2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6.4(a). BC Soil 6.4(b). BC Soil+NFA (IMM) mixes
55 50
NFA (100 %) : IMM. Test BCNFA (20+80) : IMM. Test
50 NFA (100 %) : 7 D. Test 45 BCNFA (20+80): 7 D. Test
NFA (100 %) : 28 D. Test BCNFA (20+80) : 28 D. Test
45 40
40
35
Stress (kPa * 102)
Stress (kPa * 102)
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
6.4(c). Neyveli fly ash 6.4(d). BC Soil+NFA (20+80) mixes
Fig. 6.4 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes for different curing periods
148
45 25
BCNFA (40+60) : IMM. Test BCNFA (60+40) : IMM. Test
40 BCNFA (40+60) : 7 D. Test BCNFA (60+40) : 7 D. Test
BCNFA (40+60) : 28 D. Test BCNFA (60+40) : 28 D. Test
35 20
Stress (kPa * 102)
30
Stress (kPa * 102)

15
25
20
10
15
10
5
5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
6.5(a). BC Soil+NFA (40+60) mixes 6.5(b). BC Soil+NFA (60+40) mixes
12 8
11 BCNFA (90+10) : IMM. Test
BCNFA (80+20) : 7 D. Test 7 BCNFA (90+10) : 7 D. Test
10 BCNFA (80+20) : 28 D. Test
BCNFA (90+10) : 28 D. Test
9 6
Stress (kPa * 102)
Stress (kPa * 102)
8
5
7
6 4
5
3
4
3 2
2
1
1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6.5(c). BC Soil+NFA (80+20) mixes 6.5(d). BC Soil+NFA (90+10) mixes
Fig. 6.5 Stress-strain curves for BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash mixes for different curing periods
149
TABLE 6.3 UCC Strength Test Results
IMMEDIATE TEST SERIES (BC + BFA)

Sample Condition Failure Failure Ei Es
strength strain
BC SOIL BFA kg/cm2 (%) kg/cm2 kg/cm2
100 0 1.82 3.6667 0.9339 0.91

80 20 1.92 3.3333 0.9289 0.8
60 40 1.115 3.66667 0.4644 0.4206
40 60 0.62 3 0.2787 0.2583
20 80 0.403 3 0.1858 0.183
0 100 0.387 3 0.1858 0.18
0 100+Ca(8.5%) 0.62 2.6666 0.2787 0.2818
7 DAYS CURING SERIES (BC + BFA)
100 0 2.02 1.6667 1.6754 1.6864

80 20 2.04 2 1.8578 1.8577
60 40 1.146 3.666667 0.5728 0.5255
40 60 0.805 2.66667 0.5573 0.5373
20 80 0.42 3 0.3716 0.3483
0 100 0.403 3.333 0.2787 0.2013
0 100 1.05 3 0.5573 0.4785
28 DAYS CURING SERIES (BC + BFA)
100 0 2.685 2 2.1275 1.9739

80 20 2.04 2 2.0435 1.8577
60 40 1.61 2 1.1985 1.2385
40 60 1.022 2.6666 0.836 0.73
20 80 0.434 2.666 0.4644 0.3941
0 0.418 3.3333 0.2787 0.22
0 100+Ca(8.5%) 1.34 4 0.7431 0.7483
150
TABLE 6.4 Ucc Strength Test Results
IMMEDIATE TEST SERIES (BC + NFA)
Sample Condition Failure strength Failure strain Ei Es
BC SOIL NFA kg/cm2 (%) kg/cm2 kg/cm2
100 0 1.82 3.6667 0.9339 0.91

90 10 1.9 3 0.9753 0.9636
80 20 1.982 4.666 1.0218 0.9908
60 40 2.1054 1.8333 1.4862 1.5039
40 60 2.23 1.5 1.672 1.6725
20 80 2.384 1.5 1.8577 1.8339
0 100 2.663 1.5 1.8839 1.8364
7 DAYS CURING SERIES (BC + NFA)
100 0 2.02 1.6667 1.6754 1.6864

90 10 4.46 1.5 3.8247 3.7136
80 20 8.8 1.8333 7.431 7.5862
60 40 17.1 2.333 9.9079 10.059
40 60 31.86 2.8333 12.827 12.744
20 80 33.7102 1.6667 23.451 24.079
0 100 37.62 1.5 38.107 37.62
28 DAYS CURING SERIES (BC + NFA)
100 0 2.685 2 2.1275 1.9739

90 10 5.6 2.6666 4.1613 3.9809
80 20 9.413 1.6666 8.3998 8.4802
60 40 19.5062 2 10.486 10.266
40 60 36.94 2.66667 17.339 16.791
20 80 38.84 2 37.609 37.346
0 100 44.95 1.6666 38.287 38.75
151
To study the stress-strain characteristics, unconfined compression tests were carried out on
black cotton soil-fly ash samples compacted at 0.95γdmax and corresponding water content dry
side of optimum for each series of testing program.
Unconfined compression strength values of various black cotton soil-fly ash mixes for
different curing periods have been presented in Table No. 6.3 and 6.4 respectively.
6.5.1 Black Cotton Soil:
Black Cotton Soil exhibit immediate (with out curing) ucc strength of 1.82 kg/cm2
(182 kPa) whereas unconfined compressive strength (ucs) at 7 days and 28 days curing
periods is 2.02 kg/cm2 (202 kPa) and 2.685 kg/cm2 (268.5 kPa) respectively. The increase in
the ucc strength of black cotton soil for 7 days and 28 days curing periods results firstly, by
the pozzolanic reaction that takes place (due to the lime content present in the soil), and
secondly, due to thixotrophy. Thixotropy is the property of certain clays by virtue of which
they regain, if let for a long time, a part of the strength at unaltered moisture content. The
increase in strength with passage of time is attributed to the tendency of cohesive soils to
regain their chemical equilibrium, with orientation of water molecules in the adsorbed water
layer. The higher the sensitivity, the larger the thixotropic hardening. The soil uses the lime
for cation exchange and pozzolanic reaction.
6.5.2 Fly Ashes
Fly Ashes containing a sufficient amount of base-soluble silica are reactive fly ashes. The
base-soluble silica reacts with lime in the presence of water and produce cementitious
compounds, leading to development of strength. The strength of a given fly ash varies with
lime content up to a certain percentage of lime (termed as optimum lime content) beyond
which it may reduce or rate of increase in the strength is negligible.
Addition of fly ash increases the ucc strength of various soil-fly ash mixes. Unlike BFA,
NFA exhibited very high ucc strength due to the presence of significant amounts of base-
soluble silica (base-soluble silica and free lime are part of the total silica and total calcium
respectively). The “ucs” values of various mixes are presented in Table No. 6.3 and 6.4.
152
6.5.3 Effect of Varying Fly Ash Content
The variation of ucc strength of black cotton soil with various percentage contents of BFA
and NFA at different curing periods (ie., immediate ; 7days; and 28 days) is shown in Fig.
No.6.6 to 6.7 respectively.
On addition of small amounts of fly ash (10 %), the immediate ucc strength of black cotton
soil remains essentially unaffected @ 1.9 kg/cm2 (190 kPa) whereas there is a significant
increase of 3.75 kg/cm2 (375 kPa) in the ucc strength for 7 days curing period and marginal
increase of 4.5 kg/cm2 (450 kPa) for 28 days curing period. This is due to the reason that all
the cementitious compounds are developed within 7 days curing period and very few
compounds are left that develop during the 28 days curing period. Hence this is of vital
importance for field engineers from time and economical point of view.
Additions of Badarpur fly ash has decreased the immediate “ucc” strength of black cotton soil
(Fig. 6.7). This is because the pozzolanic reaction is a time-dependent process, and fly ash
not undergoing the pozzolanic reaction behaves just like silt. But it may be noted that even
for the samples tested immediately, there is some time lapse during preparation of a sample
and before testing. The very similar immediate ucc strength of black cotton soil on addition
of a low percentage of fly ash shows that the decrease has been compensated by the
pozzolanic reaction that takes place during this lapsed time. This pozzolanic reaction is
between the fly ash and the free lime present in it.
After curing, the strength of “BC Soil + NFA” increases with an increase in the percentage
content of fly ash. This is due to the influence of the pozzolanic reaction between fly ash and
free lime, which dominates the influence of silty fly ash particles. The pozzolanic compounds
formed bind the soil particles and enhance the strength.
At low NFA content <60 %), there is a significant increase in strength compared to higher
percentage of fly ash content. This is because the matrix formed by the BC Soil is only
marginally disturbed by the fly ash particles. The rate of increase of strength with increase in
the percentage content of fly ash between 60% to 80 % is too low, because the matrix formed
by the BC Soil is increasingly disturbed with increase in fly ash content. The increase in
strength due to pozzolanic reaction with an increase in the fly ash content is not enough to
match the strength loss due to disturbance of the soil matrix. However, at higher percentage
of fly ash (>80 %), the matrix is primarily formed by fly ash particles and the soil particles
are accommodated within this matrix leading to a greater increase in strength with increase in
153
the fly ash content. The variation of “ucc” strength of BC Soil-Neyveli fly ash for different
curing periods is shown in Fig. 6.6 and the variation of ucc strength of BC Soil + BFA and
NFA for immediate test series is shown in Fig. No.6.7.
50 3.5
IMM. Test Series
45 7 Days Test Series IMM. Test Series : BFA
3.0
28 Days Test Series
40 IMM. Test Series : NFA
35 2.5
Stress (kPa *102)

Stress (kPa *102)
30
2.0
25
1.5
20
15 1.0
10
0.5
5
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Neyveli fly ash (%) Fly ash content (%)
Fig. 6.6 Variation of strength with addition Fig. 6.7 Variation of strength with addition
of Neyveli fly ash to BC Soil of BFA & NFA to BC Soil
6.5.4 Effect of Varying BFA Content (with out Additives)
The unconfined compressive strength of BC Soil decreases continuously with an increase in

the percentage content of BFA (as seen from Fig. No.6.8) for both, immediate and higher
curing periods. This is because, in the absence of pozzolanic reactions, fly ash behaves just
like silt, and can only decrease the ucc strength of soil. Thus, BFA because of its poor
reactivity & low free lime content canonly decrease the strength of black cotton soil.
Hence, with an increase in the fly ash content (except for 80+20 mix, where there is a
marginal increase in ucc strength) the strength of BC Soil decreases or, conversely, the
strength of BFA increases. At all percentage contents of BFA, the increase in strength with
curing period is also negligible. This is again because of absence of lime content and hence
poor reactivity of BFA. The difference in the behavior of BFA and NFA mixtures is due to
differences in their free lime content and reactivity.
154
6.5.5 Effect of BFA With Lime (8.5 %)
As per chemical analysis, there is a difference of 8,5 % of lime content between BFA and
NFA. To make BFA at par with NFA, an additional lime content (Ca (OH)2) of 8.5 % was
added to BFA in dry state and mixed thoroughly for immediate and higher curing periods.
The variation of ucc strength is shown in Fig. No.6.7. From Fig., it is observed that the
addition of 8,5 % lime does not affect the ucc strength of BFA much because of non-
availability of reactive silica. Though there is a sligth increase in ucc strength compared to
BFA alone, it can not be compared with NFA at all.
6.5.6 Effect Of Curing
Unconfined compression tests were conducted on specimens cured for 7 days and 28 days
respectively. UCC Strength (cured) of fly ashes is a measure of their apparent cohesion. The
rate of increase in strength is higher initially and then gradual for NFA. After 7 days of curing
the strength has become essentially constant indicating that the pozzolanic reaction is
completed within 7 days. As seen from Fig. 6.5, the strain corresponding to the peak stress
decreases with in crease in curing period, i.e., the cohesion is mobilized at lower strains for
higher curing periods. Thus, care has to be taken for higher strains in case of higher curing
periods where ucc strength decreases tremendously. Therefore, some additive has to be used
in case higher strength is required at higher strains where fly ash alone can not be strong
enough to bear higher loads.
In case of BFA, there is not much gain in “ucc” strength for the reasons as cited earlier that
there is no free reactive silica available in BFA. The variation in ucc strength of different fly
ashes can be explained effectively based on the reactive silica and free lime content. Fly
ashes having low reactive silica can not give good strength even on addition of lime. The
variation of strength with curing time for soil-fly ash mixes is shown if Fig. 6.9.
155
3.0 6.0
*:Samples compacted at 0.95ydmax., NFA-100% NFA-80%
5.5 NFA- 60% NFA-40%
and corresponding water content on
2.5 dry of optimum 5.0 NFA-20% NFA-10%
BC SOIL-100%
4.5
BFA 4.0
Stress (kPa * 102)

2.0
Stress (kPa *102)
+
CaO (8.5%) 3.5
1.5 3.0
2.5
1.0 2.0
1.5
0.5 IMM. Test Series 1.0
7 Days Test Series
0.5
28 Days Test Series
0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 7 14 21 28
Badarpur fly ash (%) Curing time (Days)
Fig. 6.8 Variation of strength with addition Fig. 6.9 Variation of strength with curing
of Badarpur fly ash to BC Soil time for BC Soil- NFA mixes
6.5.7 Comparsion of UCC Strength of Fly Ashes with Pozzolanic Reactivity
Unconfined compression strength of fly ashes varies greatly from fly ash to fly ash as
observed above (i.e., BFA vs NFA). For a given fly ash the strength varies with free lime
content and with curing time. UCC Strength (cured) of fly ashes is only due to pozzolanic
reaction. Thus, ucc strength with lime can be taken as a measure of pozzolanic reactivity.
However, there is a standard test to obtain the pozzolanic reactivity of fly ashes.
6.5.8 Initial & Secant Modulus Sections
The initial Tangent Modulus (Ei) and Secant Modulus (Es) for these fly ashes are measured
and represented in Table No. 6.3 and 6. 4 respectively. Tangent modulus is defined as the
slope of a line tangent to the stress-strain curve at a point of interest. Tangent modulus can
have any value depending on the point at which it is determined. Tangent modulus is equal to
the young’s modulus when the point of tangency falls within the linear range of the stress-
strain curve. The variation of modulli with fly ash content and curing time is shown in
Fig. 6.11.
156
2.5 40
Ei v/s BFA:IMM Ei v/s NFA_7D
Es v/s BFA:IMM 35
Es v/s NFA_7D
2.0 Ei v/s BFA:7D Ei v/s NFA_28D
Es v/s BFA:7D 30
Es v/s NFA_28D
Ei v/s BFA:28D
Ei, Es (kPa *102)

Ei, Es (kPa *102)
25
1.5 Es v/s BFA:28D
BFA+CaO (8.5%)
20
1.0
15
10
0.5
5
0.0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
6.10(a). Variation with BFA 6.10(b). Variation with NFA
3.0 45
Ei: BC-100% Es: BC-100%
Ei: BFA-100% Es: BFA-100% 40
2.5 Ei: BFA-80% Es: BFA-80%
Ei: BFA-60% Es: BFA-60% 35 Ei: BC-100%
Ei: BFA-40% Es: BFA-40% Ei: NFA-100%
Ei, Es (kPa * 102)
2.0 30
Ei (kPa * 102)
Ei: NFA-80%
25 Ei: NFA-60%
1.5 Ei: NFA-40%
Ei: BFA-20% 20 Ei: NFA-20%
Es: BFA-20%
Ei: NFA-10%
1.0 Ei: BFA+CaO 15
Es: BFA+CaO
10
0.5
5
0.0 0
0 7 14 21 28 0 7 14 21 28
Curing time (Days) Curing time (Days)
6.10(c). Variation with curing time (BFA) 6.10(d). Variation with curing time (NFA)
Fig. 6.10 Variation of Modulli with fly ash content and curing time for BC Soil-fly ash mixes
157
Initial tangent modulus is a tangent drawn to the initial straight portion of stress-strain curve
originating from the origin. It is mostly used to describe the stiffness of a material in the
plastic range and it is denoted by Ei (kg/cm2).
Secant modulus is the slope of a line drawn from the origin of the stress-strain curve diagram
and intersecting the curve at the point of 50 % of failure strength/ maxm. deviator stress. It is
used to describe the stiffness of a material in the in-elastic region of the stress-strain diagram.
It is usually employed when the stress-strain diagram curve for a material does not exhibit
linearity of stress to strain. It is denoted by Es (kg/cm2).
The tangent modulus and the secant modulus are not constant for a soil and have to be
specified over stress-strain ranges. The use of initial tangent modulus is often recommended.
The reasons are:
• Soil is elastic in this region and there is less variation between different curves;
• The initial tangent modulus is higher than the secant modulus.
The schematic presentation of modulli is shown in Fig. 11
3.5 3.5
Initial Tangent Modulus Secant Modulus
3.0 3.0
2.5 dy 2.5
Stress (kPa * 102)
Stress (kPa * 102)
dx
2.0 2.0
Maxm. stress
1.5 1.5
1.0 Ei = dy/dx 1.0

50 % of Maxm stress
0.5 Initial straight portion 0.5 dy Es = dy/dx
of stress-strain curve dx
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a). Initial Tangent Modulus (Ei) (b). Secant Modulus (Es)
Fig. 11 Definition of Modulli
158
1. It has been observed from this study that fly ashes alter ucc strength of BC Soil
significantly by the following mechanisms:
(a). Due to pozzolanic reactions which increase the strength, and
(b). Reaction in cohesion strength of clayey soils by the silty nature of the fly ash particles.
2. For fly ashes with higher reactivity, the effect of pozzolanic reactions over-ride the effect
of silty behavior and vice versa for low –reactive fly ash.
3. In absence of reactive silica, addition of lime is not much beneficial.
4. Addition of low reactive fly ash continuously reduces the strength of the soil studied.
5. Wide variation exists in the ucc strength of fly ashes & no valid mechanisms are reported
for this wide variation.
6. In essence, ucc strength of soils can be increased by addition of reactive fly ash.
7. The ucc strength for BFA is 0.387 kg/cm2; 0.403 kg/cm2; 7 0.414 kg/cm2 for immediate,
7 days and 28 days test series respectively.
8. The ucc strength for BFA+Ca(8.5%) is 0.62 kg/cm2; 1.05 kg/cm2; & 1.34 kg/cm2 for
immediate. 7days and 28 days test series
9. The ucc strength for NFA is 2.68 kg/cm2; 37.5 kg/cm2; & 45 kg/cm2 for immediate, 7days
and 28 days test series respectively.
10. The ucc strength values for soil-fly ash mixes are given in Table No. 6.3 and 6.4
11. As per classification of clay based on consistency and qu values, BC Soil can be
classified as “STIFF TO HARD” consistency.
********
159
CH
C AP
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PT R 77
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SU
S MM
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MA YA
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AN CO
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ON LU
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SIIO
US NS
S
Soil is one of the most commonly encountered materials in civil engineering and is used in
many Engineering structures such as embankments, dams and pavements. All structures
except those founded on solid rock, regardless of the material by which they are constructed,
rest ultimately upon soil. Thus, the behavior of the soil at the location of any project and the
interactions of the earth materials during and after construction of the facility have a major
influence on the success, economy, and safety of the work.
Buildings in black cotton soils have posed serious problems of distortion and cracking. It is is
a worldwide phenomena. It is so even in India, 20 % of whose landmass is covered by black
cotton soil. Damages are known to occur both while the soil is swelling and shrinking. Both
swelling potential and swelling pressure depend on a host of factors like dry density, moisture
content, stress history, relative rigidity of foundation and soil, water inflow characteristics,
local climate etc. The shrinkage potential, likewise, is complex and much less understood.
Thus, there is a dire need for stabilization of this problematic soil to avoid any further loss of
property and economy.
On the other hand, thermal power stations are using pulverized coal as fuel producing
enormous quantities of ash as a by-product of combustion, and with a very small utilization
of less than 10% of fly ash produced (in India), it is expected to become alarming due to the
limited space available for ash disposal near most of the thermal power stations. The
disposal of this huge quantity of ash is posing serious health hazards and environmental
pollution. Therefore, this calls for strategies to encourage and establish technological feasible,
cost effective and environment friendlly disposal methods.
The best technique to handle the problems posed by black cotton soil and the huge quantity of
fly ash produced is to blend or mix both together so that soil can be modified and fly ash can
be utilized. With this idea in mind, an attempt has been made to study the effect of fly ash on
the engineering properties of black cotton soils.
160
In this study, two fly ashes, namely, Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly ash were procured from
their respective places, and two soils, black cotton soil (procured from Davangere,
Karnataka) and red soil (relatively inert material collected from IISc campus) were used.
Prior to use the fly ash in geotechnical applications, it is important to study the engineering
properties (which includes compaction characteristics, compressibility and permeability
characteristics, and strength parameters), of soil-fly ash mixes in detail to enable its use as a
construction material in embankments for highways, fill material in low-lying areas and back
fill material in retaining walls.
A comprehensive study has been carried out on both the fly ashes to understand their effect
as a stabilizer of soil. The study brings out the characteristics of various physical and
engineering properties of the two fly ashes and the soils with the following conclusions
summarized as: -
1. The physical properties viz. particle size, gradation and surface characteristics
are considerably different for fly ashes and soils. Silt size fraction is the major portion in
the fly ash whereas clay size is the dominant one in soils. Fly ash was found to be non-
plastic. Neyveli fly ash was found to be a poorly graded material or of uniformly sized
silty material. Badarpur fly ash was found to be a well-graded and finer material
compared to Neyveli fly ash. Fly ashes consist predominantly of silt sized fraction with
some clay size fraction. Neyveli fly ash has coefficient of uniformity, Cu = 1.5 and
coefficient of curvature, Cc = 0.8. The coal ashes can be classified as sandy silt to silty
sand. The hydrometer analysis for the fractions of fly ash passing 75 micron IS sieve can
be carried out without using the dispersing agent. The index properties of black cotton
soil are significantly altered by the addition of fly ash. The extent of variation depends on
the particle size distribution, free lime content and pozzolanic reactivity of the fly ash.
The effect of lime on the properties of a soil is to a major extent by cation exchange and
flocculation. The pozzolanic activity of fly ash influences soil properties by the
formation of gelatinous pozzolanic reaction compounds and the effect of fly ash is
dependent upon the lime content. Coarser and inert fly ash particles reduce the clay
activity leading to consequent changes in soil properties. Liquid limit is the important
parameter from point view of compressibility. Since coal ashes are non-plastic in nature,
one-point method has been suggested for the determination of liquid limit. Ashes are
essentially non-plastic, hence plastic limits and shrinkage limits cannot be determined.
161
While flocculation and formation of pozzolanic reaction compounds increase the liquid
limit of the soil, reduction in the diffuse double layer thickness reduces the liquid limit.
The effect of the coarseness of the fly ash particles is also to decrease the liquid limit.
Decrease in liquid limits and increase in shrinkage limits clearly indicates that after
addition of fly ash to the black cotton soil, it tends to become non-expansive in nature.
Decrease in plasticity index also indicates the reduction in plasticity of expansive soil on
addition of fly ash. Whatever be the effect of fly ash on the liquid and plastic limit of the
soil, generally it decreases the plasticity index of the soil as seen from Fig.3.10.
Comparison of liquid limit of various ashes can be made only after their normalization
with respect to specific gravity.
2. Addition of fly ash to soils increases the optimum moisture content and decreases the
maximum dry density. Increase in optimum moisture content is due to the presence of
hollow cenospheres in fly ash as well as increase in the surface are of solids. Decrease in
maximum dry density is because of the low specific gravity of fly ashes resulting in low
unit weight compared to soils. Fly ashes have flatter compaction curves, which indicates
that these are not sensitive to changes in water content. Hence, to achieve the required
compaction, precise control of water may not be required during compaction. This aspect
is useful since fly ash can be compacted over a wide range of water content with out
appreciable change in its dry density. The compaction characteristics of all soil-fly ash
mixes are presented in Chapter 4
3. To estimate the settlement of structures placed on a fly ash fill, one dimensional
consolidation tests were conducted on all soil-fly ash composite samples compacted at
their 0.95 γdmax and corresponding water content on dry side of optimum with and with
out curing periods, and the test results are given in Chapter 5. From the test results, it is
seen that with the addition of fly ash to soil, plasticity reduces and workability increases.
With increase in percent fly ash, both swell potential and collapse potential are reduced
such that the swelling soil becomes non-swelling in nature. It has been observed that 10
% of Neyveli fly ash is the optimum amount required to minimize the swell potential
compared to 40 % of Badarpur fly ash (Fig. 5.7b). This high difference between the two
fly ashes is due to the free lime content present in them. Neyveli fly ash is self-
pozzolanic in nature and hence more effective compared to Badarpur fly ash, which is
non-pozzolanic in nature. With increase in percent fly ash and curing time, compression
162
index gets reduced and stability increased. The coefficient of consolidation decreases
with increase in percent fly ash and effective consolidation pressure.
4. The coefficient of permeability or the hydraulic conductivity was determined for each
mix combination. It has been observed that with increase in percent fly ash, void ratio
increases and hence the permeability increases. For both fly ashes having same void
ratio, Neyveli fly ash has less permeability. This is because of cementation bonds formed
due to the free lime present in the Neyveli fly ash. Further, it has been noticed that with
increase in curing time, permeability of Neyveli fly ash decreases because of cementation
due to free lime reduces the interconnectivity of pores resulting in a reduced
permeability.
5. Consolidation pressure has negligible effect on the permeability Class ‘C’ (Neyveli) fly
ash. For Neyveli fly ash, high preconsolidation pressure is noticed with increase in curing
time which is due to cementation. But there is not much difference between the values
for 7 days and 28 days curing time, which indicates that almost all the cementation takes
place within 7 days itself. With increase in percent fly ash, void ratio and permeability of
the composite sample increase. This indicates the addition of fly ash to fine grained soils
makes it granular leading to higher coefficient of permeability. Thus, the plasticity of
fine-grained soils is reduced and workability increased.
6. Unconfined compression strength tests were conducted on each composite sample, and it
has been observed that fly ashes alter the ucc strength of BC soil significantly due to
pozzolanic reactions which increase the strength. For fly ashes with higher reactivity, the
effect of pozzolanic reactions over-rides the effect of silty behavior and vice versa for
low–reactive fly ash. In absence of reactive silica, addition of lime is not much
beneficial. Addition of low reactive fly ash continuously reduces the strength of the soil
studied.
7. In essence, ucc strength of soils can be increased by the addition of reactive fly ash. The
unconfined compression strength for Badarpur fly ash is 0.387 kg/cm2; 0.403 kg/cm2;
0.414 kg/cm2 for immediate. 7 days and 28 days test series respectively. The unconfined
compression strength for BFA+Ca (8.5%) is 0.62 kg/cm2; 1.05 kg/cm2; and 1.34 kg/cm2
for immediate. 7days and 28 days test series. The unconfined compression strength for
Neyveli fly ash is 2.66 kg/cm2; 37.62 kg/cm2; and 44.95 kg/cm2 for immediate, 7days
163
and 28 days test series respectively. The unconfined compression strength values for
soil-fly ash mixes are given in Tables 6.3 and 6.4
8. There was no large-scale concerted effort for promoting fly ash utilization. Technologies
and researches were generally isolated with a little emphasis on commercialization.
Though attempts were made for the use of fly ash in manufacturing bricks, cellular
concrete, prefab items, cement, reclamation of low lying areas and construction of roads,
the desired impact could not be achieved
9. This study has shown that treatment of soils using fly ash can be used effectively in the
stabilization of problematic soils. More importantly, it offers an interesting potential for
making use of an industrial waste. Hence the study brings out the bulk and effective
utilization of fly ash, on one hand affords a means of disposing off the power plant by
product without adversely affecting the environment and on the other hand proves to be
an effective admixture for improving the soil.
********
164
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THE EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF BLACK

Thesis · December 2001

Bashir Ahmed Mir

Stabilization of Expansive soils View project

Geomechanical Behavior of Dredged Soil: Part-2 View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

GOLDEN JUBILEE EEAR 2000-2001

therefore, be of great importance.

ash and the health hazards posed if not managed properly.

utilization of fly ash for geotechnical engineering applications.

additives, lime provides an economic and powerful means of improvement, as demonstrated

by the significant transformation that is evident on mixing with heavy clay.

using fly ash in many geotechnical applications are compaction characteristics,

(1). The compaction behavior of soil-fly ash mixes

aspects connected with the present study.

of soil-fly ash mixes is studied in detail.

Chapter 5 presents the compressibility/consolidation and permeability characteristics of soil-

engineering properties. The compressibility characteristics such as compression index and

mixes without and with different curing periods is of vital importance.

lime content, carbon content and particle size.

Chapter 7 presents the summary and conclusions of the present work.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF A SOIL 24

1.4 STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL 25

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK 26

2.1 BLACK COTTON SOILS 27

2.1.2 Origin and general properties 27

2.1.3 What are expansive soils? 29

2.1.5 Identification and classification of expansive soils 35

2.1.6 Swelling potential / expansivity classification 38

2.2 BEHAVIOR OF BLACK COTTON SOILS / EXPANSIVE SOILS 44

2.2.1 Why are expansive soils “EXPANSIVE”? 44

2.2.2 What can cause the soil to Swell or Shrink? 44

2.2.3 Why do expansive soils “HEAVE”? 45

2.2.4 How much will the soil Heave or Shrink? 46

2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING SWELLING AND SHRINKING

CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK COTTON SOILS 46

2.3.1 Factors influencing swelling characteristics of black cotton soils 46

2.3.2 Factors influencing shrinking of expansive soils 49

2.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPANSIVE SOILS 51

2.4.1 Geologic Context 51

2.4.2 Creep & Settlement 53

2.5 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 54

2.5.1 Pre-Construction Solutions 54

2.5.2 Post-Construction Solutions 54

2.6 PREVENTIVE DESIGN CONCEPTS 55

2.6.1 Planning and building siting 55

2.6.2 Special foundation 55

2.6.3 Fill blanket 55

2.7.2 Material Description 57

2.7.3 Overview of utilization 58

2.7.4 Fly ash applications 60

2.7.5 Fly Ash Classification 61

2.7.6 Material properties 61

2.7.7 Engineering Properties 64

2.8 FEATURES OF FLY ASH 68

2.10 WHAT IS A POZZOLAN? 70

2.10.1 Natural pozzolan 70

2.10.2 Artifical pozzolan 71

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.3 PROPERTIES AND METHOD OF TESTING OF SOILS 72

3.3.1 Physical properties 72

3.3.2 Engineering properties of soils 76