Electricity and magnetism ‘At present, spacecraft are launched in to space using. rockets. These use burning fuel as their energy source to blast upwards against the force of gravity. However, things may be different in future. The picture shows a different way of launching a spacecraft, using a ‘magnetic levitation (mag-lev) system. The idea is that a spacecraft will travel along a horizontal track, rather like an airport runway. The track will be made of electromagnets, which will do two things: they will support the spacecraft so that it will loat just above the track, and they will accelerate the spacecraft forwards. Once it reaches a speed of 1000 km/h, it will leave the ground and a rocket will provide the final push needed to send it in to orbit. A track like this could be used for several launches each day. ‘The red loops in the picture show the magnetic field produced by the electromagnet coils (gold coloured). Of course, we cannot see a magnetic field like this, but ‘we draw field lines to help us to show what is going on. In this block, you will study electricity and magnetism and learn some of the ways in which physicists picture ‘invisible processes such as magnetic and electric fields, electric current and s0 on. 'A computer-aided design for a mag-ley spacecraft launching system, being developed by engineers at NASA (USA) and the Univesity of Sussex (UK), Block 4: ety and magnetismea 1 . 6 Magnetism Ree CART RTT RTT ‘@ about permanent magnets and magnetic mater ‘how to magnetise a magnetic material © how to demagnetise a magnetic material ¢ how electromagnets are made and used, ‘¢ how to explain magnetic forces in terms of magnetic fields a course ‘When Christopher Columbus set sail in 1492, he ‘was hoping to find a new route to the East Indies by sailing west, To plot his course, he used a compass. He believed that the needle of a compass always points ‘due north, and so it was easy to sail due west. In fact, he was wrong. A compass needle points towards the magnetic pole, and this is some distance away from the North Pole. This meant that Columbus's course across the Atlantic Ocean took him further south than he had intended to go. This had a happy consequence. ‘Columbus had been sailing for several weeks without sighting land. His crew were getting restless and stores were running low. He was on the point of turning back when the lookout sighted land. They had reached one of the Caribbean islands of the Bahamas (Figure 16.1). It turns out that, if Columbus had realised that his compass pointed a few degrees away from north, he would have travelled further to the north, He would have turned back before he ever reached land. Compasses were vital instruments in the ‘expansion of European nations as they looked for new places to trade with and conquer in the 15th and 16th centuries. With @ compass and a reliable chart, | 2 Figure 16.1. This map, published in 1506, shows the lands explored by Columbus. The Bahamas, where he fst landed, ate atthe top, above the two large islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. On the right sa ‘compass rose’ used for navigation. you could set a steady course for your target port and have a good chance of reaching it. A compass ‘was made by rubbing an iron needle on a piece of naturally magnetised material called lodestone. Ifyou carried your lodestone with you, you could always make a new compass, Historians have discovered that Furopeans learned about magnets from the Chinese, who had been using compasses for over 1500 years before they reached Europe.16.1 Permanent magnets ‘A compass needle is like a bar magnet. When it is free to rotate (Figure 16.2), it turns to point north-south. (One end points north ~ this is the magnet’s north pole, pointing roughly in the direction of the Earth’ geographical North Pole. The other end is the magnets south pole. (Sometimes, the north and south poles of ‘a magnet are called the ‘north-seeking’ and ‘south- secking’ poles, respectively.) ‘When two magnets are brought close together, there isa force between them. The north pole of one will attract the south pole of the other, Two north poles will, repel each other, and two south poles will repel each other (Figure 16.3). This is summarised as follows: # like poles repel + unlike poles attract (‘Like poles’ means poles that are the same ~ both, north, or both south, ‘Unlike poles’ means opposite orth, —— Figure 162. A freely suspended magnet tums so that it points north-south, — a ==S Figure 16.3 Two ike magnatic poles repel one another. bb Two unlike magnetic poles attract each other poles - one north and the other south, People often remember this rule more simply as ‘opposites attract.) Since the north pole of the compass needle is attracted to the Earth’s North Pole, it follows that there must be a magnetic south pole up there, under the Arctic ice! It is easy to get confused about this. In fact, for a long time, mediaeval scientists thought that compass needles were attracted to the Pole Star. Eventually, an English instrument-maker called Robert Norman noticed that, if he balanced 2 compass needle very carefully at its midpoint, it tilted downwards slightly, pointing into the Earth. Now we know that the Earth itself is magnetised, rather as if there was a giant bar magnet inside it. Bm Remember that the Earth has a magnetic south pole close to its geographical North Pole. Magnetic materials ‘A compass needle isa permanent magnet. Like many bar magnets, it is made of hard steel. You have probably come across another type of magnetic material, called ferrite. This isa ceramic material used for making fridge ‘magnets and the magnets sometimes used to keep cupboard doors shut. There are also small ‘rare-earth’ ‘magnets in the headphones used with MP3 players, based on elements such as neodymium, ‘Most magnetic materials (including steel and ferrite) contain iron, the commonest magnetic element For this reason, they are known as ferrous materials (Grom the Latin word ferrum meaning ‘iror’). Other magnetic elements include cobalt and nickel (Ifa ‘material contains iron, this is not a guarantee that it will bbe magnetic. Stainless steel contains a lot of iron, but ‘magnets will not stick to it) Magnetic materials may be classified as hard or soft. Table 16.1 summarises the difference. A soft magnetic ‘material such as soft iron can be magnetised and demagnetised easily. Magnetisation Usually, magnetic materials are in an unmagnetised state, and they must be magnetised. Two methods |Type of magnetic lial to magnetise in the frst place retains magnetism well, but difficult eile permanent magnets, compass perdi needles, loudspeaker magnets Soft its magnetism easy to magnetise, but readily loses cores for electromagnets, Table 16.1. Hard and soft magnetic materials. ‘Hard steel is both hard to bend and difficult to magnetise and demagnetise. ‘Sof itor’ is both easier to bend and easier to magnetise and demagnetise. of doing this (called magnetisation) are described below: 1A piece of the material may be stroked with a permanent magnet, By stroking it consistently from ‘one end to the other (never going in the reverse direction), it becomes magnetised (see Figure 16.4a). 2 Place the material in a strong magnetic field, as produced by an electromagnet. An electromagnet is, a coil of wire and, for this purpose, itis connected toa battery or power supply so that a steady direct current (d.c.) flows through it (see Figure 16.4b). This produces a magnetic field inside the coil, and this field magnetises the material Demagnetisation Just as there are several wa ys to magnetise a piece of magnetic material, there are several ways of demagnetising a magnet. Three methods of doing this (called demagnetisation) are listed below: 1. Hammer the magnet. When a magnet is placed in an east-west direction and hammered, it loses its ‘magnetism. This explains why the magnets used in school labs gradually lose their magnetism if they are repeatedly dropped and bashed about. 2 Place the magnet in the field of an electromagnet that is connected to an alternating current (a.c.) supply. The magnetic field will vary back and forth. Gradually reduce the current to zero. ‘The magnet will be demagnetised. 3 Heat the magnet. If its temperature goes above a certain temperature, it will lose its magnetism, Sree Remember that a material that is hard to magnetise is also hard to demagnetise. Induced magnetism Abbar magnet is an example ofa permanent magnet, It can remain magnetised. Its magnetism does not get ‘used up Permanent magnets are made ofhard magnetic materials, A permanent magnet can attract or repel another permanent magnet. It can also attract other unmagnetised magnetic materials. For example, a bar this end becomes iron wire Spole b electromagnet Figure 16.4 Two methods for magnetising an iron wire: a using a permanent magnet and b using an electromagnet connected to 8 supply of direct current (4). ,{CL&L_ EPI ‘magnet can attract steel pins or paper clips, and a fridge ‘magnet can stick to the steel door of the fridge. ‘What is going on here? Steel pins are made of a ‘magnetic material. When the north pole of a permanent rr. Activity 16.1 Making magnets Skills ‘A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use ‘techniques, apparatus and materials (indluding following a sequence of instructions where appropiate) ‘A03.2 Plan experiments and investigations ‘AO3.3 Make and record observations, measurements and estimates ‘403.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental observations and data ‘AO3.5 Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements ‘Make and test a magnet. Try to demagnetise it. 1 First, magnetise a length of iron wire by stroking it with a permanent magnet, as shown carlier in Figure 16.4a, You will need to stroke it 50 times or more from one end to the other, always in the same direction, and always with the same pole of the magnet. 2. Now decide how to test your magnet. Will it ‘pick up iron filings, pins or paperclips? If you hang it up so that it can turn freely, will it point north-south? 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 witha steel needle, Steel is ahard magnetic material. Can you magnetise it? 4 Try to demagnetise your iron wire. Bang it with ‘stone or hammer. Can you tell ifit is weaker? Heat it with a Bunsen flame. Does this destroy its magnetism? 5 Can you demagnetise a magnetised iron wire using the opposite pole from the one you used to magnetise it? Points to discuss + Is your method good enough to tell whether the magnetised iron is stronger than the -magnetised steel? ‘@ How does induced magnetism come in to these experiments? — Figure 16:5 A steel pin is temporarily magnetised when a permanent magnet is brought close to it ‘magnet is brought close to a pin, the pin is attracted (see Figure 16.5). The attraction tells us that the end of the pin nearest the magnetic pole must bea magnetic south pole, as shown in Figure 16.5, This is known as induced ‘magnetism. When the permanent magnet is removed, the pin will return to its unmagnetised state (or it may retain a small amount of magnetism). © uestions 16.1 ‘Two bar magnets are placed side by side as shown. Copy the diagram and show the forces the two magnets exert on each other, State whether they will attract or repel each other. b One of the magnets is reversed so that its north pole is where its south pole was. Draw this new situation and show the forces the two magnets now exert on each other. 16.2 Iron is often described as a ‘soft’ magnetic ‘material, Many types of steel are described as ‘hard’ magnetic materials, a Explain the difference between these two types of material, b Explain why a permanent magnet should be ‘made of steel rather than iron. omnes nein16.2 Magnetic fields ‘A magnet affects any piece of magnetic material that is nearby. We say that there is a magnetic field around the ‘magnet. You have probably done experiments with iron filings or small compasses to show up the magnetic field ofa magnet. Figure 16.6 shows the field of a bar magnet, as revealed by iron filings. Figure 16.7a shows how we represent the magnetic field of a single bar magnet, using magnetic field lines. Of course, the field fills all the space around the magnet, but ‘we can only draw a selection of typical lines to represent it, The pattern tells us two things about the field: Direction. If you were to place a tiny compass at a point in the field, it would align itself along the field line at that point. We use a convention that says that field lines come out of north poles and go in to south poles. ‘# Strength. Lines close together indicate a strong field, We can also show the field patterns for two magnets attracting (Figure 16.7b) and repelling (Figure 16.7c) each other. Notice that there is a point between the two repelling magnets where there is no magnetic field. OPO ea LSS Plotting field lines Iron filings can show up the pattern of the magnetic field around a magnet. Place the magnet under a stiff sheet of plain paper or (preferably) clear plastic. Sprinkle filings over the paper or plastic. Tap the paper or plastic to allow the filings to move slightly so that they line up in the field. You should obtain a pattern similar to that shown in Figures 16.6 and 16.7 An alternative method of doing this uses a small compass called a plotting compass. When a plotting compass is placed in a magnetic field, its needle turns to indicate the direction of the field. Activity 16.2 later describes how to use a plotting compass to show the pattern of @ magnetic fied. Electromagnets ‘Using magnetic materials is only one way of making a magnet, An alternative method is to use an electromagnet, A typical electromagnet is made from a coil of copper wite. A col ike this is sometimes called a solenoid. When 2 current flows through the wire, there AA SS Figure 16.6 The magnetic field pattem of abar magnet is shown up by iran filings. The ion filings cluster most strongly ‘around the two poles of the magnet. This s where the field is strongest ED Figure 16.7 _a Field lines are used to represent the magnetic field around a bar magnet. b The attraction between two opposite magnetic poles shows up in their field patter, e The field pattern for two like poles repeling each other ~is a magnetic field around the coil (Figure 16.8). Copper wire is often used, because of its low r other metals will do, The coll does not have to be made from a magnetic material The point is that itis the electric current that produces the magnetic field. You can see that the magnetic field around a solenoid (Figure 16.8) is similar to that around a bar ‘magnet (Figure 16.7a). One end of the coil is a north pole, and the other end isa south pole. In Figure 16.8, the field lines emerge from the left-hand end, so this is the north pole istance, though ‘There are three ways to increase the strength of an electromagnet: + increase the current flowing through it ~ the greater the current, the greater the strength of the field ‘increase the number of turns of wire on the coil - this does not mean making the coil longer, but packing more turns into the same space to concentrate the field add a soft iron core ~ an iron core becomes strongly ‘magnetised by the field, and this makes the whole Figure 16.8 A solenoid. When a current lows through the wire, ‘a magnetic field is produced. The field i similar shape to that ‘of a bar magnet, Note that the fel lines go all the way through the centre of the col ‘magnetic field much stronger. Activity 16.2 Plotting field lines Skills ‘A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use ‘techniques, apparatus and materials (including following a sequence of instructions where appropriate) .A03.2 Plan experiments and investigations ‘NOB.3 Make and record observations, measurements and estimates ‘A034 Interpret and evaluate experimental observations and data lot the magnetic field pattern around a bar ‘magnet and around an electromagnet. 1 Place a bar magnet in the centre ofa sheet of paper and draw round it. 2, Place a plotting compass near one of the poles of the magnet. Mark dots | and 2 on the paper to indicate the two ends of the compass needle, as shown in the picture. dot 2 eB EN Bott ‘Move the compass away from the magnet and position it so that one end of its needle is marked by dot 2. Mark dot 3 at the other end. Continue this process, until you have moved round to the other pole of the magnet. Remove the compass. The sequence of dots shows one of the field lines of the magnet’ field. Drawa smooth line through the dots. Repeat the process, starting at a slightly different position at the end of the magnet, to obtain another field line,Electromagnets have the great advantage that they can be switched on and off. Simply switch off the current and the field around the coil disappears. This is, the basis of a number of applications ~ for example, the clectromagnetic cranes that move large pieces of metal and piles of scrap around in a scrapyard (Figure 16.9). ‘he current is switched on to energise the magnet and pick up the scrap metal, When it has been moved to the correct position, the electromagnet is switched off and the metal is released. Electromagnets are also used in electric doorbell loudspeakers, electric motors, relays and transformes These uses are described in detail later in Chapters 20 and 21 Figure 16.9 Using an electromagnet ina scrapyard. With the ccrcent switched on, a steel object o pile of scrap canbe lifted {and moved. Then the currents switched off to release it. © Questions 16.3 Draw a diagram to show the field pattern between two magnets of equal strength whose south poles are placed close together. 16.4 Describe how an electromagnet could be used to separate copper from iron in a scrapyard. The field around a solenoid When an electric current flows through a solenoid, a ‘magnetic field is produced inside and outside the coil (see Figure 16.8). This field is similar to that around a bar magnet: # One end of the solenoid is the north pole and the other end is the south pole. Field lines emerge from the north pole and go in to the south pole. The field lines are closest together at the poles, showing that this is where the magnetic field is strongest. # The lines spread out from the poles, showing that the field is weaker in these regions. "The strength of the field can be increased by increasing the current. The field can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current. Tacs Remember that magnetic field lines always come out of a north pole and go in to a south pole. © Westion 16.5 a Sketch a diagram of the magnetic field pattern of solenoid. b_ How would the pattern change ifthe current through the solenoid was reversed?_OLL———_ $I A You should know: ‘# the forces between magnetic poles about soft and hard magnetic materials ‘¢ methods of magnetisation © + _ methods of demagnetisation ¢ how to represent magnetic fields using field lines ‘+ the comparison between electromagnets and permanent magnets. End-of-chapter questions 1a Copy and complete these two sentences: iLike poles .. Unlike poles... b_ Draw diagrams to illustrate those two sentences. 2 a Copy and complete the following two sentences to state the differences between hard and soft magnetic materials, i... magnetic materials are easy to magnetise and easy to demagnetise. ‘magnetic materials are difficult to magnetise; they retain their magnetism well. b i Give one example of a hard magnetic material, ii. Give one example of a soft magnetic material 3 State two methods by which a piece of unmagnetised steel can be magnetised. © 4. State two methods by which a piece of magnetised steel can be demagnetised. 5 a Drawadiagram to show the field lines around a bar magnet b_ Draw a diagram to show the field lines between two bar magnets with opposite poles close to each other. 6 State one way in which an electromagnet is different from a permanent bar magnet. D_ State one way in which an electromagnet is similar to a permanent bar magnet. can in