Rachel Lyvers – Page 1
AP Chemistry Midterm Study Packet
Key Terms:
Chapter 14 – Liquids and Solids
 amorphous solid – soilid in which the arrangement of the
representative particles lacks a refular, repeating pattern; do not
have a definite melting point
 boiling point – temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure
 condensation – change of state from liquid to gas
 condensed state – liquid and solid states of matter; states in which
a substance has a substansially higher density than in the gaseous
state
 covalent-network solid – solid in which strong covalent bondsform a
network extending throughout the solid
 crystalline solid – solid in which the representative particles are in a
highly ordered, repeating pattern called a crystal
 deposition – conversion of a gas directly into a solid without first
becoming a liquid
 dipole-dipole force – intermolecular force of attraction between
neighboring permanent dipoles that is created when the dipoles line
up so that the positive and negative ends are close to each other
 dispersion force – intermolecular force of attraction between
induced dipoles
 equilibrium vapor pressure – pressure exerted by a vapor in
equilibrium with its liquid; point at which the number of molecules in
the vapor state remains solid
 evaporation – process by which molecules of a liquid excape from
the surface of the liquid and enter the gaseous, or vapor, state
 freezing point – temperature at which the solid and liquid form of a
substance exist in equilbrium
Chapter 15 – Solutions
 alloy – solid solution in which the atoms of two or more metals are
uniformly mixed
 aqueous solution – solution in which the solvent is water
 boiling point elevation – colligative property in which the boiling
point of a solvent is raised when a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in
the solvent; directly related to the concentration of the solution
 Colligative property – property of a solution that depends upon the
concentration of the solue, but not its identity
 concentration – amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of
solvent
 freezing point depression – colligative property in which the
freezing point of a solvent is lowered when a nonvolatile solute is
dissolved in the solvent; freezing point depression is directly related
to the concentration of a solution
 hydration – process in which water molecules pull solute particles
into solution and form a sphere around them
 immiscible – inability of a liquid to form a solution with another liquid
in all proportions
 insoluble – inability of a substance to dissolve in another substance
 miscible – ability of a liquid to form a solution with another liquid in
all proportions
 molality – concentration of a solution determined by the number of
moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
 heat of fusiion – heat necessary to convert a given amount of a
solid into a liquid
 heat of vaporization – amount of heat necessary to vaporize a
given amount of liquid
 heating curve – plot of the temperature of a sample as a function of
time
 hydrogen bond – strong intermoleuclar force between the hydrogen
atom of one molecule and a highly electronegative atom of another
molecule
 induced dipole – dipole created by the presence of a neighboring
dipole
 intermolecular force – relatively weak force of attraction that exists
between neighboring molecules
 intramolecular force – force of attraction that exists within a
molecule to hold it together
 phase diagram – plot of the state of a sample as a function of
temperature and pressure
 sublimation – conversion of a solid directly into a gas, without first
becoming a liquid
 surface tension – imbalance of attractive forces at the surface of a
liquid that causes the surface to behave as if it had a thin film
across it; resistance of a liquid to an increase in the surface area
 vaporization – change of state from liquid to gas
 viscosity – resistance to motion that exists between the molecules
of a liquid when they move past each other; affected by the extent
of the hydrogen bonding
 molarity – concentration of a solution determined by the number of
moles of solute per liter of solution
 mole fraction – concentration of a solution determined by the
number of moles of a given solute divided by the total number of
moles of solution
 osmosis – flow of solvent particles from a dilute solution to a
concentrated solution
 osmotic pressure –pressure required to prevent osmosis; arises
when the flow of solvent particles from a dilute solution to a
concentrated solution across a semipremeable membrane results in
unever heights of the solutions of either side of the membrane
 saturated – description of a solution that contains as much
dissolved solute as it can under existing conditions
 solubility – amount of solute that dissolved in a given amount of
solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution
 soluble – ability of a solution to dissolve in another substance
 solute – substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution
 solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in a
single physical state
 solvation – process in whichh solvent particles pull solute particles
into solution and form a sphere around them; called hydration if the
solvent is water
 solvent – substance that does the dissolving in a solution

 supersaturated – description of a solution that contains more
dissolved solute than a saturated solution; excess solute will
precipitate out of supersatured solution, leaving a crystallized solid
and saturated solution
 unsaturated – description of a solution that contains less dissolved
solute than it can under existing conditions
Chapter 16 – Chemical Equilibrium
 chemical equilibrium – dynamic state in which the concentration of
reactanats and products incolved in a reversible reaction remain
constant with time because the rates of the forward and recerse
reactions are equal
 equilibrium constant – constant that relates the concentration of
reactants and products of a reversible reaction (each raised to the
power indicated by its coefficient in the balanced chemical
equation) at equilbrium; indicates the extent to which a reversible
reaction proceeds
 equilibrium expression – the expression giving the ratio between
the products and reactants; the equilibrium expression is equal to
the concentration of each product raised to its coefficient in a
balanced chemical equation and multiplied together, divided by the
concentrat ion of the product of reactants to the power of their
coefficients
 Haber process – chemical process that utilizes Le Chatelier’s
principle to produce ammonia commercially from nitrogen gas and
hydrogen gas
 heterogeneous equilbria – equilbrium condtion for a reaction in
which all the reactants and products are in two or more different
states
Chapter 17 – Solubility and Precipitation
 common-ion effect – shift in solubility equilibrium that occurs when
the concentration of an ion that is part of the equilibrium is changed
 complete ionic equation – chemical equation that shows all soluble
substances in a precipitation reaction as ions regardless of whether
or not they participate in the reaction
 dissolution – process in which an ionic solid dissolved i a polar
liquid
 ion product – calculation determined by inserting concentrations at
a give point in a reaction into the solubility product expression;
value can be compared with the solubilitiy product to determine
whether or not a solution will form a precipiate
 net ionic equation – chemical equation that shows only those
compounds and ions that undergo a chemical change in an
aqueous solution
Chapter 18 – Acids, Bases, and Salts
 acid – according to the Bronsted-Lowry definition, a compound that
donates a proton, or H3O+ ion
 acid dissociation constant – constant that incidates the strength of
an acid; derived from the equilibrium constant for the acid’s
dissociation in water
 acidic hydrogen – hydrogen atom that an acid may lose as an H3O+
ion
 amphoteric – description of any substance that can react either as
either an acid or a base
 base – according the the Bronsted-lowry definition, compund that
accepts a proton, or H3O+ ion
 base dissociation constant – constant that indicates the strength of
a base; derived from the equilibrium constant for the base’s
dissociation in water
Rachel Lyvers – Page 2
 vapor pressure reduction – colligative property in which the
pressure of the vapor over a solventis reduced when a nonvolatile
solute is dissolved in the solvent; vapor pressure reduction is
directly related to the concentration of a solution
 homogeneous equilibria – equilibrium condition for a reaction in
which all the reactants and products are in the same state
 law of chemical equilibrium – natural law that states that every
reversible reaction proceeds to an equilibrium state that can be
described by a specific equilibrium constant
 law of mass action – natural law that states that the relative
concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium constant
 Le Chatelier’s principle – principle that states that a reversible
reaction at equilibrium will shift to offset a stress, or change in
conditions, imposed on the system
 reaction quotient – calculation determined by inserting the
concentrations of reactants and products of a reversible reaction at
a given point into the equilibrium constant expression; can be
compared with the equilibrium constant to determined if a reaction
is at equilibrium
 reversible reaction – chemical reaction in which the products can
react to form the original products
 precipitation – process in which ions leave a solution and
regenerate an ionic solid
 precipitation reaction – chemical reaction in which a precipitate
forms when two aqueous solutions of ions are mixed
 solubility equilibrium – condition that exisits when the rate at which
an ionic solid dissolved in a solution is equal to the rate at which
ions leave the solution to regenerrate the solid
 solubility product – equilibrrium constant for a solution of a
sparingly soluble ionic compound; equal to the product of the
concentrations of ions in the solution, each raised to the powers
indicated by their coefficients in the balanced equation
 spectator ion – ion that does not participate in a chemical reaction
and is present before and after the reaction
 conjugate acid – acid formed when a Bronsted-Lowry base gains a
proton
 conjugate base – base formed when a Bronsted-Lowry acid loses a
proton
 hydronium ion – ion formed by the addition of a proton to a water
molecule; accounts for the properties of acids
 indicator – substance that changes color at certain pH values and
can therefore be used to roughly determine whether a sample is an
acid or base
 neutralization reaction – chemi cal reaction between an acid and a
base that destroys the distinctive properties of both; produces water
and a salt
 salt – ionic compound formed from the anion of an acid and cation
of a base; typically a crystalline compound with a high melting point

 salt hydrolysis reaction – chemical reaction between water and the
ions of a dissolved salt; may produce an acididc, basic, or neutral
My Notes:
Chapter 14 – Liquids and Solids
 the kinetic molecular theory applies to gases, liquids, and solids
 the physical properties of liquids and solids are derived from the
strength of the intermolecular forces
 state is determined by temperature, pressure, and strength of
attraction between particles (intermolecular forces)
 dipole – molecule with a concentration of positive, negative charge
(polar molecule)
 induced dipole – caused by presence of another dipole
 dispersion force – between molecules with induced dipoles
(relatively weak force) (usually gas or liquid)
 larger electron cloud = more shifting of the electrons = stronger
dispersion forces
 the larger the molecule, the more electrons to shift
 strong intermolecular forces = solids = higher boiling and melting
points
 dipole-dipole – between permanent dipoles
 hydrogen bonding – (special case of dipole-dipole) between the
hydrogen of one molecule and the very electronegative atom of
next molecule (fluorine, nitrogen, and oxygen) (pretty darn strong)
 viscosity (thickness) – resistance to motion of liquid molecules as
they move past each other (will decrease as temperature
increases)
 surface tension – (kind of like a film on top of liquid – belly flop)
“film” on surface at liquid caused by unbalanced force
 unusual properties of water
 high boiling point
 high specific heat
 density of solid H2O less than liquid H2O
 high surface tension
 high heat vaporization
 excellent solvent
Chapter 15 – Solutions
 solution – homogeneous (parts cannot be distinguished from each
other) mixture of two or more substances in a single physical state
 properties of solutions:
 particles are small (atoms, molecules, ions)
 particles are evenly distributed
 particles will not separate under constant conditions
 solute – gets dissolved; may change phases
 solvent – does the dissolving ; generally has a constant phase;
almost always the larger amount
 soluble – capable of being dissolved
 insoluble – a substance that does not dissolve in another
 types of solutions
 solid solutions
 alloy – solution formed between two or more metals
Rachel Lyvers – Page 3
solution
 solid – particles in a fixed position
 crystalline solid / ionic solid – very ordered pattern, definite melting
point (ex: ice, salt, sugar)
 amorphous solid – no regular pattern; melts over a range of
temperature (i.e. butter, glass, wax, chocolate)
 metallic – sea of electrons; good conductors, malleable, shiny
 molecular – held by intermolecular forces (variety of strengths); low
melting point, do not conduct electricity, do not dissolve in H2O
 ionic – between cation and anion; stronger than intermolecular
forces; high melting point; hard, brittle
 covalent-network – covalent bonding but not distinct molecules;
diamond, quartz; strongest bonding in solids
 sea of electrons – valence electrons are kind of like community
property and just float around in hunk of potassium
 evaporation – molecules escape from the surface of a liquid
 volatile – evaporate easily
 vapor pressure – pressure due to vapor of a substance at
equilibrium with its liquid
 boiling – formation of gas throughout the liquid when vapor
pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure
 heat of vaporization – energy required to change 1 gram of liquid to
1 gram of gas
 heat of fusion – energy required to change 1 gram of solid to 1
gram of liquid
 gaseous solutions
 when two or more gases are mixed, they molecules quickly
become intermingled
 all mixtures of gases are solutions
 properties depend on components
 liquid solutions
 the solvent and the solution are liquids
 the solute may be a liquid, gas, or solid
 there are limits to the amounts of most liquid solutes that
will dissolve in liquid solvents
 miscible – when two liquids dissolve in each other in any
amount
 immiscible – liquids that do not dissolve in each other in any
proportions

 aqueous solutions
 solutions where water is the solvent
 substances that dissolve in water are classified according to
whether they yield ions or molecules in solution
- when an ionic compound dissolves, the positive and
negative ions separate from each other and become
surrounded by water molecules
 these solute ions are free to move, making it
possible for an electric current to pass through
 a substance that dissolves in water to form a
solution that conducts an electric current is called
an electrolyte
- a solution containing neutral solute molecules does not
conduct an electric current because no charged
particles are available
 a substance that dissolves in water to give a
solution that does not conduct an electric current is
called a nonelectrolyte
 concentration of solution – the amount of solute in a given amount
of solvent or solution
moles of solute
 molarity =
liters of solution
moles of solute
 molality =
kilograms of solvent
moles of compound
 mole fraction =
total moles
 saturated – when a solution contains as much solute as can
possibly be dissolved
 unsaturated – when a solution contains less than the maximum
amount of solute that can be dissolved
 super-saturated – when a solution contains more solute than
needed to form a saturated solution (very unstable)
 solvation – the interaction between solute and solvent particles
 hydration – the interaction between solute and solvent when the
solvent is water
 formation of solutions
 occurs at the surface of the solid
 involves the breaking of attractions among solute particles
 breaking bonds requires energy = endothermic
 involves the breaking of attractions among solvent particles
 involves the formation of attractions between solute and solvent
particles
 forming bonds releases energy = exothermic
 solubility – amount of solute that will dissolve in a specific solvent
under given conditions
 basically the amount of solute required to make a saturated
solution
g solute
 measured by:
100 g solvent
 factors that affect solubility:
 nature of solute / solvent; “like dissolves like”
 polar solutes tend to dissolve in polar solvents
 nonpolar solutes tend to dissolve in nonpolar solvents
Rachel Lyvers – Page 4
 temperature
 if gas, as the temperature increases, the solubility
decreases
 if solid, as the temperature increases, the solubility
increases
 pressure (for gases)
 Henry’s Law – the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to
its partial pressure
 factors that affect rate of solubility
 surface area
 the greater the surface area, the faster the solute can be
dissolved
 can grind into smaller pieces to increase surface area
 agitation (stirring / shaking)
 contact between the solvent and solute surface is increased
 temperature
 raising the temperature of a solvent increases the rate at
which a solute dissolves
 colligative properties – properties of solutions that depend on
number of dissolved particles, but not their nature
 vapor pressure reduction
 solute takes up more space at surface
 occurs when more molecules leave the gas than enter it
 Raoult’s Law – vapor pressure reduction is proportional to
solute particle concentration
 boiling point elevation
 when the vapor pressure is reduced, a higher temperature
is necessary to get the vapor pressure of the solution up to
atmospheric pressure so that the solution boils
 ∆ T =K b m
 change of boiling point = solvent’s constant * molality
 freezing point reduction
 describes the ability of a dissolved solute to lower the
freezing point of its solution
 when the vapor pressure is reduced, the temperature at
which the solution and solid have the same vapor pressure
is reduced
 ∆ T =K f m
 change in freezing point = solvent’s constant * molality
 osmotic pressure
 the pressure required to prevent osmosis
 osmosis – the net flow of solvent molecules from the less
concentrated solution to the more concentrated solution
- the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable
membrane
 isotonic – solutions in which no osmosis occurs
 hypotonic – when one solution has a lower osmotic
pressure than another
- causes water to move into cells and cells to eventually
burst
 hypertonic – when one solution has a higher osmotic
pressure than another

- causes water to leave the cells and cells to eventually
shrivel and die
Chapter 16 – Chemical Equilibrium
 equilibrium exists when two opposing processes occur at the same
rate
 even though changes are occurring, there is no overall, or net,
charge
 chemical processes can also operate in opposing directions
 some chemical reactions stop short of completion because they are
reversible reactions
 this means that their products take part in separate reactions to
reform the reactants
 reverse reaction = a chemical reaction in which the
products can regenerate the original reactants
 in theory, all chemical reactions are reversible reactions
 however, some reactions are reversible on their own while
others are only reversible under certain conditions (some of
which scientists have yet to discover)
 different chemical reactions occur at different speeds, or rates
 the rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the
substances in the reaction, the temperature at which the reaction
takes place, and (for gases) the pressure at which the reaction
takes place
 in general, reaction rate is proportional to concentration
 reaction rates tend to be faster when the concentration of
the reactants increases
 when substances enter into a reaction, the concentration of the
reactants decreases as the reactants are converted into products
 in turn, the concentration of the products increases
 both the forward and reverse reactions proceed at their own rate
 when the concentration of each substance changes, the rate of
each reaction changes throughout the reaction
 the rate of the forward reaction decreases as the concentration of
the reactants decreases
 the rate of the reverse reaction increases as the concentration of
the products increases
 eventually, the reaction reaches a state known as chemical
equilibrium at which the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the
rate of the reverse reaction
 the reactant is being consumed by the forward reaction at exactly
the same rate as it is being produced by the reverse reaction
 thus, its concentration becomes constant
 chemical equilibrium = the state in which the concentrations
of reactants and products remains constant with time
because the rate at which they are formed in each reaction
equals the rate at which they are consumed in the opposite
reaction.
 chemical equilibrium occurs when opposing reactions
are proceeding at equal rates
 any chemical reaction carried out in a closed container
will eventually reach equilibrium
 [A] = “the concentration of A”
 reaching equilibrium does not mean that the reaction has come to a
stop
 law of mass action expresses the relative concentrations of
reactants and products at equilibrium in terms of a quantity called
the equilibrium constant
Rachel Lyvers – Page 5
 consider a reaction described by the general equation:
a A + bB ⇌ cC + dD
 in this equation, a, b, c, and d are the coefficients for
substances A, B, C, and D
 the equilibrium expression for the reaction is
[C ]c [ D ]d
K eq = a b
[ A ] [ B]
where Keq is the equilibrium constant
 thus, the equilibrium constant is equal to the ratio of the
product concentrations (raised to powers indicated by the
coefficients) to the reactant concentrations (raised to
powers indicated by the coefficients)
 the concentrations of the products of the forward reaction
are found in the numerator, and the concentrations of the
reactants of the forward reaction are found in the
denominator
 this ratio is always a constant value for a given reaction
regardless of initial concentrations
 when the concentrations of the reactants and products
are measured at equilibrium and inserted into the
equilibrium expression, the result is a constant (at a
given temperature)
 every reversible reaction obeys this relationship and
has a specific Keq, or equilibrium constant
 the value of the equilibrium constant does not depend on the initial
concentrations of the reactants and products
 regardless of the initial concentrations, each reaction will establish
equilibrium, and that equilibrium can be described by the same
equilibrium constant
 the equilibrium state can be reached from either direction – forward
or reverse
 each set of equilibrium concentrations is called an equilibrium
position
 thus, the equilibrium position does depend on the initial
concentrations, but the equilibrium constant does not
 there are an infinite number of equilibrium positions, but there is
only one equilibrium constant
 the equilibrium constant provides information about the mixture of
reactants and products at equilibrium
 equilibrium constant = a measure of the extent to which a
reaction proceeds to completion
 the equilibrium constant can be very large or very small
 if the equilibrium constant is very large, the numerator of the
equilibrium expression must be much larger than the denominator
keq >> 1
 in other words, the equilibrium concentration of the products
must be much greater than that of the reactants
 at equilibrium, then, this reaction system consists mainly of
products and is therefore considered to proceed completion
 in this case, equilibrium is said to “lie to the right,” the
product side

 a very small value for the equilibrium constant indicates that the
denominator of the equilibrium expression must be much larger
than numerator
keq << 1
 at equilibrium, this reaction system contains mostly reactants
and almost no products
 equilibrium in this case “lies to the left,” toward the reactant
side
 when the equilibrium constant is about equal to 1, considerable
concentrations of both reactants and products are usually present
at equilibrium
keq = 1
 equilibrium conditions for reactions in which all the reactants and
products are in the same state are called homogeneous equilibria
 equilibrium conditions for reactions that involve substances in more
than one state are called heterogeneous equilibria
 because the density of a pure solid or liquid does not change during
a reaction is essentially constant and changes very little with
temperature, their concentrations do not change during a reaction
 thus, we leave them out of the equilibrium expression
 they are still just as important as the other substances
 Q (the reaction quotient) = used to determine if a reaction is at
equilibrium
 it is calculated much like the equilibrium constant except that
the concentrations that exist at the time the measurement is
taken, not the equilibrium concentrations, are inserted into the
equilibrium expression
 if the reaction is at equilibrium, Keq = Q
 if Q < Keq, the denominator of the reaction quotient
expression is too large and the numerator is too small
 this means that there is too much of the reactants and
too little of the products
 the reaction will proceed to the right, in the direction of
the products
 if Q > Keg, the denominator of the reaction quotient
expression is too small and the numerator is too large
 this means that there is too much of the products and
too little of the reactants
 the reaction will proceed to the left, in the direction of
the reactants
 Le Chatelier’s Principle can help you predict the effects of changes
in concentrations, pressure, and temperature
 Le Chatelier’s Principle = if a change in conditions is imposed of a
system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift in the
direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions
 in other words, a reaction system will shift in the forward or
reverse direction to “undo,” or compensate for, the altering
factor
Rachel Lyvers – Page 6
 for any equilibrium system, the reaction can be shifted forward or
backward by changing the concentration of a reactant or product
 if more of a particular substance is added to a reaction at
equilibrium, the concentration of that substance increases
 the reaction will return to equilibrium by consuming some of the
added substance
 if a substance is removed, its concentration decreases
 the reaction will return to equilibrium by producing more of the
substance that was removed
 adding a substance to a system at equilibrium drives the
system to consume that substance
 removing a substance from a system at equilibrium drives the
system to produce more of that substance
 if the total pressure of a system is increased, the system will shift to
reduce that pressure by proceeding in the direction that produces
fewer molecules (count the moles)
 increasing the temperature causes some chemical reactions to
proceed more completely to products, increasing the value of the
equilibrium constant
 it also causes other chemical reactions to proceed less
completely
 to understand the effect of temperature on equilibrium, you must
first know if the reaction gives off heat or absorbs heat
 exothermic = gives off heat (heat as product)
 endothermic = absorbs heat (heat as reactant)
 when heat appears on the right side, the addition of heat will
cause the reaction to run to the left
 when heat appears on the left side, the addition of heat will
drive the reaction in the forward direction
 Fritz Haber examined the direct combination reaction between
nitrogen and hydrogen, a reaction that forms ammonia
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g) + heat
 on its own, the reaction reaches equilibrium long before any
sizeable amount of ammonia is produced
 the Haber process was developed to maximize the equilibrium
yield of ammonia
 they shifted the equilibrium by changing the concentration
of one or more of the components
 when ammonia is removed from the reaction container,
the reaction shifts to the right to produce more
ammonia and restore equilibrium
 ammonia is continuously removed to maximize the
production of ammonia
 they also changed the pressure at which the reaction
occurs
 by increasing the pressure, the reaction shifts to the
right side because it has 2 moles whereas the left side
has 4 moles
 the Haber process requires high pressures
 in addition, they changed the temperature at which the
reaction occurs
 the forward reaction is exothermic
 by increasing the temperature, the reaction shifts to the
left and produces less ammonia
 however, when the temperature is increased so is the
rate at which the reaction occurs
 Rachel Lyvers – Page 7

Chapter 17 – Solubility and Precipitation

 dissolution: solid broken down into liquids  when it’s not necessarily at saturation
 precipitation: liquids form solids  the solubility of stuff changes with temperature
 to find the solubility at a certain temperature if you know the
 when it’s at saturation.. amount in moles and the volume in liters:
 to find Ksp:
1. break it down
1. break it down
2. set up the ion concentrations in an x ratio
 make sure the charges cancel out 3. plug in the molarity (mol/L) for the x’s and set equal to Q
 use coefficients if needed 4. go ahead and solve it !
2. set up the ion concentrations
 change coefficients to exponents  if Q > Ksp : you get a precipitate
 if Q < Ksp : you don’t get a precipitate
 transform them to ratio of x’s  if Q = Ksp : it’s at equilibrium (no precipitate)
3. finish it out !
 to find ion concentrations:
1. break it down
2. set up the ion concentrations in an x ratio
3. set the above ratio equal to the given Ksp
4. go to work !

Chapter 18 – Acids, Bases, and Salts

 attached powerpoint

Other Things that I Will Need to Know:

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Chapter 14 – Liquids and Solids

 Substances with weak forces of attraction between their particles
are gases at room temperature. Substances with moderate forces
of attraction between their particles are liquids at room temperature.
And substances with strong forces of attraction between their
particles are solids at room temperature.
 The kinetic molecular theory of matter explains the physical
properties of liquids and solids.
 Intermolecular forces included dispersion forces, dipole-dipole
forces, and hydrogen bonds.
 Liquids possess the properties of viscosity and surface tension.
 Water exhibits unique properties because of extensive
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
 Particles in a crystalline solid exists in a highly ordered, repeating
pattern called a crystal.
 Particles in an amorphous solid are not arranged in an orderly
manner.
Chapter 15 – Solutions
 Homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances in a single
physical state are called solutions.
 A solution is made up of a solute, which is dissolved, and a solvent,
which does the dissolving.
 A substance is soluble if it dissolves in another substance. If it does
not dissolve in that substance, it is said to be insoluble.
 Liquid solutions in which the solvent is water are called aqueous
solutions.
 The amount of solute in a given amount of solvent is the
concentration of the solution.
 Concentration can be measured by molarity, molality, and mole
fractions.
 A saturated solution contains all the dissolved solute that it can
hold. A solution that contains less than the maximum amount is
unsaturated, and a solution that is forced to hold more than the
maximum amount is supersaturated.
Chapter 16 – Chemical Equilibrium
 Reversible reactions are chemical reactions in which the products
can reform the original reactants.
 A reversible reaction reaches chemical equilibrium when the rate of
the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
 The law of mass action expresses the ratio of concentrations of
reactants and products of a reversible reaction in terms of the
equilibrium constant, which is found by an equilibrium expression.
 The law of chemical equilibrium states that every reaction that
reaches equilibrium has a specific equilibrium constant, which
indicates the extent of the reaction.
 The equilibrium position relates the equilibrium concentrations of
the components of a reaction and depends upon the initial
concentrations.
Rachel Lyvers – Page 8
 Properties of solids can be explained on the basis of the nature and
strength of attractive forces between their particles. The four
categories of solids are metallic, molecular, ionic, and covalent-
network.
 A change of state, or the conversion of a substance from one
physical state to another, always involves a change in energy.
Melting, vaporization, an sublimation are endothermic processes.
Freezing, condensation, and deposition are exothermic processes.
 Vapor in equilibrium with its liquid exerts a vapor pressure. A liquid
boils when its vapor pressure is equal to the external atmospheric
pressure.
 A heating curve is a plot of temperature versus time for phase
changes.
 A phase diagram indicates the state or states of a given substance
that exist under specific conditions of temperature and pressure.
 The process by which solvent particles pull solute particles into
solution and surround them is known as solvation. When solvation
occurs in water, the process is called hydration.
 The extent to which a solute will dissolve in a solvent is its
solubility.
 Solubility depends upon the nature of the solute and solvent. Like
solvents dissolve like solutes. Solubility also depends on the
temperature and pressure of the solution.
 The rate at which a solute dissolves can be increased by increasing
the surface area of the solute, stirring the solvent, or increasing the
temperature of the solution.
 Colligative properties depend on the concentration of solute in
solvent and not upon the identity of the solute.
 Four Colligative properties are vapor pressure reduction, boiling
point elevation, freeing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
 Pure solids and liquids involved in heterogeneous equilibria do not
appear in the equilibrium expression.
 The reaction quotient (Q) is found by inserting the concentrations of
reactants and products at a given point into the equilibrium
expression. If Q = Keq, the reaction is at equilibrium. If Q > Keq, the
reaction will proceed to the left. If Q < Keq, the reaction will proceed
to the right.
 According to Le Chatelier’s principle, a system that is disturbed
from equilibrium will shift in order to reduce the disturbance. Factors
that disturb a system at equilibrium are changes in the
concentrations of reactants and products, changes in pressure or
changes in temperature.
 The Haber process is an industrial process through which ammonia
is synthesized. The process depends upon Le Chatelier’s principle
to maximize the yield of ammonia.

Chapter 17 – Solubility and Precipitation
 When an ionic solid is placed in water, attractions between the
polar water molecules and the ions of the solid cause the solid to
dissociate. The ions spread throughout the solution during
dissolution. At the same time, ions in the solution collide with the
remaining ionic solid and become part of it during precipitation.
Dissolution and acid precipitation are reverse processes.
 A solution attains solubility with undissolved solute when dissolution
and precipitation occur at the same rate. The ion concentrations in
solution are constant at equilibrium.
 The solubility product of a solution at equilibrium with undissolved
solute is equal to the concentrations of its constituent ions each
raised to the power indicated by the coefficient in the balanced
equation.
 A solution will form a precipitate if the ion concentrations at a given
point are greater than the concentrations at equilibrium. Such a
solution is supersaturated. The formation of a precipitate can be
predicted by comparing Ksp, which relates the equilibrium
concentrations, to the ion product (Q), which relates the actual ion
concentrations. If Q > Ksp, a precipitate will form. If Q = Ksp, the
Chapter 18 – Acids, Bases, and Salts
 Acids taste tart or sour, react with metals to produce hydrogen gas,
and turn litmus paper red. Bases taste bitter, feel slippery, and turn
litmus paper blue. Both acids and bases are electrolytes. An acid
and base will neutralize each other’s properties.
 According to the Arrhenius definition, an acid dissociates to
produce H+ ions in water and a base dissociates to produce OH-
ions in water. An acid and base can combine to form water.
 Bronsted and Lowry defined an acid as an H+ donor and a base as
an H+ ion acceptor. An H+ ion is the same as a proton, and
combines with a water molecule to form H3O+, or a hydronium ion.
 An acid that loses an H+ ion becomes its conjugate base. A base
that accepts an H+ ion becomes its conjugate acid.
 The strength of an acid or base reflects how completely it ionizes in
water. The stronger the acid, the weaker its conjugate base. The
stronger the base, the weaker its conjugate acid.
 Both the acid dissociation constant (Ka) and the base dissociation
constant (Kb) are derived from the equilibrium constant (Keq). Ka
Rachel Lyvers – Page 9
solution is saturated. And if Q < Ksp, the solute will continue to
dissolve.
 A precipitation reaction occurs when two aqueous solutions are
mixed to form a precipitate. Precipitation reactions are double
replacement reactions in which ions exchange partners. The
formation of a precipitate drives a double-replacement reaction
toward completion.
 Precipitation reactions can be described by equations that show all
the ions that enter into and result from the reaction. Spectator ions
remain unchanged before and after the reaction. An equation that
includes only those compounds and ions that undergo a chemical
change and excludes spectator ions is called a net ionic equation.
 An ion that is contained in more than one solute in a solution is
called a common ion. According to the common-ion effect, any
change in concentration of an ion involved in solubility equilibrium
will shift the equilibrium position of the solution. Similarly, the
solubility of an ionic solid added to a solution already containing a
concentration of common ions is decreased.
reflects the strength of an acid and Kb reflects the strength of a
base.
 You can calculate the Ka for an acid from its original concentration
and the concentration of H3O+ ions at equilibrium.
 An acidic hydrogen can leave a molecule as an H+ ion. Typically, an
acidic hydrogen is part of a polar covalent bond.
 Binary acids, such as HCL, contain a hydrogen atom bonded to one
other element. Oxy acids, such as H2SO4, contain hydrogen atoms
bonded to oxygen atoms. Carboxylic acids are organic acids. They
contain the carboxyl group (-COOH).
 Bases typically contain an unshared pair of electrons. The two
important categories of bases are the common anions, such as OH-
and CO32-, and the amines, which are related to ammonia.
 Like other compounds, acids and bases are named using a system
of roots, prefixes, and suffixes.