William Butler Yeats, a modernist and the Nobel Laureate was most influential figure of Irish

Literary Revival. Modern age in literature came due to increasing industrialization and
horrifying events of two World Wars which made people doubtful. Yeats was a prominent
poet of the age who bent towards spiritualism in his later writings.

Title refers to city Byzantium which was once the capital of Eastern Roman Empire. In
Christian belief, it is a holy place where departed souls reside after death for purgation. It was
famous for its mosaic art and gold enamelling. By title it seems that poem Byzantium is
apparently a sequel to the Sailing to Byzantium.
The poem opens with ordinary gross objects of the day going into background. The drunken
soldiers of emperor are asleep and night -walker's song have ended. A star studded or moonlit
dome of the sky scorns all the men of their complexities. Before poet, a shrouded spirit
appears which purifies himself after sufferings. He welcomes it as death in-life and life-in-
death. He considers it a miracle that either it is a handcrafted or natural golden bird on golden
bough who scorns complexities of human life. The fire of purgatory is self -generating.
Dolphin transports a flood of souls to the purgation furnaces where cold marble breaks and
ends all bitter worries of life.
The speaker is the character who describes the scenes and introduces other characters too. It
describes that in the silence of night sky seems to be mocking at man for his complexities of
life and death. The drunken soldiers who are asleep are a character which shows that they are
intoxicated by the psychological trauma. The character of the image of a wrapped mummy
depicts the intricacy of earthly life. Golden bird is another character who sits on a golden
bough in heaven. It sings a scorning song about the mortality of birds, plantation and
complexities of men. Then, dolphin is the character which is considered a traditional porter of
the soul. It swims to the shore and takes “spirit after spirit” for purgation.
Byzantium has theme of mortality vs immortality. Poet considers that either mortality or
immortality both have their own complexities. There is theme of purification of
soul/purgation. Poet suggests about sufferings in purgation as a source of redemption from
all sufferings. There is theme of identity crisis as man is unable to identify himself. Theme
of religion reflects from the very title. It depicts the Christian belief of purgation
Each stanza constitutes eight lines. Poem has same rhythm but flexible rhyme scheme. There
are very few caesurae because poet is writing in with a stream of conscious technique and has
so many ideas. Poet has used alliteration, simile, pastiche, absurdity, ambiguity, symbols,
sharp images, parallel and contrast, innovative style of presenting ideas. There is lack of
coherence, dexterity, newness, complex type of novelty. Nothing is vivid because everything
is wrapped in multi-layers.
Poem carries contemporary appeal as modernists used to rebel against tradition and
celebrated self-discovery as this poem does. One can find out that it is a universal poem as it
carries the idea of redemption and purification of soul. So, it appeals to readers of all times.
One of Yeats’ contemporary and critic W. H. Auden differs from him as Yeats tend to escape
toward Byzantium for redemption from old age while Auden celebrates all disordered
conditions of his age. Auden holds him guilty of misunderstanding and misrepresenting the
age. He lashes against Yeats for obscure symbolism while he himself always used dominant
symbols.

Therefore, poem is manifestation of metaphorical journey of one’s own vision of eternal life
and purgatory. He is a Symbolist and has contrived the poem in an excellent way.