Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

MODULE 3
Internal Combustion Engines
Classification, I.C. Engines parts, 2 and 4 stroke petrol and 4-stroke diesel engines.
P-V diagrams of Otto and Diesel cycles. Simple problems on indicated power, brake power,
indicated thermal efficiency, brake thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency and specific fuel
consumption.
Refrigeration and Air conditioning
Refrigeration - Definitions - Refrigerating effect, Ton of Refrigeration, Ice making capacity,
COP, relative COP, Unit of Refrigeration. Refrigerants, Properties of refrigerants, List of
commonly used refrigerants. Principle and working of vapor compression refrigeration and
vapor absorption refrigeration. Domestic refrigerator. Principles and applications of air
conditioners, window and split air conditioners.

An engine or heat engines are also called as Thermal Engines. It is a machine which converts
heat energy by the combustion of a fuel into useful mechanical work. Heat engines develop
more than 80% the energy generated in the world.

Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories

(i) External combustion engine:

An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine cylinder is called
external combustion engine. These engines are generally called as EC engines.
Ex: Steam engines, steam turbines, closed cycle gas turbine etc.

(ii) Internal combustion engine:

An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder is called
internal combustion engine. These engines are generally called as IC engines.
Ex: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas engine etc.

The following are the most important ways of classification of an I.C. engines:

(i) According to the number of cylinders

(a) Single cylinder engine: This type of engines consists of only one cylinder.
(b) Multi cylinder engine: This type of engines consists of 2, 3, 4, 6 or 8 cylinders.

(ii) According to the arrangement of cylinders

(a) Vertical engine: In this type of engines, the cylinder is arranged in a vertical position.
(b) Horizontal engine: In this type of engines, cylinder is arranged in horizontal
position.
(c) Inline engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged in line.
(d) Radial engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged along the
circumference of a circle.
(e) V-engine: In this type of engines, combination of two inline engines equally set an
angle.

(iii) According to the type of fuel used

(a) Petrol engines: If the fuel used is petrol, then it is called as petrol engines.
(b) Diesel engines: If the fuel used is diesel, then it is called as Diesel engines.
(c) Gas engines: If the fuel used is a gas, then it is called as gas engine, the

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 49

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

gaseous fuels like natural gas, LPG(Liquefied Petroleum Gas), biogas, are used.
(d) Bio-fuel engines: These engines use a mixture of two fuels.
Eg: Mixture of diesel and natural gas, mixture of diesel and neem oil etc,

(iv) According to the number of strokes per cycle

(a) 4-stroke engine: The engine completes its working cycle of combustion in four
different strokes.
(b) 2-stroke engine: The engine completes its working cycle of combustion in two
different strokes.

(v) According to the method of ignition

(a) Spark ignition engine (S.I. Engine): In this type of engines, the fuel is ignited by an
electric spark generated by a spark plug.
(b) Compression ignition engine (C.I. Engine): In this type of engines, the fuel gets
ignited as it comes in contact with the hot compressed air.

(vi) According to the method of cooling

(a) Air cooled engine: In this type of engines, the heated cylinder walls are cooled by
continuous flow of air.
(b) Water cooled engine: In this type of engines, water is used for cooling the heated
cylinder walls.

(vii) According to the cycle of combustion

(a) Otto cycle engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel takes place at constant
volume
(b) Diesel cycle engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel takes place at
constant pressure
(c) Duel combustion engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel first takes place
at constant volume and then at constant pressure.

Principal parts of an I.C. Engine

Figure.1 shows the principal parts of an I.C. engine. The details regarding the various parts of
the engine are described below.

Fig.1-Principal parts of IC engine

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 50

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Cylinder: It is the cylindrical vessel in which the fuel is burnt and the power is developed. It is
considered as heart of the engine. The primary functions of cylinder is
1. To contain the working fluid under pressure and
2. To guide the piston while reciprocating inside the cylinder.

Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is closed by a removable cylinder head.
The cylinder head consists of two valves 'inlet valve' and 'exhaust valve'.

Piston Rings: The rings which are placed in the grooves cut towards top of the piston are called
Piston Rings.
There are two set of rings inserted into the groves. They are compression rings and oil rings.
Compression rings: The compression rings press hard with the cylinder walls forming
a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder. This prevents escaping of the high
pressure gases into the crankcase.
Oil rings: The function of oil rings is to extract the lubricating oil from the cylinder
walls and send it back to oil sump through the holes provided on the piston.

Connecting rod: The connecting rod is a link that connects the piston and the crankshaft. Its
function is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft.

Crank: The crank is a lever with one of its end connected to the connecting rod by a pin joint
with other end connected rigidly to the crankshaft. The other end of the crank is connected to
the crankshaft. The power required for any useful purpose is taken from the crankshaft.

Crank case: It encloses the crankshaft and serves as a sump for the lubricating oil.

Valves: The valves are control devices that allow the air/fuel to enter into the cylinder and also
to discharge the burnt gases to atmosphere.
There are two valves. 1) Inlet valve and 2) Exhaust valve
Inlet valve: fresh charge (air and fuel or air) enters into the cylinder.
Exhaust valve: The burnt gases are discharged out of the cylinder.
These valves are actuated by means of cams.

Cams: It is an element designed to control the movement of both the inlet and exhaust valves.

Flywheel: It is a heavy mass of rotating wheel mounted on the crankshaft and is used as an
energy storing device. The flywheel stores energy received during the power stroke and
supplies the same during other strokes.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 51

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

I.C. Engine Terminology

Figure.2 shows the details regarding the terms used in I.C. engines.

Fig 2. I.C.Engine Terminology

1. Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called 'bore'.

2. Top dead center (TDC): The extreme position of the piston near to the cylinder head is called
'top dead center' or 'TDC'.
3. Bottom dead center (BDC): The extreme position of the piston nearer to the crankshaft is
called 'bottom dead center' or 'BDC'.
4. Stroke: It is the linear distance travelled by the piston from the TDC to BDC or BDC to
TDC.
5. Clearance volume (Vc): It is the volume of cylinder above the top of the piston, when the
piston is at the TDC.
6. Swept volume or Stroke volume (Vs): It is the volume swept by the piston as it moves from
BDC to TDC or TDC to BDC.
7. Compression ratio: (RC): The ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume is
called Compression ratio.
Total cylinder volume = Stroke volume (V s) + Clearance volume (V e)
R = (Vs+VC) / Vc

8. Piston Speed: The average speed of the piston is called ‘piston speed’.

Piston speed = 2.L.N where L = Stroke length in m

N = Speed of engine in RPM.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 52

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Fig.: Pictorial view of the principal parts of IC engine

FOUR-STROKE ENGINES
In 4-stroke engines, piston performs four different strokes to complete all the operations of the
working cycle. The four different strokes performed are,
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke (Expansion stroke or Working stroke)
4. Exhaust stroke

Each stroke is completed when the crankshaft rotates by 180°. In a 4-stroke engine, four
different strokes are completed through 720° of the crankshaft rotation or 2 revolutions of the
crankshaft based on the type of fuel used.
Note: In 4 Stroke engines, opening and closing of valves during different strokes with respect
to piston position and the rotation of crank is given in the table below. Position of the
Stroke Piston Inlet valve Exhaust valve Crank rotation
Initial Final
Suction TDC BDC Open Close 00 - 1800
Compression BDC TDC Close Close 1800 - 3600
Power TDC BDC Close Close 3600 - 5400
Exhaust BDC TDC Close Open 5400 -7200

4 -stroke engines are classified as.

4 - Stroke Petrol Engine and
4 - Stroke Diesel Engine

4-Stroke Petrol Engine

The working principle of a 4-Stroke Petrol engine is based on theoretical Otto cycle.
Hence it is also known as Otto cycle engine.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 53

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

A 4 - Stroke petrol engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle.

The working of each stroke is shown in the figure.3 and its details are discussed below.

Fig. 3 Working of a 4-Stroke Petrol Engine

(a) Suction stroke:
At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, the piston moves
from TDC to BDC.
The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed.
As the piston moves downwards, suction is created in the cylinder as a result, fresh air-
petrol mixture (charge) is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
As the piston reaches BDC, the suction stroke completes and inlet valve closes. The
suction stroke is represented by the line AB on P- V diagram as shown in the figure.4.

Fig.4 Theoretical Otto Cycle (P-V Diagram)

(b) Compression stroke:

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke the piston moves
from BDC to TDC.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 54

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.

As the piston moves upwards, the air-petrol mixture in the cylinder is compressed
adiabatically.
The pressure and temperature of the charge increases and this is shown by the curve
BC on the P- V diagram.
When the piston reaches the TDC, the spark plug ignites the charge.
The combustion of the fuel takes place at the constant volume and is shown by a line
CD on the P- V diagram.
The compression ratio in petrol engines ranges from 6:1 to 11:1.

(c) Power stroke/Expansion stroke/working stroke

At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke piston moves
from TDC to BDC.
Both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
The combustion of fuel liberates gases and these gases start expanding. Due to
expansion, the hot gases exert a large force on the piston and as a result the piston is
pushed from TDC to BDC.
The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston to the crank shaft through
the connecting rod. This causes crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is
obtained in this stroke. Hence, this stroke is also called working stroke. Also gas
expands and does work on the piston so this stroke is also called an expansion stroke.
The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and this is shown by the curve DE on P-
V diagram.
As the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens.
A part of the burnt gases escape through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to
their own expansion.

(d) Exhaust stroke:

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke the piston moves
from BDC to TDC.
The inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is opened.
As the piston moves upward, it forces the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder to
the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. This is shown by the line EB on P- V
diagram.
When the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes and this completes the cycle.

In the next cycle the piston which is at TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh charge to
enter the cylinder and the process continues.

4-Stroke Diesel Engine

The working principle of a 4-stroke diesel engine is based on theoretical diesel cycle.
Hence it is also called diesel cycle engine.

A 4-stroke diesel engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle of operation.
The 4 different strokes are
1. Suction Stroke
2. Compression Stroke

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 55

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

3. Power Stroke (Expansion Stroke or Working Stroke)

4. Exhaust Stroke
The details regarding the working of each stroke is shown in the figure.6. The theoretical diesel
cycle is shown on P- V diagram in the figure 5. The details regarding the working of each
stroke are discussed below.

Fig 5. Theoretical Diesel Cycle (P V diagram)

Fig.6 Working of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves
from TDC to BDC.
The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed.
The downward movement of the piston creates suction in the cylinder and as a result,
fresh air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction stroke completes and this is represented
by the line AB on P-V diagram as shown in the figure.6.
(b) Compression stroke
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke piston moves
from BDC to TDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valves are closed.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 56

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

As the piston moves upwards, air in the cylinder is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature. The compression process is adiabatic in nature and is shown by the curve
BC in P-V diagram.
At the end of the stroke, the fuel (diesel) is sprayed into the cylinder by fuel injector.
As the fuel comes in contact with the hot compressed air, it gets ignited and undergoes
combustion at constant pressure.
This process is shown by the line CD on PV diagram. At the point D fuel supply is
cutoff. The compression ratio ranges from 16:1 to 22:1.

(c) Power stroke / Expansion stroke/ Working stroke

At the beginning of this stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves
from TDC to BDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valve remain closed.
As combustion of fuel takes place, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on
the piston. Due to this, piston is pushed from TDC the BDC.
The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston to the crank shaft through
the connecting rod.
This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds.
Thus work is obtained in this stroke.
The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and this is shown by the curve DE on P-
V diagram. When the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens.
A part of burnt gases escapes through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to self-
expansion. The drop in pressure at constant volume is shown by the line EB on P- V
diagram.

(d) Exhaust stroke

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during this stroke, piston moves
from BDC to TDC. The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened.
As the piston moves upward, it forces the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder
through the exhaust valve.
This is shown by the line SA on P- V diagram.
When the piston reaches the TDC the exhaust valve closes. This completes the cycle.
In the next cycle the piston which is at the TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh
air to enter into the cylinder and the process continues.

TWO STROKE ENGINES

In a 2-stroke engine, ports are present in the cylinder in place of valves. The ports are
the openings in the cylinder opened and closed by the movement of piston within the cylinder.
There are three ports, namely
1. Inlet port: Through which admitting of charge into the crankcase takes place.
2. Transfer port: Through which the charge is transferred from the crankcase to the
cylinder.
3. Exhaust port: Through which the burnt gases are discharged out of the cylinder.

In a 2 - stroke engine, piston performs two different strokes or crankshaft completes

one revolution to complete all the operations of the working cycle.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 57

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

In these engines there are no suction and exhaust strokes, instead they are performed while the
compression and power strokes are in progress.
Based on the type of fuel used, 2-stroke engines are classified as
a) 2 stroke petrol engine b) 2 stroke Diesel engine.

2-Stroke Petrol Engine:

2-Stroke petrol engine works on the principle of theoretical Otto cycle. The two
different strokes performed are first stroke (downward stroke) and second stroke (upward
stroke).
The details regarding the working of each stroke is shown in the figure.7 are discussed as
below.

Fig 7. Working of a 2-Stroke Petrol Engine

First Stroke (Downward Stroke)

At the beginning of this stroke, the piston is in the TDC as shown in the figure (a).
At this position, inlet port is opened and hence fresh air petrol mixture enters into the
crank case.
At this position, compressed air-petrol mixture present in the cylinder in the previous
cycle is ignited by the spark generated by the spark plug.
The combustion of fuel releases hot gases which increases the pressure in the cylinder.
The high pressure gases exert a pressure on the piston and hence the piston moves from
TDC to BDC. Thus piston performs power stroke.
The power impulse is transmitted from the piston to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is
obtained in this stroke.
As the piston moves downwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and hence burnt gases
escape out of the cylinder as shown in the figure (b).
As piston moves downwards further, opens the transfer port and the charge in the crank
case is compressed by the underside of the piston as shown in figure. (b).
The compressed charge from the crankcase rushes into the cylinder through the transfer
port as shown in fig. (c).

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 58

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

The charge entering the cylinder drives away the remaining exhaust gases through the
exhaust port.
The process of removing the exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is known as
scavenging.
The piston is provided with a projection at its top known as 'deflector'.
The purpose of providing a deflector is to deflect the fresh charge coming through the
transfer port to move towards the top end of the cylinder. By doing this, the fresh charge
will be able to drive the entire burnt gases out of the cylinder.

Second Stroke (Upward Stroke)

At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in BDC and it covers the inlet port as shown in
the figure (c) and stops the flow of fresh charge into the crankcase.
During the stroke, piston ascends and moves towards TDC.
As the piston moves upwards, it closes the transfer port, there by stopping the flow of
fresh charge into the cylinder as shown in figure (d).
Further upward movement of the piston closes the exhaust port and actual compression
of the charge begins.
In the meantime, the inlet port is opened and the upward movement of piston creates
suction in the crankcase.
Fresh charge enters into the crankcase through the inlet port as shown in figure (a).
The compression of the charge in the cylinder continues till the piston reaches the TDC.
This completes the cycle.

Difference between Petrol Engine (SI Engine) and Diesel Engine (CI Engine)
SI.
Petrol Engine (SI Engine) Diesel Engine (CI Engine)
No
Draws a mixture of petrol and air during Draws only air during suction
1.
suction stroke. stroke.
The carburetor is employed to mix air and The injector is employed to inject
2. petrol in the required proportion and to supply the fuel at the end of compression
it to the engine during suction stroke. stroke.
Compression ratio ranges from 6: 1 to 11: I Compression ratio ranges from
3.
16:1 to 22:1
The charge (petrol and air mixture) is ignited The ignition of the diesel is
with the help of spark plug. This type of accomplished by the compressed
ignition is called spark ignition. air which will have been heated due
4. to high compression ratio to the
temperature higher than the ignition
temperature of the diesel. This type
of ignition is called compression
ignition.
The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place
5.
approximately at constant volume. approximately at constant pressure.
6. Works on theoretical Otto Cycle. Works on theoretical Diesel Cycle.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 59

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

7. Power developed is less. Power developed is more.

Thermal efficiency is low. It is up to about Thermal efficiency is high. It is up
8.
26% to about 40%.
9. These are high speed engines These are low speed engines.
10 The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more.

11 The running cost is high because of the higher The running cost is low because of
cost of petrol. lower cost of diesel
12 Lighter and cheaper because of low Heavier and costlier because of
compression ratio high Compression ratio.

Difference between 2-Stroke Engine and 4-Stroke Engine

SI.
2-Stroke Engine 4-Stroke Engine
No
Requires two separate strokes to complete one Requires four separate strokes to
1
cycle of operation. complete one cycle of operation
Power is developed in every revolution of the Power is developed for every
2. crankshaft alternate revolution of the
crankshaft.
The inlet, transfer and exhaust ports are The inlet and exhaust are opened
3. opened and closed by the movement of piston and closed by the valves through
itself. cams.
Turning moment is not uniform and hence Turning moment is uniform and
4.
requires a heavier flywheel. hence requires lighter flywheel.
The charge is first admitted into the crankcase The charge is directly admitted in
5. and then transferred to the engine cylinder. to the engine cylinder during the
suction stroke.
For the same power developed the engine is For the same power developed the
6.
heavy and bulky. Engine is light and compact.
7. Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.
Requires greater lubricant and coolant. Requires lesser lubricant and
8.
coolant.
9. Fuel consumption is more. Fuel consumption is less.
10. Initial cost is less. Initial cost is more.

Parameters used for simple calculations in IC Engine

Mean Effective pressure-Pm

It is the mean or average pressure acting on the piston throughout the power stroke. It
is expressed in Bar(1Bar=105N/m2). It is obtained from the indicated diagram and calculated
by using the equation.
Where, S= spring value of the spring used in the indicator (S) in bar per metre
a=net area of the indicator diagram (a) in m2
l=length of the indicator diagram (l) in m
Indicated Power (IP)
It is the total power developed inside the engine cylinder due the combustion of fuel. It
is commonly denoted by IP & expressed in kW (kilo Watts)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 60

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Where, n=number of cylinders

Pm=Indicated mean effective pressure in bar
L=Length of stroke in m
A= Cross- sectional area of cylinder in m2
N=Engine speed in rpm.
K= a factor used for easy simplification.
4 stroke engine and

Brake Power
The net power available at the crankshaft of the engine for performing useful work is
called brake power. It is denoted by BP and expressed in kW.
Where N= Speed of the engine in rpm
T = Torque in N-m
1. Belt dynamometer:

Fig below shows a belt wound around a pulley of radius R. If T1 & T2 be

the tight side and slack(loose side) side tensions of the belt, the engine
torque is calculated using Torque(T)=Force X distance
T=(T1-T2) X R N-m
Where,
T1 =tension in the tight side of the belt(N)
T2 = tension in the slack side (N)
R = radius of pulley (m)

2. Rope brake dynamometer

Fig. below shows a rope wound around the circumference of the wheel (drum or
pulley). One end of the rope is attached to the spring balance reading, while the other end
carries a dead load(W). The Torque(T) is calculated using,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 61

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Fig: Rope brake dynamometer

Friction power (FP)

The amount of power lost due to friction of the various moving parts (piston,
Connecting rod, crank, etc.,), It is the difference between IP and BP. It is denoted by FP and
expressed in kW.
FP = IP - BP kW

Mechanical Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of BP to IP and it is expressed in percentage

Thermal efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of power output to the heat supplied by the burning fuel. It is
expressed in percentage.
w.k.t. Heat supplied=mf x CV

Where mf = mass of fuel in kg/sec

CV=calorific value of a fuel in kJ/kg.
If the power output in the above equation is IP then,
If the power output in the above equation is BP then

Specific fuel consumption

It is used to describe the fuel efficiency of an engine design. It measures the amount of
fuel needed to provide a given power for a given time period.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 62

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

If SFC based on IP is termed as Indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) & is given by

If SFC based on BP is termed as Brake specific fuel consumption (ISFC) & is given by

Guidelines for solving the numerical

First read the question carefully and write all the given datas.
Check the unknown parameters to be found and write their formulae with units.
With the available datas find the unknown which is most suitable.
If the number of cylinders is not given in the question then assume n=1
If given take n= n. Eg: Six cylinder engine, n=6
To find IP,
If 4-stroke engine is given, k=1/2
If 2-stroke engine is given, k=1
To find area of a cylinder ‘A’ value in IP formula,
Use the value of inner diameter of the cylinder/Bore/Piston diameter ‘d’ in m by using
A= m2
To find Torque T in BP,
T=(T1-T2) X R,
where R= radius of the belt dynamometer or “radius of the pulley” in m
T=(W-S) X R,
Where R=radius of the brake drum dynamometer or “radius of the pulley”
If ‘swept volume’ or ‘stroke volume’ value is given, then put that value in place of LA
to
find IP .

If piston speed is given, then Ps=2LN, Where Ps=Piston speed.

Pm=1bar
1Bar= 1X 105 N/m2
1MPa=1 X 106Pa=10 X 105 Pa=10 Bar
100kPa= 100 X 103Pa= 1 X 105Pa= 1Bar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 63

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Refrigeration & Air conditioning

Definitions:

Refrigeration:
It is defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the
surrounding atmosphere and maintaining this lower temperature by continuously abstracting
the heat from it within the boundary of the given space.

Refrigerator:
It is a machine used to remove heat continuously from the refrigerated space and rejects
it to the atmosphere.

Refrigerant:
An agent which continuously extract the heat from the space within the refrigerator
which is to be kept cool at temperature less than the atmosphere and finally rejects to it.
E.g.: Ammonia, Freon-12, Freon-22, Methyl chloride, carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, brine,
air, water, etc.

Ton of refrigeration:
It is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form one ton of ice in 24 hours
when the initial temperature of the water is 0o C.
1 Ton of refrigeration = 210 kJ/min = 3.5kW.

Ice making capacity:

It is defined as the capacity of the refrigeration system to make ice, starting from water
at room temperature to solid ice. It is measured in kg/hr.

Coefficient of Performance (COP):

It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed in a system to the work supplied.
Where, Q= Heat absorbed or removed, kW
W= Work supplied, kW Refrigeration & Air conditioning

Refrigeration Cycle:
It describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects
heat while circulating through a refrigerator

Refrigerating effect (RE):

“It is defined as the amount of cooling produced by the refrigeration process”

Or
“It is the rate at which heat is removed from the system in one cycle of operation”.
It is expressed in kJ/sec or kW.

Relative Co-efficient of Performance (Relative COP):

It is the ratio of the actual COP to the theoretical COP.

Principle of refrigeration:
It works on the principle of second law of thermodynamics.
Heat can be made to flow from cold body to hot body with the help of external work.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 64

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Applications of Refrigeration
1. Food processing, preservation and distribution
Storage of raw fruits, vegetable, fishes, meat and poultry, dairy products, beverages.

2. Air conditioning
Laboratories, Power plants, printing, textile, vehicle, mechanical industries, indoor
cooling etc,…

3. Special applications
Ice manufacturing
Cold treatment of metals
Desalination of water
Manufacturing and preservation of medicine, chemicals etc,.

4. Chemical and process industries

Petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, paper pulp industries.
Refrigeration & Air conditioning

Parts of a Refrigerator:
There are four basic components of a refrigeration system. We can have any
components other than these and they can be called as accessories.

Fig: Parts of a mechanical refrigerator

Evaporator:
It is used to receive the liquid refrigerant from the condenser through a throttle valve
and to evaporate it.
It is also called as ‘cooling unit’ or ‘chilling unit’ or ‘freezing unit’.
Here the refrigerant changes its phase from liquid to vapour.
Evaporator coils are made from copper or aluminium due to their excellent thermal
conductivity and low cost.

Compressor:
A compressor is equipment usually with piston cylinder arrangement, placed at the
bottom portion of the refrigerator.
It compresses the vapour refrigerant to high pressures and temperature.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 65

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

It circulates the refrigerant around the circuit so that the refrigerant can perform its heat
absorbing function over and over again.
It may be of reciprocating type or rotary type or centrifugal type.

Condenser:
It is used to absorb the heat from the refrigerant and acts like a heat exchanger.
It condenses the refrigerant at saturation temperature from vapour to liquid by
transferring the refrigerant’s latent heat to the water.

Throttle valve (expansion device):

It is a small orifice (tiny opening) used to expand the refrigerant at constant enthalpy.
It regulates the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.
It reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it flows through it.

Properties of a good refrigerant:

Thermodynamic Properties:
Low boiling point: A good refrigerant should have a boiling below the target
temperature.
Low freezing point: Liquid refrigerant must not solidify under specified pressure.
Both evaporator and condenser pressures should be slightly above the atmospheric
pressure.
High latent heat of vaporization: The heat transfer can occur with least possible
circulating refrigeration.

Physical properties:
Low viscosity for easy circulation of refrigerant.
Low specific volume: the refrigerant occupies minimum space thereby keeping
compressor capacity to a minimum and pipe diameters relatively small.
High thermal conductivity: heat transfer takes place easily.
Low liquid specific heat and vapour specific heat: To increase the refrigerating effect
per kg of refrigerant circulated.

Chemical Properties:
Non-toxic, for health and safety reasons.
Non corrosive: the refrigerant does not corrode the machine components.
Good chemical stability, the refrigerant has to be stable for the life time of the
refrigerator.
Non-flammable and non-explosive, to avoid risks of fire and explosions.

Other properties
COP should be high.
Refrigerant must be odourless.
Any leakages must be detected by simple tests.
Refrigerant must not react with the lubricating oil.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 66

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Vapour Compression Refrigeration:

Principle:
The mechanical energy utilized to achieve refrigeration,
A compressor is used to increase the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant vapour.
The refrigerant alternatively evaporates and condenses, changes its phase from liquid
to vapour
and vapour to liquid during the working cycle.

Fig: Vapour Compression Refrigerator

The liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium
(cabinet/refrigerated space) which is to be cooled and undergoes a change of phase from
liquid to vapour.
The vapour at low temperature and pressure is drawn into the compressor where it is
compressed to a high pressure and temperature.
The compressed vapour then enters the condenser.
In the condenser the vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed by giving its latent heat
to the circulating cooling medium (air or water).
The high-pressure liquid refrigerant leaves the condenser and passes through the
expansion valve where it is expanded to low pressure and temperature.
The temperature of the refrigerant falls to a value less than that of the refrigerated space.
The low pressure-low temperature refrigerant again enters the evaporator where it
absorbs the heat from the medium (cools the medium) and evaporates.
The low pressure-low temperature vapour is drawn into the compressor and the cycle
repeats. Thus, heat is continuously extracted from the medium, thereby keeping the
contents at the required lower temperature.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 67

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Vapour Absorption Refrigerator Principle:

The heat energy is utilized to achieve low temperature.
As electric heater, steam or gas flame is used to evaporate the refrigerant.
In addition, an absorber, a pump and a generator are used to complete the cycle.

Construction:
Figure shows the line diagram of a vapour absorption system.
A throttle valve is connected between an evaporator and a condenser.
A pump is connected between the absorber and the heat exchanger.
Water is filled in the absorber, which is connected to the evaporator kept in the storage
room. The heat exchanger is connected to the condenser.
Both condenser and the evaporator are made of pipe coils form to provide more contact
surface area for heat absorption.

Fig: Vapour absorption refrigerator

The liquid refrigerant (ammonia) in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium that is to
be cooled and it undergoes a change of phase form liquid to vapour.
The low pressure vapour is then passed to the absorber.
In the absorber, the low pressure ammonia vapour is dissolved in the weak ammonia
solution producing strong ammonia solution at low pressure.
The strong ammonia solution is then pumped to a generator through the heat exchanger
at high pressure. While passing through the heat exchanger, the strong ammonia
solution is warmed up by the hot weak ammonia solution flowing from the generator
to the absorber.
The warm strong ammonia solution is heated by an external source in the generator.
Due to heating, the vapour gets separated from the solution.
The vapour which is at high pressure and high temperature is condensed to low
temperature in a condenser by cold water circulation.
The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve where it is
expanded to low pressure and temperature.
The low pressure-low temperature ammonia liquid again enters the evaporator where it
absorbs the heat from the medium (cools the medium) and the cycle repeats.
Refrigerants commonly used in practice

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 68

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

The most commonly used refrigerants are:

Ammonia:
Used in Vapour absorption refrigerators.
Ammonia is environmental friendly, hence used in large cold storage, ice making
plants, skating rink.
Its toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying properties makes it not suitable for
domestic refrigerators.

Carbon dioxide:
Used in marine industries.
Efficiency is very low, hence it is rarely used in domestic purposes.
It is used in dry ice making plants.
It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, inflammable and non-corrosive.

Sulphur dioxide:
Most commonly used in domestic refrigerators.
It has low refrigeration effect and high specific volume.
Very rarely used.

Methyl chloride:
It was used for domestic and small scale industries.
Toxic, generally not in use.

Freon:
Used in almost all the domestic refrigerators.
These are colourless, odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-explosive, non-
corrosive
Freon 12, Freon 22 is commonly used in domestic refrigerators and air conditioners.
It has a major cause in destruction of ozone layers.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 69

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Comparison between Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption systems

AIR CONDITIONING
Providing a cool indoor atmosphere at all times regardless of weather conditions needed
either for human comfort or industrial purposes by artificially cooling, humidifying or
dehumidifying, cleaning and recirculating the surrounding air is called air conditioning. The
artificial cooling of air and conditioning it to provide maximum comfort to human beings is
called comfort air conditioning. Similarly, providing a controlled atmosphere required in some
engineering manufacturing and processing is called industrial air conditioning.
Although the cooling and conditioning of the air required for comfort air conditioning is
more or less same in any part of the globe, the industrial air conditioning needs to be designed to
suit the specific individual application.

ROOM AIR-CONDITIONER
Room air-conditioner mainly consists of an evaporator, condenser, compressor, two
fans one each for the evaporator and condenser units usually driven by the single motor,
capillary, etc. It is generally mounted on a window sill such that the evaporator unit is inside
the room and the condenser part projecting outside the building.

WORKING: The high-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant from the condenser is

passed to the evaporator coils through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion. The
low-pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 70

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Fig: Room Air-Conditioning

The evaporator-fan continuous draws the air from the interior space with in the room
through an air filter by forcing it to pass over the evaporator coils. The air from the interior
passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by the refrigerant which consequently evaporates
by absorbing the heat from the air.

The high-temperature evaporated refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn by the

suction of the compressor which compresses it and delivers it to the condenser. The high-
pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapour now flows through the condenser coils.

The condenser-fan draws the atmospheric air from the exposed side-portions of the air
conditioner which is projecting outside the building into the space behind it and discharges to
pass through the Centre section of the condenser unit over the condenser coils. The high-
pressure, high-temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils condenses by giving
off the heat to the atmospheric air. The cooled high-pressure refrigerant from the condenser
passes through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion and is again re-circulated to
repeat the cycle continuously.

HUMIDITY:
Humidity is defined as the moisture content present in the atmosphere. The atmosphere
always contains some moisture in the form of water vapour. The maximum amount depends
on the atmospheric conditions. The amount of vapour that will saturate the air increases with a
rise in temperature.
For example, at 4°C, 1000 kg of moist air contains a maximum of 4.4 kg of water
vapour. At 38°C, the same amount of moist air contains a maximum of 18 kg of water vapour.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 71

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

As is evident that when the atmosphere is saturated with water, the level of discomfort is high
because the evaporation of perspiration.

Humidity can be specified in three different ways.

Absolute humidity:-The absolute humidity is defined as the, weight of water vapour contained
in a given volume of air. It is expressed in grams of water vapour per cubic metre of air.

Specific humidity:-The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of weight of water vapour to
the total weight of air. It is expressed in grams of water vapour per kilogram of air.

Relative humidity:-The relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the actual vapour content
of the air to the vapour content of air at the same temperature when saturated with water vapour.

Temperature-Humidity Index (THI):-The temperature-humidity index (THI), also called

discomfort index, expresses in numerical values the relationship between comfort or
discomfort temperature and humidity. It provides an apparent temperature, or how hot the air
feels. For example, an air temperature of 38°C and relative humidity of 60 percent produces an
apparent very hot temperature or THI, or 54°C. It is felt that THI index of 20°C provides a
comfortable atmosphere.
When a controlled atmosphere is required in air conditioning, the humidity of the air is varied.
When dry air is required, it is usually dehumidified by cooling or by dehydration. In the latter
process the air is passed through adsorptive chemicals such as silica gel. Air is humidified by
circulation through water baths or sprays.
CENTRALIZED AIR CONDITIONING: - Centralized air conditioning systems, widely
employed in theatres, offices, stores, restaurants, public buildings, etc., provide the controlled
atmosphere by heating, cooling and ventilation. The centralized air conditioning systems
include refrigerating units, blowers, air ducts and a plenum chamber in which the air from the
interior of the building is mixed with outside air. In such installations, cooling and
dehumidifying are done during summer months and regular heating systems are used during
winter. Fig: Centralized Air-Conditioning

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 72

 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

SPLIT AIR CONDITIONING:

These are preferred for offices, schools, auditoriums, etc. The idea of split units came from the
fact that air-conditioning system operation was noisy. In order to eliminate the noise,
compressor and condenser were located at remote location and only evaporator coil and a fan
were located near the application. This division or splitting of the air- conditioning unit gave
the equipment its name. The given figure shows the schematic of a split unit.
Usually split units are wall mounted. They are preferred due to their noiseless operation.
The refrigerant liquid lines and suction lines are line gas they connect the compressor at the
remote location to the split unit evaporator. This increases cost of the system. This operation is
similar to the window air-conditioner as the basic cycle of operation is vapour compression
refrigeration. The refrigerant is compressed, condensed, expanded at the remote site and
evaporated only in the room evaporator. The air is blown over the evaporator coil and that
causes cooling.

Fig: Split Air-Conditioning

Advantages
Noiseless operation
Easy Maintenance
Less Vibration
Compact unit
Aesthetic quality of unit is high

Disadvantages
High cost of unit
Longer refrigerant lines and thus more leakage
COP of unit is poor
Control over operation is difficult

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CITECH 73

Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

Window Air conditioning System:

The return air from the room is exhausted by the
evaporator fan by blowing air over the
condensed coil, where it picks up heat from the refrigerant. The
compressor used in a window
air-conditioner is hermetic type, which is sealed in a casing with a
motor as shown in the figure.
The condenser and evaporator fans are both propeller type. The
condenser coil is a continuous
copper coil with aluminum fins. The capillary tube is 40cm
long, usually with 0.75mm
diameter. Evaporator coil is also made of copper with aluminum
fins. Dampers and louvers are
provided for intake and exhaust on both sides of the air-
conditioner casing. A one tone window
air-conditioner circulaets4m3/min of air in the room. Some
fraction of air (25%) is fresh; where
as some fraction (75%) of air is recirculated. Filters are used to
filter air entering the A/C unit.
The filter is plastic foam or metallic mat type. The controls used
by the unit are
(1) Thermostat Control: This is used to set the room
temperature. Usually it is a bimetallic
strip.

(2) Master Control It is an electrical switch used to stop or

start the compressor motor. The installation of the unit is done
either in the wall or by using external brackets or locating it
inside the room with exhaust flush to the window. In either case,
the condenser should be facing outside and the evaporator
should be facing inside. It is advisable to install the unit for a
minimum sun exposure as sun’s rays can diminish the efficiency
of the condenser. The air louver inlets should not be blocked and
provision for draining of the condensate (like a pipe) should be
provided. Maintenance of the window air-conditioner should
include periodic cleaning, replacing filters and air seals and
lubrication of fans.
Fig: Window Air-Conditioning