A

PROJECT REPORT
ON

Pipe Stress Analysis

By
Akshay Gera

Project Guide (Sr. manager pipe stress) HOD Pipe Stress

Mr Amar Kumar Singh Mr Ashish
Banerjee
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “ PIPE STRESS

ANALAYSIS” submitted by AKSHAY KUMAR GERA ” in partial

fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree Bachelor of

Technology in “MECHANICAL ENGINEERING” is a bonafide

record of the work carried out under our guidance and supervision at

ITM UNIVERSITY and RELIANCE INDUSTRIES LIMITED”.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

2
Mr Amar Kumar Singh Mr Ashish Banerjee

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “PIPING

STRESS ANALYSIS” is being submitted to the ITM
University by Akshay Gera .In partial fulfilment of the term
work requirements for Degree of Bachelor of Mechanical
Engineering.
This project was completed under the guidance and supervision
in the Mechanical Engineering Department of Piping stress at
RELIANCE INDUSTRIES LIMITED Thane bhelpur road,
ghansoli, Navi Mumbai Maharashtra

Mr Amar Kumar Singh

Project guide

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The written word has an unfortunate tendency to degenerate genuine gratitude into
stilled formality. However this is the only way we have, to permanently record our
feelings.

I sincerely acknowledge with deep sense of gratitude to, Mr Ashish Banerjee,

HOD Piping Stress, Reliance industries limited. He was our constant source of
inspiration and guidance in the making of this project.

I am also grateful to Mr Amar Kumar Singh, my mentor for the invaluable support,
assistance and interest throughout my project work.

I also acknowledge Mr Shubham Tandon for his help and support.

I am grateful to our Director of SPA, Mr B.k Gupta and the Head of Mechanical
Department, Mr Pramaod Bhatia, of Itm University for giving me this opportunity.

Finally I would like to thank all members at RELIANCE INDUSTRIES who have
helped us directly or indirectly in completing my project.

4
 Contents
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 6
2. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS...............................................................................................7
3. BASIC STRESS CONCEPTS..............................................................................................7
4. FAILURE THEORIES.........................................................................................................11
5. DESIGNING FOR SUSTAINED LOADS............................................................................13
6. OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE.................................................................................................14
7. ALLOWABLE STRESSES.................................................................................................16
8. METHODOLOGY CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS AND FAILURE MODES......................17
9. NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES FROM APPLIED LOAD...........................................20
10. CODES AND STANDARDS...........................................................................................23
11. RELIANCE CODES AND STANDARDS ARE GOVERNED BY DBDS.........................24
12. PIPING ELEMENTS.......................................................................................................33
13. THICKNESS CALCULATION OF A PIPE......................................................................35
14. MITER BEND.................................................................................................................. 38
15. IBR AND RELIANCE BASIS OF SELECTION...............................................................47
16. THE PATALGANGA PROJECT.....................................................................................48

5
1. INTRODUCTION
The life cycle of any chemical process involves inputs from almost all disciplines of
engineering and science. The two main contributors are chemical engineering and
mechanical engineering. It is very difficult to say who should get more credit for making
a chemical process plant function, a chemical engineer or a mechanical engineer. It
depends on which side of the great divide you belong to. But the fact is that the success
of any chemical process technology is often given to a chemical engineer species for
his great process invention and process design. The mechanical engineer who converts
his dream process or process dream into reality is often forgotten if the process is
successful. Any mishap, however, brings him into focus and the enquiry into such
unfortunate episodes unequivocally blames him for it. After all, what fails in a
commercial scale plant and causes a shut down or even accident in a process plant is a
small or big mechanical component of the plant. Chemical reaction does not fail to occur
nor does the vapor liquid equilibrium alter its course. The partisan treatment the two
contributor species get is all too noticeable but unavoidable.

One can look at any chemical process plant in two ways. One look, the outwardly look,
is at the structures such as vessels (reactors, boilers, columns, tanks, etc.), pipes, pipe
components (valves, elbows, expanders, reducers, etc.), machines (pumps,
compressors, agitators, turbines, etc.), supports (pipe supports, hangars, buildings,
platforms, pipe racks etc.), and facilities (weigh bridge, safety shower, etc.). What
catches the eye here is the mechanical and civil aspects of a chemical process plant.
Another look is at the outwardly invisible things and happenings. These include the
reactions that take place in a reactor, coke or fuel that burns in a boiler, vaporization
that takes place in an evaporator or boiler, radiation that heats in a furnace, pressure
drop that takes place in a pipe, condensation that takes place in a steam header,
crystallization that takes place in a crystallizer, etc. Traditionally, chemical engineers
confine their attention to what happens inside the structures and other engineers such
as mechanical engineers, civil engineers worry about what happens to the structures.

Most of the operations listed above occur at temperatures and pressures which are
different from normal atmospheric conditions. These operations are often hazardous
and do put the surroundings at risk. The job of the mechanical and civil structures is to
confine these risky operations within vessels and pipes, act as boundaries between
these risky but necessary operations and the outer world. While protecting the outer
world from risk, these structures suffer stresses and strains themselves. They have their
own limitations dictated by their material of construction, method of design and
construction/fabrication, schedule of maintenance and their physical age. Any flaw or
shortcoming in any of these aspects would mean that these structures would be unable
to do their protector’s role perfectly and mishaps would occur.

6
2. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS
Pipes are the most delicate components in any process plant .They are also the busiest
entities .They are subjected to almost all kinds of loads that, intentional or unintentional.
It is very important to take note of all potential loads that a piping system would
encounter during operation as well as during other stages in the life cycle of a process
plant. Ignoring any such load while designing, erecting, hydro-testing, start-up shut-
down, normal operation, maintenance etc. can lead to inadequate design and
engineering of a piping system. The system may fail on the first occurrence of this
overlooked load. Failure of a piping system may trigger a Domino effect and cause a
major disaster.

Stress analysis and safe design normally require appreciation of several related
concepts. An approximate list of the steps that would be involved is as follows.
1. Identify potential loads that would come on to the pipe or piping system during its
entire life.
2. Relate each one of these loads to the stresses and strains that would be developed
in the Crystals/grains of the Material of Construction (MoC) of the piping system.
3. Decide the worst three dimensional stress state that the MoC can withstand without
failure.
4. Get the cumulative effect of all the potential, loads on the 3-D stress scenario in the
piping system under consideration.
5. Alter piping system design to ensure that the stress pattern is within failure limits

The goal of quantification and analysis of pipe stresses is to provide safe design
through the above steps. There could be several designs that could be safe. A piping
engineer would have a lot of scope to choose from such alternatives, the one which is
most economical, or most suitable etc. Good piping system design is always a mixture
of sound knowledge base in the basics and a lot of ingenuity.

3. BASIC STRESS CONCEPTS

Normal stresses: Normal stresses are those acting in a direction normal to the face of
the crystal structure of the material, and may be either tensile or compressive in nature.
(In fact, normal stresses in piping tend more to tension due the predominant nature of
internal pressure as a load case.) Normal stresses may be applied in more than one
direction, and may develop from a number of different types of loads.

Longitudinal stress: Longitudinal, or axial, stress is the normal stress acting parallel to
the longitudinal axis other pipe. This may be caused by an internal force acting axially
Within the pipe.

7
.

A specific instance of longitudinal stress is that due to internal pressure

8
Replacing the terms for the internal and metal areas of the pipe, the previous equation
may be written as:
SL = P d;2/ (d02- d;2)
For convenience, the longitudinal pressure stress is often conservatively approximated
as:
SL = Pd0 /4t
Another component of axial normal stress is bending stress. Bending stress is zero at
the neutral axis of the pipe and varies linearly across the cross-section from the
maximum compressive outer fibre to the maximum tensile outer fibre. Calculating the
stress as linearly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis:

Where:
Mb = bending moment acting on cross-section, in-lb.
c = distance of point of interest from neutral axis of cross-section, in
I = moment of inertia of cross-section, in4

9
Hoop stress: There are other normal stresses present in the pipe, applied in directions
Orthogonal to the axial direction. One of these stresses, caused by internal pressure, is
called hoop stress. This stress acts in a direction parallel to the pipe circumference.
The magnitude of the hoop stress varies through the pipe wall and can be calculated by
Lame's equation as:
SH = P (ri2 + ri2 r 02 I r2) I (r02 ~ rf2)
Where:
SH = hoop stress due to pressure, psi
q = inner radius of pipe, in
r0 = outer radius of pipe, in
r = radial position where stress is being considered, in

The hoop stress can be conservatively approximated for

thin wall cylinders, by assuming that the pressure force,
applied over an arbitrary length of pipe, l (F = P di l), is
resisted uniformly by the pipe wall over that same arbitrary
length (Am = 2 t l),
SH = P di 1 I 2 t 1, or:

10
SH = P di I 2 t, or conservatively:
SH = Pd0 /2t

Radial stress: Radial stress is the third normal stress present in the pipe wall. It acts in
the third orthogonal direction, parallel to the pipe radius. Ra4ial stress, which is caused
by Internal pressure, varies between a stress equal to the internal pressure at the pipe's
inner Surface and a stress equal to atmospheric pressure at the pipe's external surface.
Assuming that there is no external pressure, radial stress may be calculated as

Radial stress is zero at the outer radius of the pipe, where the bending stresses are
maximized. For this reason, this stress component has traditionally be ignored during
the Stress calculations. Shear stresses: Shear stresses are applied in a direction
parallel to the face of the plane of the crystal structure _of the material, and tend to
cause adjacent planes of the crystal to slip against each other. Shear stresses may he
caused by more than one type of applied load.

4. FAILURE THEORIES
To be useful, calculated stresses must be compared to material allowable. Material
allowable stresses are related to strengths as determined by material uniaxial tensile
tests, therefore calculated stresses must also be related to the uniaxial tensile test. This
Relationship can be developed by looking at available failure theories
There are three generally accepted failure theories which may be used to predict the
onset of yielding in a material:
1. OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR, or VON MISES THEORY
2. MAXIMUM SHEAR, or TRESCA THEORY
3. MAXIMUM STRESS or RANKINE THEORY

These theories relate failure in an arbitrary three dimensional stress state in a material
to failure in a the stress state found in a uniaxial tensile test specimen, since it is that

11
test that is most commonly used to determine the allowable strength of commonly used
materials.
Failure of a uniaxial tensile test specimen is deemed to occur when plastic deformation
occurs; i.e., when the specimen yields.

Octahedral Shear • Von Misses Theory:

Failure occurs when the octahedral shear stress in a body is equal to the octahedral
shear stress at yield in a uniaxial tension test.
The octahedral shear stress is calculated as:

In a uniaxial tensile test specimen at the point of yield

Therefore the octahedral shear stress in a uniaxial tensile test specimen at failure is
Calculated as:

Therefore, under the Von Misses theory Plastic deformation occurs in a 3~dimensional
stress state whenever the octahedral shear exceeds

12
Maximum Shear Stress or Tresca Theory:
Failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in a body is equal to the maximum
shear stress at yield in a uniaxial tension test."

The maximum shear stress is calculated as:

In a uniaxial tensile fest specimen at the point of yield:

So

Therefore, under the Tresca theory: Plastic deformation occurs in a 3-dimensional

stress state whenever the maximum shear stress exceeds SYield I 2.

Maximum Stress or Rankine Theory:

Failure occurs when the maximum tensile stress in a body is equal to the maximum
tensile stress at yield in a uniaxial tension test.
The maximum tensile stress is the largest, positive principal stress, S1. (By definition,
s1 is always the largest of the principal stresses.)

In a uniaxial tensile test specimen at the point of yield:

Therefore, under the Rankine theory

Plastic deformation occurs in a 3-dimensional stress state whenever the maximum
principal stress exceeds Yield·

5. DESIGNING FOR SUSTAINED LOADS

Stresses due to weight loads acting on a supported pipe can be estimated through the
use of beam theory. The simplest method of estimating pipe stresses due to weight is to
first Consider the pipe as being a continuous run, with supports located at constant
intervals (this is a somewhat accurate model of piping traveling horizontally, mounted on
racks, and with a minimum of in-line components) Elementary beam theory can be used
to determine stresses in a member due to loading on that member. Normally the
member considered is one-dimensional, homogenous with respect to cross-sectional

13
and material parameters, and restrained in a number of degrees of freedom at one end.

Beam theory states that if both support points are pinned

Case 1

The maximum moment in the beam is in the centre of the span, and has a value of:
Mmax = wl2/8
Where:
Mmax = maximum moment in the beam, in-lb.
w = uniform weight of pipe, fluid, insulation, etc., lb./in
l = length of beam, in

Case 2 (if both ends are fixed, or rigid (restrained against rotation)\
The maximum moment is at the ends of the span, and has a value of:
Mmax = wl2/12

6. OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

With piping, as with other structures, the analysis of stresses may be carried to varying
degrees of refinement. Manual systems allow for the analysis of simple systems,
whereas there are methods like chart solutions (for three-dimensional routings) and
rules of thumb (for number and placement of supports) etc. involving long and tedious
computations and high expense. But these methods have a scope and value that
cannot be defined as their accuracy and reliability depends upon the experience and
skill of the user. All such methods may be classified as follows:

Approximate methods dealing only with special piping configurations of two-, three- or
four-member systems having two terminals with complete fixity and the piping layout
usually restricted to square corners. Solutions are usually obtained from charts or

14
tables. The approximate methods falling into this category are limited in scope of direct
application, but they are sometimes usable as a rough guide on more complex
problems by assuming subdivisions of the model into anchored sections fitting the
contours of the previously solved cases.

Methods restricted to square-corner, single-plane systems with two fixed ends, but
without limit as to the number of members.

Methods adaptable to space configurations with square corners and two fixed ends.

Extensions of the previous methods to provide for the special properties of curved pipe
by indirect means, usually a virtual length correction factor.

The objective of this project is to check the adequacy of rules of thumb as well as
simple solution approaches by comparison with comprehensive computer solutions of
similar systems, based on FEM. It may also be possible to extend the existing chart
solutions and rules of thumb to more complex systems with these comparative studies.

15
 7. ALLOWABLE STRESSES

Allowable stress of material which is used is an important parameter in the stress

analysis of piping system. Working stress in the piping system should not exceed
allowable stress of that material based on code and standard. In the piping system,
stress ratio is generally used. Stress ratio is comparison between actual working
pressure in the piping system and allowable stress based on code and standard.
Allowable stress has different value in each code. For code ASME 31.3, the pipe
material can be expressed in safe condition when the stresses which are experienced
by the material meet the following criteria:

1.      Sustain Load
The resultant of longitudinal stress (S L) in each component of piping system due
to sustain load such as internal load and weight of pipe load, should not exceed the
value of multiplication between Sh and W. Sh is allowable stress of pipe material at
maximum temperature of operating condition. W is reduction factor of welding joint in
the manufacturing process of pipe. W has value equal with 1.0 if longitudinal connection
type is used in the manufacturing process of pipe.

Displacement stress range (SE) in piping system should not exceed allowable
displacement stress range (SA) which can be calculated as follow:

SA = f(1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh)

Where:
F              = stress range factor
Sc             = allowable stress of pipe on minimum working temperature.
Sh                        = allowable stress of pipe on maximum working temperature

2.      Occasional Load
The resultant of longitudinal stress due to sustained load and all of loads which are
caused by occasional load such as wind load and seismic load, should not exceed the
value of 1.33 is multiplied with allowable stress of pipe on maximum working
temperature (Sh). For casting material, the Sh value must be multiplied by factor quality
casting (Ec). Loading due to wind and seismic are not generally occur simultaneously,
so in the pipe stress analysis, the calculation is performed only to one of that loads in
accordance with environmental condition.  

3.      Thermal Expansion Load

16
The stress that occurs due to thermal expansion load is stress range from the resultant
of bending stress and torsional stress due to thermal expansion. Range expansion
stress should not exceed allowable stress SA according to the following equation:

SE = √(Sb2 + St2) ≤ f(1.25 Sc + 0.25Sh)

The value of Sb and St are bending stress and torsional stress respectively

These criteria follow:

(1/3.5) x the tensile strength at temperature (2YS/3)
(2/3) x the yield strength at temperature (TS/3.5)

17
8. METHODOLOGY CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS AND
FAILURE MODES
Pressure design of piping or equipment uses one criterion for design. Under a steady
application of load (e.g.. pressure), it ensures against failure of the system as perceived
by one of the failure theories. If a pipe designed for a certain pressure experiences a
much higher pressure, the pipe would rupture even if such load (pressure) is applied
only once. The failure or rupture is sudden and complete. Such a failure is called
catastrophic failure. It takes place only when the load exceeds far beyond the load for
which design was carried out. Over the years, it has been realised that systems,
especially piping, systems can fail even when the loads are always under the limits
considered safe, but the load application is cyclic (e.g. high pressure, low pressure, high
pressure, ..). Such a failure is not guarded against by conventional pressure design
formula or compliance with failure theories. For piping system design, it is well
established that these two types of loads must be treated separately and together guard
against catastrophic and fatigue failure.

The loads the piping system (or for that matter any structural part) faces are broadly
classified as primary loads and secondary loads.

Primary Loads:
These are typically steady or sustained types of loads such as internal fluid pressure,
external pressure, gravitational forces acting on the pipe such as weight of pipe and
fluid, forces due to relief or blow down pressure waves generated due to water hammer
effects. The last two loads are not necessarily sustained loads. All these loads occur
because of forces created and acting on the pipe. In fact, primary loads have their origin
in some force acting on the pipe causing tension, compression, torsion etc leading to
normal and shear stresses. A large load of this type often leads to plastic deformation.
The deformation is limited only if the material shows strain hardening characteristics. If it
has no strain hardening property or if the load is so excessive that the plastic instability
sets in, the system would continue to deform till rupture. Primary loads are not self-
limiting. It means that the stresses continue to exist as long as the load persists and
deformation does not stop because the system has deformed into a no-stress condition
but because strain hardening has come into play.

Secondary Loads:
Just as the primary loads have their origin in some force, secondary loads are caused
by displacement of some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage tank may
be under load if the tank nozzle to which it is connected moves down due to tank
settlement. Similarly, pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards because the vessel

18
nozzle moves up due to vessel expansion. Also, a pipe may vibrate due to vibrations in
the rotating equipment it is attached to. A pipe may experience expansion or contraction
once it is subjected to temperatures higher or lower respectively as compared to
temperature at which it was assembled.

The secondary loads are often cyclic but not always. For example load due to tank
settlement is not cyclic. The load due to vessel nozzle movement during operation is
cyclic because the displacement is withdrawn during shut-down and resurfaces again
after fresh start-up. A pipe subjected to a cycle of hot and cold fluid similarly undergoes
cyclic loads and deformation. Failure under such loads is often due to fatigue and not
catastrophic in nature.

Broadly speaking, catastrophic failure is because individual crystals or grains were

subjected to stresses which the chemistry and the physics of the solid could not
withstand. Fatigue failure is often because the grains collectively failed because their
collective characteristics (for example entanglement with each other etc.) changed due
to cyclic load. Incremental damage done by each cycle to their collective texture
accumulated to such levels that the system failed. In other words, catastrophic failure is
more at microscopic level, whereas fatigue failure is at mesoscopic level if not at
macroscopic level.

The Stresses:
The MoC of any piping system is the most tortured non-living being right from its birth.
Leaving the furnace in the molten state, the metal solidifies within seconds. It is a very
hurried crystallization process. The crystals could be of various lattice structural patterns
such as BCC, FCC, HCP etc. depending on the material and the process. The grains,
crystals of the material have no time or chance to orient themselves in any particular
fashion. They are thus frozen in all random orientations in the cold harmless pipe or
structural member that we see.

When we calculate stresses, we choose a set of orthogonal directions and define the
stresses in this coordinate system. For example, in a pipe subjected to internal pressure
or any other load, the most used choice of coordinate system is the one comprising of
axial or longitudinal direction (L), circumferential (or Hoop) direction (H) and radial
direction (R) as shown in figure. Stresses in the pipe wall are expressed as axial (S L),
Hoop’s (SH) and radial (SR). These stresses which stretch or compress a grain/crystal are
called normal stresses because they are normal to the surface of the crystal.

But, all grains are not oriented as the grain in the figure. In fact the grains would have
been oriented in the pipe wall in all possible orientations. The above stresses would
also have stress components in direction normal to the faces of such randomly oriented

19
crystal. Each crystal thus does face normal stresses. One of these orientations must be
such that it maximizes one of the normal stresses.

The mechanics of
solids state that it
would also be
orientation which
minimizes some other
normal stress. Normal stresses for such orientation (maximum normal stress
orientation) are called principal stresses, and are designated S1 (maximum), S2 and S3
(minimum). Solid mechanics also states that the sum of the three normal stresses for all
orientation is always the same for any given external load. That is

SL + SH + SR = S1 + S2 + S3

In addition to the normal stresses, a grain can be subjected to shear stresses as well.
These act parallel to the crystal surfaces as against perpendicular direction applicable
for normal stresses. Shear stresses occur if the pipe is subjected to torsion, bending
etc. Just as there is an orientation for which normal stresses are maximum, there is an
orientation which maximizes shear stress. The maximum shear stress in a 3-D state of
stress can be shown to be i.e. half of the difference between the maximum and
minimum principal stresses. The maximum shear stress is important to calculate
because failure may occur or may be deemed to occur due to shear stress also. A
failure perception may stipulate that maximum shear stress should not cross certain
threshold value. It is therefore necessary to take the worst-case scenario for shear
stresses also as above and ensure against failure .

It is easy to define stresses in the co-ordinate system such as axial-Hoop s-radial (L-H-
R) that are defined for a pipe. The load bearing cross-section is then well defined and
stress components are calculated as ratio of load to load bearing cross-section.
Similarly, it is possible to calculate shear stress in a particular plane given the torsional
or bending load. What are required for testing failure - safe nature of design are,
however, principal stresses and maximum shear stress. These can be calculated from
the normal stresses and shear stresses available in any convenient orthogonal co-
ordinate system. In most pipe design cases of interest, the radial component of normal
stresses (SR) is negligible as compared to the other two components (SH and SL). The
3-D state of stress thus can be simplified to 2-D state of stress. Use of Mohr's circle
then allows to calculate the two principle stresses and maximum shear stress as
follows.

20
9. NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES FROM APPLIED LOAD
As said earlier, a pipe is subjected to all kinds of loads. These need to be identified.
Each such load would induce in the pipe wall, normal and shear stresses. These need
to be calculated from standard relations. The net normal and shear stresses resulting in
actual and potential loads are then arrived at and principle and maximum shear
stresses calculated. Some potential loads faced by a pipe and their relationships to
stresses are summarized here in brief

Axial Load
A pipe may face an axial force (FL) as shown in Figure. It could be tensile or
compressive.

The load bearing cross-section is the cross-sectional area of the pipe wall normal to the
load direction, Am. The stress can then be calculated as

SL = FL / Am

The load bearing cross-section may be calculated rigorously or approximately as follows

The axial load may be caused due to several reasons. The simplest case is a tall
column. The metal cross-section at the base of the column is under the weight of the
column section above it including the weight of other column accessories such as
insulation, trays, ladders etc. Another example is that of cold spring. Many times a
pipeline is intentionally cut a little short than the end-to-end length required. It is then
connected to the end nozzles by forcibly stretching it. The pipe, as assembled, is under

21
axial tension. When the hot fluid starts moving through the pipe, the pipe expands and
compressive stresses are generated. The cold tensile stresses are thus nullified. The
thermal expansion stresses are thus taken care of through appropriate assembly-time
measures.

Internal / External Pressure:

A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal pressure load. A pipe such as
a jacketed pipe core or tubes in a Shell & Tube exchanger etc. may be under net
external pressure. Internal or external pressure induces stresses in the axial as well as
circumferential (Hoops) directions. The pressure also induces stresses in the radial
direction, but as argued earlier, these are often neglected.
The internal pressure exerts an axial force equal to pressure times the internal cross-
section of pipe.
FL = P [ di / 4]

This then induces axial stress calculated as earlier. If outer pipe diameter is used for
calculating approximate metal cross section as well as pipe cross- section, the axial
stress can often be approximated as follows.
SL = P do / (4t)
The internal pressure also induces stresses in the circumferential direction

The stresses are maximum for grains situated at the inner radius and minimum for
those situated at the outer radius. The Hoope's stress at any in between radial position (
r ) is given as follows (Lame's equation)

22
SH at r = P (ri + ri ro /r ) / (ro ri )

For thin walled pipes, the radial stress variation can be neglected. From membrane theory, S H
may then be approximated as follows.
SH = P do / 2t or P di / 2t
Radial stresses are also induced due to internal pressure

Bending Load:
A pipe can face sustained loads causing bending. The bending moment can be related to
normal and shear stresses. Pipe bending is caused mainly due to two reasons: Uniform weight
load and concentrated weight load. A pipe span supported at two ends would sag between
these supports due to its own weight and the weight of insulation (if any) when not in operation.
It may sag due to its weight and weight of hydrostatic test fluid it contains during hydrostatic
test. It may sag due to its own weight, insulation weight and the weight of fluid it is carrying
during operation. All these weights are distributed uniformly across the unsupported span, and
lead to maximum bending moment either at the centre of the span or at the end points of the
span (support location) depending upon the type of the support used. Let the total weight of the
pipe, insulation and fluid be W and the length of the unsupported span be L
The weight per unit length, w, is then calculated (w = W/L). The maximum bending moment, M
max, which occurs at the centre for the pinned support is then given by the beam theory as
follows. M max = wL2 /8 for pinned support For Fixed Supports, the maximum bending moment
occurs at the ends and is given by beam theory as follows M max = w L2 / 12 for fixed support.
The pipe configuration and support types used in process industry do not confirm to any of
these ideal support types and can be best considered as somewhere in between. As a result, a
common practice is to use the following average formula to calculate bending moment for
practical pipe configurations, as follows. M max = w L2 / 10. Also, the maximum bending
moment in the case of actual supports would occur somewhere between the ends and the
middle of the span. Another load that the pipe span would face is the concentrated load. A good
example is a valve on a pipe run.

The load is then approximated as acting at the centre of gravity of the valve and the maximum
bending moment occurs at the point of loading for pinned supports and is given as M max = W a
b / L For rigid supports, the maximum bending moment occurs at the end nearer to the pointed
load and is given as M max = W a2 b / L2 a is to be taken as the longer of the two arms (a and
b) in using the above formula. As can be seen, the bending moment can be reduced to zero by
making either a or b zero, i.e. by locating one of the supports right at the point where the load is
acting. In actual practice, it would mean supporting the valve itself. As that is difficult, it is a
common practice to locate one support as close to the valve (or any other pointed and
significant load) as possible. With that done, the bending moment due to pointed load is minimal
and can be neglected.

23
10. CODES AND STANDARDS
Codes:
A group of general rules or systematic procedures for design, fabrication, installation
and inspection prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal jurisdiction
and made into law.

Standards:
Documents prepared by a professional group or committee which are believed to
represent good and proper engineering practices and which contain mandatory
requirements. The users are responsible for the correct application of the same.
Compliance with a standard does not itself confer immunity from legal obligation

Documents prepared by a professional group or committee indicating good engineering

practices but which are optional as far as their use is concerned. It is a subjective
decision of an engineer or a team of engineers to use such practices or not to use them.

Companies also develop Guides in order to have consistency in the documentation.

These cover various engineering methods, which are considered good practices,
without specific recommendation or requirements.

Codes and Standards, apart from being regulations, might be considered as “design
aids” since they provide guidance from experts. Each country has its own set of Codes
and Standards for various engineering applications. On global basis, American National
Standards are undoubtedly the most widely used and compliance with those
requirements are accepted world over. In India (the author’s country), other than
American Standards, European Norms and Indian Standards are also used for the
design and selection of equipment and piping systems. Similarly, in your country, or for
your client, there would be certain preferences for certain codes and standards. It is
difficult for a course like this to cover all codes and standards in all their respects. It is
also not our intention. However, considering the global nature of engineering today, it is
always helpful to have some acquaintance with better-known and globally used
standards developed by major standards institutions. The major organizations, which
have developed standards, are listed in the following table.

24
Major Organisations for Standards:
Sr. No. Country Organization Abbreviation

1 United States American National Standards Institute ANSI

2 Canada Standard Council of Canada SCC

3 France Association Francaise AFNOR

4 United Kingdom British Standards Institute BSI

5 Europe Committee of European Normalization CEN

6 Germany Deutsches Institute For Normung DIN

7 Japan Japanese Industrial Standards Committee JISC

8 India Bureau of Indian Standards BIS

9 Worldwide International Organization for Standards ISO

11. RELIANCE CODES AND STANDARDS ARE GOVERNED BY

DBDS
DBDs (design basis document) Reliance uses these documents as their sets of
standards to maintain the documents prepared by a professional group or committee
indicating good engineering practices but which are optional as far as their use is
concerned. It is a subjective decision of an engineer or a team of engineers to use such
practices or not to use them. Reliance has created its own sets of rules .codes and
standards which are to be followed by each and every vendor, DEC or any other PMC.

The standards set by reliance are called DBDs and SS, which was created through a
detailed study, research and experience of more than 4 Decades. The Design basis
documents consist of mainly nine sets of files.

1. Piping Stress analysis

2. Stress critical line list
3. Support design basis
4. Standard support
5.-9. (All are IBR packages)

25
Every project may have a new set of DBDs but generally the previous versions are
revised here is a sample page of one of the DBDs (piping stress analysis)

A sample content of DBD consist of (Piping stress analysis):

1. Purpose
2. Scope
3. Cost competitive engineering and design
4. Conflicts and Deviations
5. Definitions
6. Abbreviations
7. Codes and Standards
8. General Working Methodology
9. Specific Design Considerations
10.Flow of Stress Engineering Data
11.Checking Stress Calculations (by DEC)
12.Audit of Stress Calculation by RIL
13.Computer Programs
14.Numbering Of Calculation and Documents
15.Filing
16.Close-Out / Archiving

26
27
Purpose of the design basis:
The purpose of this design basis is to set the recommended standard for design and
engineering requirements as applied to all Reliance group companies, and thereby
achieve maximum technical and economic benefit from standardization

Scope:
This design basis provides the basis for Basic and Detail engineering to all engineering
companies working for Reliance projects. Piping design and stress analysis, in general,
shall be carried out in accordance with the following Codes as applicable:
ASME-B31.1, 2010 Edition Power Piping, ASME-B31.3, 2010 Edition Process Piping
IBR 1950* Steam / Condensate / BFW Piping* With all latest amendments Other design
code may be used as required for a particular project if the same is not covered under
the above codes. This instruction defines general policies and practices of the Piping
Stress Analysis. This instruction does not generally cover the technical aspects of pipe
stress analysis which shall be detailed by the respective DEC. It may be deviated from,
if overruled by specific job requirements in consultation with Core Engineering of
Reliance.

Cost competitive engineering and design:

The engineering team shall maintain the cost focus throughout all phases of the
Project. This should be done without compromising any specification and design
Requirements.

Conflicts and Deviations:

In case of conflict, actual or implied within this document or between this document and
other applicable specifications, Standard Drawings Industry standards, codes, etc., it
shall be brought to Owner’s notice and proper approval shall be obtained before
implementation.
In general, order of priority of the documents shall be as follows,
 Local regulatory and statutory requirement.
 Project specification and datasheets, wherever applicable
 this specification and relevant equipment/system specification.
 Codes and standard.

Definitions:
. Critical Line List
In this instruction, the Critical Line List refers to the Piping Stress Critical Line List
(10080-1-ENGG-DBD-ST-002).
. Critical Line Selection
Critical line selection procedure is fundamental to piping stress analysis, providing for
identification and justification for defining a line as critical and thus requiring the
attention of a stress engineer. The procedure is fully documented in ‘Piping Stress
Critical Line List.

28
Abbreviations:
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
API American Petroleum Institute
WRC Welding Research Council
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
ANSI American National Standards Institute
P&ID Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
IBR Indian Boiler Regulation
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
BFW Boiler Feed Water
DEC Detailed Engineering Consultant
PSV Pressure Safety Valve
BIS Bureau of Indian Standard
PTFE Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene

Specific Design Considerations:

This section addresses various specific topics within the scope of piping stress
Analysis.
Approval of Reliance will be required for use of following:
Bellows
Cold Pull / Hot Bolting
Sliding Pump
Nozzle flexibility
Any special piping element / support
Non-compliance / Deviation

A sample content of DBD consist of (Stress critical line list)

1. Purpose
2. Scope
3. Cost competitive engineering and design
4. Conflicts and Deviations
5. Definitions
6. Abbreviations
7. Codes and Standards
8. Working Methodology
9. Report Format

Purpose
The purpose of this design basis is to set the recommended standard for design and
engineering requirements as applied to all Reliance group companies, and thereby
achieve maximum technical and economic benefit from standardization.

29
Scope:
This design basis defines the production of a list of ‘Stress Critical Lines’ on the project,
those require examination by a stress engineer, and identification of associated
calculations.
This design basis defines general policies and practices for generation of the Piping
Stress Critical Line List.
This design basis does not generally cover all the technical aspects of pipe stress
analysis which shall be detailed by the respective DEC.
It may be deviated from, if overruled by specific job requirements in consultation with
Core Engineering of Reliance.

Cost competitive engineering and design:

The engineering team shall maintain the cost focus throughout all phases of the project.
This should be done without compromising any specification and design requirements.

Conflicts and Deviations:

In case of conflict, actual or implied within this document or between this document and
other applicable specifications, Standard Drawings Industry standards, codes, etc., it
shall be brought to Owner’s notice and proper approval shall be obtained before
implementation.

In general, order of priority of the documents shall be as follows:

 Project specification and datasheets, wherever applicable.

 This specification and relevant equipment/system specification.
 Codes and standard

30
Standard support:
1 Anchor/Line support (A)
2 Rest(S)
3 Guide (G)
4 Hold-down (HD)
5 Hanger (H)
6 (B)
7 Law type (L)

31
32
 Pipe Support Standard Drawings:
These are pipe supports designed to be
used for defined line sizes or loads, for
all projects. These shall not be altered /
changed without consultation &
approval of RIL Core Engineering
This document provides design and
drawings for standard pipe supports for
line sizes 1/2" NB and larger (except
few supports applicable for small bore
lines) to be used for all projects of RIL
These standard pipe support drawings
shall not be altered / changed without
consultation & approval of RIL Core
Engineering. This document should be
read in conjunction with 10080-1-
ENGG-DBD-ST-003 and reference
Design guides.

A pipe support or pipe hanger is a designed element that transfer the load from the
Pipe to the supporting structures. The load includes the weight of pipe proper, the
content the pipe carries, all the pipe fittings attached to pipe & the pipe covering such as
insulation. The four main functions of a pipe support are to anchor, guide, absorb shock
and support a specified load. Pipe supports used in high or low temperature
applications may contain insulation materials.

33
 The purpose of this design basis is to set
the recommended standard for design and
engineering requirements as applied to all
Reliance group companies, and thereby
achieve maximum technical and economic
benefit from standardization

12. PIPING ELEMENTS

One of the major tasks in any Process
Industry is the transportation of materials
often in fluid form from one place to another. The most commonly adopted method for
the same is to force the fluid through the piping system. The piping system is an
assembly of inter-connected piping or a system of pipes subjected to the same set of
design conditions.

Piping System Components include:

1 Pipes
2 Fittings
3 Flanges

34
4 Gaskets
5 Bolting
6 Valves
7 Specialties

A Piping Element is defined as any material or work that is required to plan and install a
piping system. Elements of piping include design specifications, materials, components,
supports, fabrication, inspection and testing.

Piping elements should, so far as practicable, conform to the specification and

standards listed in the code referred for design. Unapproved elements may also be
used provided they are qualified for use as set forth in applicable chapters of the code.

Piping specification is a document specifying each of the components. Different material

specifications are segregated in different “Piping Class”. Identification of the “Piping
Classes” depends on each Designer, and the logic he/she adopts.

PIPES GeneralPipe can be defined as a pressure tight cylinder made of applicable

material of construction. used to convey a fluid or transmit fluid under pressure. Pipe
can be made from any applicable engineering material that can be rolled and welded,
cast or drawn through dies to form tubular section.The word “pipe” is used as
distinguished from “tube” to apply to tubular products of dimensions commonly used for
piping systems. The pipe dimensions of sizes 12 inch (300 mm) and smaller have
outside diameter numerically larger than corresponding sizes.Size.The size of the pipe
is identified by the NOMINAL BORE or the NOMINAL PIPE SIZE. The manufacture of
pipe is based on outside diameter, which is standardized. The OD was originally
selected so that pipe with standard wall thickness, which was typical of that

period, would have an internal diameter approximately equal to the nominal size. In
American standards, dimension of pipes are covered under

a) ASME B 36.10 - Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipeb) ASME B 36.19 -
Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe

The nominal bore and the corresponding outside diameters specified therein are as given in
the accompanying table. American standards have not metricated (i.e. not converted to
metric system of units) the pipe sizes and the nominally equivalent metric sizes of widely
followed pipes with nominal sizes in inches are also noted along with. However, the latest
revisions of these standards include the SI metric dimensions for Outside Diameter,
thickness and unit weight.

As regards the non-metallic and lined piping systems, the thickness of pipe and/or lining
are not covered under any of the above standards. These are as per the relevant ASTM
standards. For certain plastic pipes, Indian Standards are also available.

Pipes are designated by its Nominal Bore (NB). For example: 2" NB or 50 mm NB.

35
Further, pipe can also be designated as:-

Pipe can also be designated by Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) which is a dimensionless
designator in USCS. It indicates standard pipe size when followed by specific size
designation number without inch symbol. For example: NPS2, NPS12 etc.

It can be designated also by Nominal Diameter (DN), again a dimensionless

designator in metric system. It indicates standard size designation number without

13. THICKNESS CALCULATION OF A PIPE

The required thickness of straight sections of pipe shall be determined in accordance
with -

tm = t + c

The minimum thickness, T, for the pipe selected, con- sideling manufacturer’s minus
tolerance, shall be not less than tm. The following nomenclature is used in the
equations for pressure design of straight pipe:

C=sum of the mechanical allowances (thread or groove depth) plus corrosion and
erosion allowances. For threaded components, the nominal thread depth (dimension h
of ASME B1.20.1, or equivalent) shall apply. For machined surfaces or grooves where
the tolerance is not specified, the tolerance shall be assumed to be 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) in
addition to the specified depth of the cut.

D=outside diameter of pipe as listed in tables of standards or specifications

d=inside diameter of pipe. For pressure design calculation, the inside diameter of the
pipe is the maximum value allowable under the purchase specification.

E=quality factor from Table A-1A or A-1B

P=internal design gage pressure
S=stress value for material from Table A-1
T=pipe wall thickness
W=weld joint strength reduction factor
Y=coefficient from Table, valid for t < D/6 and for materials shown. The value of Y may
be interpolated for intermediate temperatures. For t ≥ D/6,

36
Straight pipe under internal pressure:
Case 1) for t < D/6, the internal pressure design thickness for straight pipe shall be not
less than that calculated in accordance with

Case 2)For t ≥ D/6 or for P/SE > 0.385, calculation of pressure design thickness for
straight pipe requires special consideration of factors such as theory of failure, effects of
fatigue, and thermal stress

Pipe wall Pipe thikness

thikness.xlsx calculation.pdf

37
38
a

39
14. MITER BEND

An angular offset of 3 degree or less does not require design consideration as a miter
bend. Acceptable methods for pressure design of multiple and single miter bends are
given in (a) and (b) below.

(a) Multiple Miter Bends. The maximum allowable internal pressure shall be the lesser
value calculated from Eqs

Single Miter Bends

40
(1) The maximum allowable internal pressure for a single miter bend with angle 􏰓 not
greater than 22.5 degree shall be calculated by above equation

(2) The maximum allowable internal pressure for a single miter bend with angle 􏰓
greater than 22.5 degree shall be calculated by

(3)The miter pipe wall thickness, T, used in above eqs shall extend a distance not less
than M from the inside crotch of the end miter welds where M p the larger of 2.5(r2T)0.5
or tan 􏰓 (R1 − r2)

The length of taper at the end of the miter pipe may be included in the distance, M.

(d) The following nomenclature is used in eqs. for the pressure design of miter bends

Pm = maximum allowable internal pressure for miter bends

R1 = effective radius of miter bend, defined as the shortest distance from the pipe
centerline to the intersection of the planes of adjacent miter joints

r2 = mean radius of pipe using nominal wall T

Alpha = angle of change in direction at miter joint.

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68