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25 Railways

D S Currie FEng, FICE, MIMechE


Director of Civil Engineering
British Railways

Contents
25.1 Earthworks and drainage 25/3 25.9 Slab track 25/16
25.1.1 Site investigation 25/3 25.9.1 Prefabricated slab track 25/17
25.1.2 General 25/3
25.10 Track maintenance and renewal 25/18
25.2 Ballast 25/4
25.2.1 Track profile 25/5 25.11 Railway structures 25/20
25.11.1 General 25/20
25.3 Sleepers 25/6 25.11.2 Stations 25/20
25.3.1 Timber sleepers and sleeper spacing 25/6 25.11.3 Bridges and viaducts 25/21
25.3.2 Steel sleepers 25/6 25.11.4 Clearances 25/22
25.3.3 Concrete sleepers 25/7 25.11.5 Refuges 25/22

25.4 Fastenings 25/9 25.12 Inspection and maintenance of structures 25/22

25.5 Rails 25/10 25.13 Research, development and international


25.5.1 Rail failures 25/11 collaboration 25/23

25.6 Curved track 25/12 Bibliography 25/23

25.7 Welded track 25/14


25.7.1 Fastening welded rails 25/15

25.8 Switches and crossings 25/15


25.8.1 Switches 25/15
25.8.2 Crossings 25/15
25.8.3 Leads 25/16

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


25.1 Earthworks and drainage 25.1.2.2 Rock cuttings
British Railways has indicated safe slopes for rock cuttings and
The contours of the territory to be crossed by a railway are angles of repose for rock embankments in a chart reproduced as
obviouslv decisive as to its average gradient but they are also the Table 3 in BS 6031. If steep cuttings in rock are essential, then it
background to fixing the maximum permissible gradient within is necessary to apply engineering geology concepts to assess
the limits of tractive and braking adhesion. The lower the joint sets in relation to the direction of slope. Rock anchors,
difference between average gradient and maximum gradient the rock bolts and sprayed concrete may be used to assure stability
greater is the practicable train load and the lesser are the before considering the use of mass-retaining walls. Chalk and
deviations from constant-speed running. The minimum curva- certain other soft rocks are susceptible to weathering and frost
ture to be used also determines the differences between the line
action and may be protected by vegetation cover.
speed limit and local speed restrictions. Long curves of small
radius on heavy gradients may involve derailment hazards for
very long and heavy trains, arising from braking or tractive 25.1.2.3 Soil cuttings
effort surges along the train. Both maximum gradient and Where the slopes are in non-cohesive sands and gravels, the
minimum curvature have a large effect on the earthworks cost of angle of repose is the limiting gradient (with a maximum value
constructing a railway and, because of this, the ideal of con-
of 1:1). Usually, the gradient is shallower than this due to the
stant-speed running is often subject to heavy qualification. This
presence of finer layers in the soil system or a silt or clay matrix
is particularly the case in mountainous country. around the gravel. The non-cohesive soils tend to be self-
Railway alignment needs to be planned to give a volume draining but erosion can occur when water springs part way up
balance between excavation in cuttings and tipping in embank- the slope. At such locations a non-woven geotextile filter can be
ments, subject to the material excavated being suitable for placed and covered with uniform coarse stone (away from the
tipping to form embankments and subject to minimizing the sun's rays) which will hold the fabric in place.
haul of the excavated soil. Recourse to borrow pits for embank- Drainage measures should take the form of preventing water
ments and spoil hauls for cuttings should be minimized. reaching the slope and of removing it from the slope. Unlined
The route may also be affected by other considerations which ditches behind the crest of the slope increase the hazard.
may be economic, environmental or technical. These would Drainage trenches, whether behind or below the crest, should be
become apparent in a full site investigation, where such matters designed to intercept water and have impermeable membranes
as previous mining activity, underground services, effect on below them and on the downfill face to prevent water once
neighbouring structures, nature of the groundwater table and collected from re-entering the soil. Modern counterfort or
watercourses would be taken into account. Guidance is avail- buttress drains differ greatly from the original open forms. Like
able in relevant Codes of Practice, such as BS 6031 and BS 5930. all drains they should be lined with a geotextile layer to prevent
(See also Chapters 9, 11 and 17.) erosion behind and fouling within them. The top 1 or 2m
should be composed of impermeable material, either compacted
25.1.1 Site investigation clay fill or a system of stone and plastics membrane to prevent
surface water reaching deep into the ground, where it could
This will vary according to the extent of the problem. At the cause internal pore water pressure at likely slip surfaces.
outset, a preliminary study may give adequate information to In some cases, there is a mantle of more permeable silt or sand
specify the route corridor from geological maps and memoirs, overlying the older clay and, if possible, a lateral interceptor
topographical maps and aerial photographs. Earth satellite drain should be placed about 20 m behind the crest to prevent
imagery with interpretation of selective wavebands by special-
the fast seepage of water.
ists in remote sensing can indicate important features. Water
In addition to the above rotational slides, translational slides
table conditions may vary throughout the year from those
can occur, usually as a shallow mass moving on a planar
obtaining at the time of exploration.
surface. They can take the form of slab or block slides, wedge
For more localized investigation, the type of equipment
failures, debris slides and flow slides. These possibilities are
(augers, percussion and rotary tools, penetration heads, loading
assessed in the site investigation. Mires are formed as peat is laid
plates, pumps), instruments (piezometers, inclinometer tubes,
seismometers, resistivity meters, gravimeters, etc.) must be down in a specific sequence with variations in soil content,
chosen according to conditions. Relevant disturbed or undis- dimensions of fibre (roots, trees, etc.) and extent of humifica-
turbed samples should be procured for testing. According to the tion. Peats reduce greatly in volume under the effects of loading
type of ground, the construction and the design philosophy and drainage. In making cuttings in a peat system, quite
applied, it may be necessary to carry out full-scale site testing substantial waterflow can occur and a filter is advised to deal
with long-term monitoring of instruments. with fine particles otherwise carried from the slope.
In all cases of cuttings, other engineering works at ground
level should be considered. Urban or industrial construction
25.1.2 General involves roads which act as catchments to deliver water to local
In the past, railways have been maintained over poor ground, drainage systems and also water services: if these are defective
with inadequate trackbed materials with a high input of labour and near the slope, water can flow to increase pore pressure and
time and at slow or moderate train speeds. Although the precipitate a slip. Similarly, surcharging, especially if accompa-
following concepts may be used in modifying old railways, the nied by dynamic loads from construction plant or the placing of
storage containers, can seriously reduce the factor of safety.
basic approach is to obtain a minimum maintenance high-speed
Steep rock faces, chalk cliffs, and boulder-strewn hill slopes
railway accepting normal freight traffic on conventional
sleepers. may present rockfall or chalkfall problems which may need
special watchmen, signalling provisions, special fence, apron or
tunnel protection.
25.1.2.1 Cutting slopes
Slopes in natural ground may be constructed at safe angles 25.1.2.4 Embankments
according to the properties of the soil. The nature of the natural soil to receive the embankment must
be investigated. If it is too weak to receive the embankment Drainage. The control of water in the trackbed is a major
loading at the rate of placing likely to be used by the contractor, factor in designing the construction layers in relation to the type
failure could occur. A total stress analysis is applicable for this. of subgrade soil as discussed above. Soils such as sands and
The conventional technique is to place berms as counterweights gravels which may be drained fairly easily do not present a great
at the position of heave. A modern alternative is the use of problem unless there is an artesian head: in this case, there can
reinforcing geotextiles or meshes (usually of plastics) to resist be a slow upward migration of fine or medium sand under track
tensile forces. The fabric is laid directly on the ground and vibration combined with water flow, and a geotextile is neces-
covered with a granular layer at least 200 mm thick; this acts as sary to hold down this sand. Cohesive soils cannot be drained
a filter and permits construction plant to move easily over the easily and the installation of a channel or pipe will only reduce
site without sinking into the underlying soft soil. Further fabric the pore water pressure to invert level in its immediate vicinity.
or mesh is laid at higher levels, the number and spacing of layers It is not practical to attempt to remove water from clay in this
depending upon the engineering properties of the specialist type way as such a large number of drains would be required. If
of material chosen. water arrives through precipitation or by flow from adjacent
areas, then a relatively small amount is sufficient to produce
Slope angles. Embankments may be formed at angles varying deleterious changes in pore pressure and so it is practical to
from ratios of 1:1 horizontal to vertical for crushed rock and provide drains to intercept and remove this free water. Most of
gravels to 2.5:1 or even shallower for clays and silts. The slope the water in cohesive soil is held in capillary suction.
angles depend both on the material and rainfall. For modern The relationship between the moisture content of cohesive
railways, peat should not be used as fill material. soil and the water table is complex, depending upon the over
The surfaces of slopes should be protected from erosion. This consolidation ratio (OCR) of the soil. Weathering reduces the
may occur naturally as vegetation is established, followed by a OCR effect at the surface.
protective topsoil. If surface erosion is a problem, various One object in designing the system of drains and track is to
systems are available, such as spraying with a seed mulch, produce a maintenance-free system or one needing minimal
turving, placing filter fabrics held down by gravel layers or using attention. Channel drains are readily accessible for cleaning and
a honeycomb mesh to hold seeded compost in place. deal with rainwater, they can be laid at very slight gradients and
can deliver at catchpits to deeper pipe carriers if necessary.
Rockfalls. Vertical or sloping rock faces may erode or topple Many pipe drains act both as collectors and carriers, allowing
to cause rocks of various sizes to fall towards the running line. water to enter at open joints or through perforations. The
Although vegetation may help by bonding superficially, protec- various forms of pipe are glazed earthenware, galvanized corru-
tion must involve coping with the energy of rockfall and gated steel, pitch fibre and, now coming more into use because
removing the debris regularly. If space is available, one or two of ease of handling, plain or perforated PVC pipe. Geotextiles
berms are constructed between the base of the slope and the are of great use in static drainage conditions and most railways
railway to collect scree. For some faces, a plastic geomesh is report satisfactory results using commercially available filtering
adequate. non-woven fabric. For normal purposes, a fully heat-bonded
geotextile with a surface density in the range 100 to 200 g/m2 is
Reinforced earth. The dimensions of embankments and of acceptable; needle-punched geotextiles should be of slightly
gravity-retaining structures can be reduced by the inclusion of heavier grade. Fabrics placed in quasi-static conditions near the
various strengthening meshes, fabrics, strips and rods of metal, track should be of heavier grade up to 350 g/m2, or more if
glass fibre or plastics. The tensile resistance of these elements is needle-punched. Such a geotextile would be placed in the sixfoot
applied to the adjacent granular soil to produce a composite of a double track line after one track had been cleaned or
system permitting the construction of vertical faces in the fill. blanketed. This would prevent slurry from the dirty adjacent
These external faces are protected by facing elements usually of track flowing across.
concrete, resulting in a structure which is economic and which A modern standard design for a side drain is a trench lined
can accommodate settlement. The various qualities of creep, with geotextile with a perforated pipe drain running along its
longevity of reinforcement, corrosion, etc. are still the subject of base; above and around the pipe is placed uniform stone such as
study but many such structures exist throughout the world, ballast, with the top of the geotextile lapped over the stone
including railway environments. There are none so far beneath a about 200 mm below the surface: more stone on the geotextile
high-speed running line and, in this particular case, such systems protects it from disturbance and from the effect of the ultra-
can be installed up to a horizontal distance of 5 m from the violet rays of the sun. As perforated drains can release as well as
running line. collect water, possibly at susceptible locations, it is often the
practice to place a polyethylene film to line the trench.
Trackbed designs. The thickness of subsleeper construction
(trackbed) is a function of number and size of axle loadings and
of the subgrade soil. Modern railways assess the subgrade soil in 25.2 Ballast
one of two approaches: (1) the classification of the soil accord-
ing to its physical properties and taking account of the water Ballast, the material around and below the sleeper, is placed to
table; or (2) correlating some measured strength or modulus of provide support and lateral resistance to the sleeper. It permits
the subgrade with an empirical design chart. The thickness of adjustment of level and alignment as required and, if this is done
the trackbed may also depend upon its component layers to manually, the maximum size of particles should be about
protect against frost, water and particle movement. In very 50 mm. Ballast should be free-draining, mainly of single size, of
frost-prone areas, such as Central Europe, the thickness of cubical shape but, above all, durable so that there is negligible
ballast for frost protection exceeds that which might be required volume change under track loading. The wet attrition value
for prevention of bearing capacity failure. (WAV) gives the best correlation, with minimum maintenance
The thickness of ballast (all dimensions are below bottom of requirements over the long term and this is determined by the
sleeper) is a minimum of 200 mm to permit tamping machines to test described in BS 812:1951, clause 27, which specifies the
operate. Although new ballast injection machines would permit exact size and type of sample to be used. If particles of different
this to be reduced, a high-speed or high-axle-load railway would size from the 50 to 37.5 mm required in the test are used, then a
require 300 to 500 mm thickness for minimum maintenance. different WAV is obtained. The WAV should not exceed 4% for
good ballast and it is possible to obtain stone with a WAV down nominal 20mm size between the ballast bed and the sleeper,
to 1%. It is rare for synthetic stone, such as slag, to have which is lifted to insert the stone. There is now a track-levelling
adequate wet attrition properties and they may generally be machine, electronically controlled, which evaluates cant and
grouped with most limestones as being unsuitable to be in level from an advancing inclinometer trolley and places the
contact with the sleeper. Hardness is difficult to define in exact quantity of stone by pneumatic injection to obtain proper
relation to other tests but, if the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the level. As stone more than 50 mm below the sleeper is not moved
homogeneous mineral is 6000 m/s or greater, the stone will be and brought with its dirty matrix up to bottom sleeper level, as
suitable. In severe climates, a freezing and thawing test may be with a tamper, the likelihood of pumping track is somewhat
applicable. lessened; the beneficial effect of high-quality small stone is not
The dimensions should conform by weight to the values reduced by mixing with existing worn stone and there is less
shown in Table 25.1; and the 1.18 mm limit effectively minimizes attrition of the base of the sleeper.
the amount of dust present.
Table 25.1 25.2.1 Track profile
Under traffic, rail level, as measured by accurate optical or
Square mesh inclinometer-based machines, shows a profile which is repeated
sieve % to pass even after many successive tamping and loading cycles. This is
related to the care with which the original trackbed layers were
63 100 installed. When the subgrade is prepared initially, and as
50 100-97 subsequent layers of blanket and ballast are placed and com-
28 20-0 pacted, it is necessary to provide extra sighting instruments on
14 2-0 compaction and grading plant so that there are no short
1.18 0.3-0 variations in level. This can be successfully done by using a laser
system aimed at the surface a fixed distance ahead and which
The stone should have a maximum flakiness index of 50%. causes the equipment to compensate for deviation from the
For elongation qualities, not more than 2% by weight of required level by moving its instrumented blade up or down.
particles should have a dimension exceeding 75 mm. The ends of the sleepers need to be boxed-in with shoulder
The effect of many tamping cycles is to break up ballast ballast to a minimum width of 150 mm for any tracks, 200 to
particles; stone as hard as possible is required to accommodate 250 mm for running lines carrying moderate-speed, moderate-
this. When a sleeper is tamped, a horizontal load - the major axle-load traffic, 300mm minimum for welded track on the
principal stress - is applied to the ballast, causing it to deform straight and 350mm for welded track on curves. Generally,
vertically and lift the sleeper. The minor principal stress is there is little advantage in extending shoulder ballasting beyond
vertical with the subsequent arrangement of stone particles in 300 to 350 mm. In the last decade or so, the practice of raising
the least favourable position to support track loading, even the shoulder ballast in a slope from about top of sleeper level at
though the rail level is now correct. The maximum rate of rail the rail to about top of rail level at the shoulder edge has become
settlement occurs after tamping, which reduces as the stone common on European railways. This practice not only increases
packs down under traffic, with the major principal stress becom- the lateral stability of the track but provides a useful reserve of
ing vertical. The trackbed becomes more stable under vertical boxing ballast which can be temporarily utilized to make good
loading and the best relevelling procedure is the manual or the boxing ballast when the track is tamped. The angle of the
mechanical placing of measured quantities of small stones of shoulder should be about 55°.

(Min. dimension) (Min. dimension)

Pad under rail Pandrol rail fastening


Gauge= 1432 mm and housing in sleeper

Concrete sleeper

Ballast

1000-gauge
polythene sheet
Approved sand
where required Pipe drain
Figure 25.1 Components and formation for continuous welded
rail (CWR) track (dimensions in millimetres)
25.3 Sleepers and to in-track service trials in order to prove the efficacy of new
steel sleeper designs.
Many of the older steel sleeper designs gave average service
25.3.1 Timber sleepers and sleeper spacing lives of over 50 years before failing through cracking in, or
The traditional track support since the early days of railways adjacent to, the rail seat area. Generally, these cracks propa-
has been the timber sleeper, but now prestressed concrete gated from rail fastener holes or slots or from discontinuities in
sleepers are in use in many countries. In some countries the the rail seat area. Abrasive wear and/or corrosion in this area
baseplated timber sleeper is already more expensive to install also contributed ultimately to sleeper failure. The steel sleeper
than a baseplateless prestressed concrete sleeper. design features, and especially those associated with the rail
In Britain, the sleepers and point and crossing timbers have fastener mountings, together with the accumulated gross traffic
traditionally been of softwood, chiefly douglas fir from Canada, tonnage carried, are the most important factors determining
Maritime pine from southwest France and Corsica, and Baltic steel sleeper life. Recently improved steel sleeper designs have
redwood from Poland and Russia. Homegrown fir sleepers have given due cognizance to these influences.
been used when they have been available. In continental Eur- It is commonplace to recondition old steel sleepers which
ope, beech and oak sleepers have been widely used. All soft- have already given a 30- to 50-year 'first life', by welding-on
wood sleepers, and most hardwood sleepers that can be impreg- suitably designed reconditioning plates. If required, the recondi-
nated, are pressure creosoted by the Bethell or Ruping processes tioning plates used may permit a change in rail fastener type or
before being baseplated. The harder softwood sleepers such as rail section to be made for the further 'second life' of the steel
douglas fir or scots fir and hardwood sleepers need to be incised sleeper. When damaged in service, e.g. by derailments, steel
prior to creosoting. Four to 14 litres of creosote per sleeper is a sleepers can readily be repaired by pressing and/or welding.
normal absorption, according to species. In Canada, the US and Steel sleepers do not burn or suffer from exposure to dry heat.
South America a mixture of mineral oil and creosote is used. In tropical climates their immunity to insect or fungoidal
A timber sleeper may have a first or running line life of damage is extremely beneficial.
between 6 and 50 years with an average of about 20 years Loss of metal section through corrosion is usually surpris-
according to traffic loading, weather exposure, the nature and ingly low, but there may be a few very special sites subject to
incidence of the indigenous vegetative and insect enemies of severe corrosion, where the use of steel sleepers would be
timber, the presence or absence of baseplates, the nature of the inadvisable. Under-design of the rail seat, or inadequate sup-
fastenings, the quality of the ballast and its maintenance, the port thereof, can greatly increase the localized corrosion and
species of timber and, significantly, the rate at which it has fatigue damage in this generally highly stressed area, and due
grown. allowances have been made in modern designs.
The British softwood timber sleeper is 250 x 125 x 2600mm Steel sleepers pack neatly into bundles and thus simplify all
with switch and crossing timbers of 30Ox 150mm section. In handling and transport operations and greatly reduce these
Europe, hardwood sleepers mainly of oak or beech are used costs. The relatively low mass and convenient and uniform
with a depth of 160mm. Sleeper spacing in Britain is 700mm shape of steel sleepers is of benefit in both mechanical and
with 650mm on curves or on timber sleepered continuous manual handling.
welded rail (CWR). In countries other than Britain, timber The use of steel sleepers provides good resistance to lateral
sleeper spacings of 600 mm are common with some as close as and longitudinal movement of the track and gives high consist-
550 mm in heavy-axle situations. ency of gauge, both at installation and during subsequent
The sleeper spacing applied represents a compromise between service. The achievement of good alignment is necessary when
overall sleeper cost and the lessened frequency of maintenance steel sleepers are initially installed and when retamping after a
attention and reduced rail bending stress which results there- brief 'running in' period. The additional care and attention at
from. In addition, a decrease in sleeper spacing may be appro- this early stage generally results in a reduced need for subse-
priate where the formation is weak or where it is not practicable quent maintenance, realignment and retamping. Some of the
to increase the total track construction depth by increasing the older steel sleeper designs were difficult to install and adjust, but
depth of ballast. Since also increasing the density of sleepering modern designs are now relatively easy to install and to use for
increases both the lateral and vertical resistances to buckling 'spot replacements'.
movements of the track, it is general practice to reduce sleeper The inverted trough shape and its entrapment of tamped-up
spacing when laying track intended to carry long welded rails. ballast provides many benefits. The natural resistance of the
Where the rail formation is regularly subjected to frost heave ballast is more effectively utilized by steel sleepers, and ballast
distortions, there may be a case for deliberately choosing a depth may be decreased by 75 to 100mm as compared with
rather weak rail with complementary close sleeper spacing in wood or concrete sleepers. This can be of distinct advantage in
order to allow the track to accommodate itself to a frost heave tunnels with limited clearances and ballast depth. Where stan-
contour without imposing undue bending stresses in the rails. dard ballast depth is retained, the additional load-spreading
effect of steel sleepers and their ballast-filled inverted trough,
may enable sleeper spacing to be slightly increased. Also, the
inverted trough shape has the in-built benefit that any enforced
movement of the sleeper increases the entrapped ballast density
25.3.2 Steel sleepers and its resistance to further sleeper movement, in comparison
Steel sleepers are widely used in India, Africa, South America, with the solid shape of wood and concrete sleepers where
Asia and in parts of Europe. Steel shortages during and eventually a 'break-free' point is reached.
following the Second World War, and the increased use of Steel sleepers are similar to concrete in their tendency to
concrete, impeded the further development of steel sleepers until degrade soft ballast more rapidly than wooden sleepers. Hence,
about the mid 1970s. Since then, there has been a considerable the use of a hard stone is preferred for steel sleepers. Neverthe-
amount of research done in Australia, Europe, Japan and less, many old steel sleepers have given long and satisfactory
Britain to evolve improved steel sleeper designs. Computer- service utilizing a gravel-type ballast.
based design techniques, e.g. finite element analysis, and Insulating pads, fastener shoes and/or washers must be
modern stress measuring and analysis techniques have been incorporated in the steel sleepers designed for lines using track
applied to both full-scale laboratory loading and fatigue testing circuit signalling. In most cases the insulating components used
are identical to those used with concrete sleepers. Modern Spacing in British track is usually 700 or 650 mm, although
plastic materials have improved the electrical security of these 600 mm spacing is used in severe curves.
insulating components and the track circuits, but the high In the past 15 years, concrete sleepers have gained wider
electrical conductivity of steel sleepers requires special attention international acceptance for several reasons, including:
to their design and maintenance.
The mass of individual steel sleepers is usually mid-way (1) Higher passenger train speeds and heavier freight axle loads
between that of wood and concrete, and may be considered a necessitate higher quality and stronger track.
disadvantage with respect to resistance to the vertical buckling (2) High labour costs and intensive track use necessitate
of continuously welded rail track. However, the entrapped reduced frequency of maintenance cycles.
ballast in the inverted trough of steel sleepers and their general (3) Increased use of mechanized track-laying and renewal
shape (particularly the newer designs) greatly increases the equipment has overcome the difficulty of handling heavy
'effective in-track mass' of steel-sleepered track. concrete sleepers.
Most rail fastener types can be accommodated in steel sleeper (4) Softwood sleepers are often unable to withstand the stresses
designs, and there are only isolated fastener systems which in modern main-line track and good-quality hardwood is
cannot be economically incorporated in steel sleeper designs. increasingly expensive and difficult to obtain.
(5) With modern fastenings, only a resilient pad is required
between the rail and sleeper thereby eliminating expensive
base plates.
It is generally predicted that prestressed concrete sleepers will
25.3.3 Concrete sleepers have an average life of 40 to 50 years. Some of the earlier designs
The first experiments with reinforced concrete sleepers were of concrete sleepers have been removed from the track due to
made over 100 years ago. Concrete is attractively resistant to premature failure of the fastenings although the concrete re-
decay, insect attack and fire, but it is brittle, and reinforced mains structurally sound. Since 1964, British Rail have used the
concrete sleepers would not withstand the impact loads in main Pandrol fastening in which the less durable components can be
line track. A solution developed in France in the 1920s was to renewed (Figure 25.3). At high speeds (over HOkm/h) wheel
use pairs of reinforced concrete blocks connected by steel tie and rail surface defects can cause high stresses in concrete
bars. This twin-block sleeper continues in use notably in France, sleepers which, if allowed to persist, can cause cracking in the
Spain and North Africa but is of declining importance world- rail seat area of sleepers. Prestressed sleepers with such cracks
wide. can remain serviceable, providing the cause of high stress is
Under the pressures of timber shortages during the Second promptly detected and rectified as necessary.
World War, a satisfactory monoblock concrete sleeper was The brittle nature of concrete sometimes gives cause for
developed in Britain in 1943 using the then new technique of concern in derailment damage. In practice, the enhanced stabi-
pretensioned, prestressed concrete. This has led to a major lity of concrete-sleepered track reduces the incidence of derail-
industry in Britain (over 30 million pretensioned concrete ments and their severity is reduced by modern fastenings which
sleepers have been supplied to British Rail) and many other hold gauge well during derailments. Well-filled ballast cribs
countries (notably Norway, Sweden, USSR, Hungary, Czecho- provide protection to the concrete and derailment damage to the
slovakia, Iraq, Japan, South Africa, Australia, Canada and the track is not a significant problem with monoblock concrete
US). sleepers. Twinblock sleepers, however, perform badly as the tie
In Britain and most of the other countries pretensioned barls relatively easily bent causing severe gauge narrowing.
concrete sleepers are made by the long-line method in which the Whilst concrete is a semiconductor, adequate insulation for
tendons are fully bonded. This gives good distribution and track circuits can be obtained simply and cheaply by incorporat-
control of prestress. Post-tensioned sleepers were developed in ing insulating components into the fastening.
West Germany in the 1950s and have found limited favour (in Concrete sleepers can be cast into a concrete slab to provide
West Germany, Italy, Spain and Mexico). ballastless track but it is advisable to use sleepers with projecting
The current British Rail standard sleeper designated F27BS, reinforcement to ensure permanent connection to the in situ
is prestressed with six 9.3 mm, seven-wire strands (Figure 25.2). concrete. In dry locations, especially tunnels under sensitive
It is 2.515 m long, 203 mm deep under the rail, 264 mm wide at buildings where structure-borne vibration is objectionable,
the base and weighs 280kg. For more arduous conditions, a attenuation can be achieved by enclosing the sleepers partially
stronger version F27AS has been introduced, prestressed with (without projecting reinforcement) in rubber boots before cast-
eight strands in the same concrete envelope as the F27BS. ing into the slab.
Recently the F40, a 2.480 m long sleeper, has been developed to Pretensioned concrete beams have been in use in Britain as
facilitate single-line mechanized track renewal within the tight switch and crossing bearers since the early 1970s. Use was
British Rail structure gauge. The base width is increased to inhibited by the practice of drilling the concrete to locate rail
285 mm to maintain the bearing area and the depth is 200 mm fastenings, but manufacturers have now developed methods of
under the rail which gives the same weight as the F27BS. casting fastenings into the bearers, and increasing use is antici-
Prestressing is by six strands. pated internationally.

Figure 25.2 British Rail F27 prestressed concrete sleeper


(Courtesy: Costain Concrete Co. Ltd)
Figure 25.3 Types of rail fastening: (a) spring spike, (b) Pandrol
fastening, (c) K fastening, (d) square-section cut spikes, (e) FIST
fastening
25.4 Fastenings
Rail fastenings are divided into two categories: direct and
indirect. These are further divided into elastic and rigid. Direct
fastenings are those which fasten the rail directly to the sleeper,
and indirect are those which fasten the rail to a chair or
baseplate, which is fastened to the sleeper separately.
Both types of fastenings may be either elastic or rigid,
depending on whether a spring element is incorporated, and also
depending on whether they are adjustable or self-tensioning.
The square-section cut spike was the original fastening used
for flat bottom rail (Figure 25.3), but in Europe it is no longer
used except in sidings and light, narrow-gauge railways. In
North America, however, and on American-built railways in
various parts of the world, it is still in general use on lines
carrying axle loads of up to 351. Resilient forms of the cut spike
have, however, been used extensively outside Canada and the
US, particularly in Europe.
The cut spike has a number of disadvantages which have led
to the decline in its use by European railways. The major
disadvantages are: (1) short sleeper life due to spike killing and
baseplate cutting; (2) the need for high sleepering density (in
America timber sleeper spacing of 500 mm is still regarded as
normal); (3) the need for rail anchors either side of the sleeper
with heavy-section rail; and (4) variable track gauge. The cut
spike is a simple and robust system which lent itself well to rapid
pioneer developments, but it is poorly suited to high speeds and
welded rail, especially in countries where temperatures vary
between extremes of heat and cold. It is also of little use in
countries where timber is not readily available.
In Europe, the coachscrew direct fastening has been preferred
and is still used extensively. Both cut spike and coachscrew have
poor gauge-holding when used as direct fastenings, but when
used with baseplates, their performance is improved and this
can be improved further when additional screws or spikes are
used to secure the baseplate to the sleeper. It is now general
practice to fit baseplates on all curved track fastened with spikes
or screws.
The main advantage of the screw over the cut spike is that it
exerts a positive pressure on the rail foot whereas the spike
allows the rail to float 'free'. It therefore goes some way toward
resisting rail creep and rail expansion due to temperature
change. In France and on French-built railways, the generally
accepted standard fastening is a combination of the screw spike
used with a spring clip (called the RN fastening).
In Germany and much of Central Europe, the K fastening of
the Deutsche Bundesbahn has been the standard fastening since Figure 25.4 Pandrol clips on a concrete sleeper (top) and a
1926. It consists of a rolled steel baseplate giving a 1:40 rail timber sleeper (bottom)
inclination with two heavy ribs forming a channel seating for the
rail resting on a 5 mm compressed poplar or plastic pad and
slotted to take a T-headed bolt each side, inverted rigid U- and Sweden. In many parts of the world, the increasing shortage
shaped clips being held by the T bolts to which heavy spring of track maintenance labour and its growing cost have led to
washers are fitted. Four screws are used to hold the baseplate greater interest in 'fit and forget'-type fastenings such as the
down to timber sleepers in Germany but, in some other coun- Pandrol fastening, particularly for continuously welded rail.
tries, e.g. Belgium, only two are used. In Germany, spring steel The importance of the fastening in welded-rail track being able
washers are commonly used on baseplate screws. A number of to maintain a constant clamping force on the rail foot is
spring clips have been developed which can be driven into the fundamental to the stability of the track. It is of even more
rib of the baseplate to replace the rigid clips. significance if the ballast condition is below standard.
In Britain, the Pandrol resilient rail fastening has been the The clamping force generated by the rail fastening must be
standard British Rail fastening since 1964 on both concrete and able to resist any tendency for the rail to creep through the
timber sleepers, and also in S and C work. It is also used fastening, but not so much as to allow the rail to push the
extensively in Australia, Africa, Canada, the Middle East and sleepers through the ballast section. A nominal clip pressure of
many other countries throughout the world. It has been adopted between 1.4 and 21 per rail is generally sufficient to achieve this.
by the railways of sixty countries since its introduction, and is It is important that any self-tensioning clip is designed to have
generally regarded as one of the simplest and most economical a large deflection when fitted in position in order to minimize the
fastenings yet developed. Other resilient fastening systems effects of manufacturing tolerances on clips, rail pad, insulator,
which have been used quite widely are the DE, Heyback, SHC rail clip housing and rail foot. For example, a clip with 6 mm of
and FIST - the SHC in the UK and the FIST in South Africa nominal deflection will lose 50% of its clamping force with 3 mm
of wear or tolerances, whereas with 12 mm of deflection, the toe
load loss will be only 25%. The ability to ensure positive and
accurate track gauge retention is also an important feature of a
rail fastening.
Resilient rail fastenings are now used in the harshest of
operating conditions, such as heavy haul and high-speed pas-
senger services, and particular attention is being devoted to
improving the ability of fastening assemblies to attenuate the
transmission of dynamic forces from rail to sleeper. This is
proving to be of particular importance in the case of fastenings
used with concrete sleepers in high-speed passenger operations.
Considerable effort is being focused on improving rail pad
characteristics.
A further area of development in rail fastenings is the need for
mechanical installation in those areas of the world where track
labour costs are relatively high, and machines are now available
to drive some of the more widely-used fastening types.

25.5 Rails
The flat bottom, or Vignole, rail is now an almost universal
standard so that the obsolescent bull head rail of past British
practice need not be developed here.
Generally, rail sections or weights are derived from progres-
sive experience, not because of analytical difficulties but because
of inadequate quantified knowledge of what conditions of
loading and support actually occur.
A simple rough guide to appropriate rail weight in kilograms
per metre is to multiply the axle load in tonnes by 2. However, it
is necessary to make allowance for a speed factor and the Figure 25.5 Sections of British Rail types 110A and 113A and
following formula given by Schramm does this: fishplate (all dimensions in millimetres)

Rail weight in kilograms per metre = 156 - (25.1) The present standard in Britain is the 56.5 kg/m (BS 113A) rail,
adapted from the earlier British standard 109 Ib/yd rail and its
where A = static axle load in tonnes and a = the speed factor. successor BS UOA section. Until relatively recently in Europe
The speed factor is still under critical review but it can be the standard section was the UIC 54 kg/m rail, but currently an
evaluated by three equations which are widely accepted for increasing proportion of main line track is being constructed
practical use: using UIC 60 kg/m section. In the USSR main line, heavy duty
tracks incorporate 75 kg/m rail sections.
a = 1 + (J^/30 000) up to 100 km/h (25.2)
Table 25.2 relates to a representative sleeper spacing of
a = 1+(4.5FVlO 5 )-(1.5FVlO 7 ) u p t o l 4 0 k m / h (25.3) 630 mm. If the spacing is wider than this, and until recently
British practice utilized a sleeper spacing of 750 mm, the stress
due to bending moment may be up to 9% greater, but in any
a=1.18 + (0.706^/107) over 140 km/h (25.4) case the occurrence of three loose sleepers can put up rail
bending stress by 100% as can a heavy wheel flat at 30 km/h. At
From the above expressions, Table 25.2 has been produced. The rail ends a 12mm dipped joint can, with an unsprung mass of
figures give an indication of appropriate weights within ± 15%. the order of 20% of the static load at a speed of 160 km/h, create
British Standard specifications include rails from 25 to a dynamic increment of load equal to the static load. Since the
56.5kg/m; in Europe rails up to 60kg/m are used and up to great majority of rail breaks occur at rail ends it can be stated
70 kg/m in the US. that the rail weight selected must take into account the unsprung
masses on the heavier axles and also the state of maintenance of
joints which can be realized.
Table 25.2 Approximate rail weights, in kilograms per metre The weight of rail chosen has an influence on the shear
loading of the subsoil. According to Eisenmann increasing the
Static Speed rail weight from 48 to 68 kg/m diminishes shear stress by 20%.
axle (km/h) As rail weights increase, the breadth of the rail foot increases
weight so that changing to a heavier-weight rail will generally involve
(t) 50 100 140 160 200 changing the baseplates or, where cast-in inserts are used,
respacing the inserts, unless the new rail is limited to new
15 28 34 36 37 39 sleepers. Similarly, the administration of permanent way stocks
20 36 42 44 46 49 is simplified, and the tied-up capital reduced, if the range of rail
25 44 50 52 54 58 sections in use is limited.
30 50 56 59 61 65
35 57 61 65 67 70 The subsurface Hertzian stresses arising from wheel to rail
contact must be very carefully considered, in view of their
Table 25.3

Country Max. axle load Rail section Max. speed Rail steel grade used
(t) (kg/m) (km/h) Straight track Curves
Britain 26 56.4 200 Normal Wear-resist.
Europe 22.5 60 200 Wear- resist. Premium
US 28 68 1 20-1 30 Wear- resist. Premium

relationship with wheel load, wheel size and tensile strength of steel surface hardens rapidly in service under stress and impact,
the rail steel. The Hertzian contact stresses are directly related to and develops high wear resistance. However, it is expensive,
the square root of the wheel load and inversely related to the needs great care in machining to avoid the risk of fatigue crack
square root of the wheel radius. The nominal shape of the rail initiation and can only be welded to similar steel by normal rail
head and wheel tread profiles and the progressive wear of these welding techniques. Its higher thermal coefficient of linear
two profiles in service, also influence the actual wheel-rail expansion also produces manufacturing problems and service
contact area and, hence, the Hertzian contact stresses. The use limitations, but rolled austenitic manganese rails have been
maximum level of the Hertzian contact stress normally occurs a successfully welded and used in the relatively constant tempera-
few millimetres below the contacting surfaces, and shelling and ture conditions of underground railways.
similar subsurface fatigue failures can develop if the shear stress Experimental work continues in the evaluation of more exotic
in this contact zone exceeds about 50% of the ultimate tensile and expensive rail steel chemistries for special applications, e.g.
strength of the rail steel. Under conditions of excessive stressing, bainitic steels.
complete collapse of the rail head can occur.
The principal rail specifications in international use are BSl 1 Rail joints are either suspended or supported. Joints are also
of the British Standards Institution, UIC 860-0 of the Union square, i.e. opposite each other, or staggered by up to half the
Internationale des Chemins de Per (UIC) and the Manual of the rail length. In some administrations, rail joints are square on the
American Railway Engineering Association (AREA). A norm straight and staggered on the curves. Rail and fishplate sections
for railway rails (ISO 5003) has also been published by the need to be considered together in selecting a rail section, since if
International Standards Organization (ISO). the ratio of the Ixx of the fishplate is much below 25% of the /rx
The most commonly used rail steels are defined in the above of the rail, broken fishplates and battered rail ends are likely to
standard specifications and can be classified as follows: have a high incidence.
(1) Normal grades, typically of 680N/mm 2 minimum UTS as
per BS 11 normal grade and UIC 860-0 grade 70.
(2) Wear resisting grades, typically of 880N/mm 2 minimum 25.5.1 Rail failures
UTS as per BS 11 wear resisting grades A and B, UIC 860 It is necessary in any railway system that a record should be kept
grades 9OA and 9OB, AREA standard carbon grade. of all cracked and broken rails removed from the track. In
(3) Premium high strength grade, typically of 1080N/mm2 addition, the cause of failure must be noted in order to monitor
minimum UTS. any specific problems which may be developing. This is carried
out with the use of a standard reporting form which gives details
The premium high-strength rail grades are still the subject of of track and conditions as well as the type of defect. This
much research and development, and are briefly referred to in information is fed into a computer and frequent monitoring of
only one specification - AREA. the data gives any developing trends.
These premium grade rails are produced either by the use of Whilst this latter information gives details of rails removed, it
alloy steels, generally about 1% chromium and in some cases does not give any indication of those defects remaining in the
with micro-alloying additions of vanadium, molybdenum or track under observation. This information comes from the
niobium, or by the heat treatment of wear-resisting grade rails, normal regular examination of the track which is carried out by
e.g. BS wear resisting grade A, UIC 860 grade 9OA, or AREA means of an ultrasonic rail flaw detection train and also by
standard carbon grade. The heat treatment may consist of either hand-held ultrasonic rail flaw detectors used by pedestrian
full section hardening or localized head hardening only. operators.
The rail steel grade selected for a particular track is dependent The ultrasonic test train is normally a self-propelled unit
on various factors including track design, traffic and operating consisting of two vehicles. It operates at speeds up to 30 km/h
conditions, standards of maintenance and economic factors, etc. and uses a series of probes which are applied to the rail head
Table 25.3 illustrates the different optimum strategies selected either in the form of sliding probes or wheel probes. The data
by different railroads. It is common practice to utilize a higher- from these probes are partially reduced by an on-board com-
strength, more wear-resistant, rail steel grade in tight curves, puter and the resulting information is stored on magnetic tape
and a less expensive grade in straight track. for subsequent off-line analysis. The defects detected by this
Broad recommendations for the selection of rail steel grade system are sent to the appropriate maintenance engineers for
based on track curvature and traffic intensity are outlined in action depending on the type of defect.
UIC Code 721-R. In addition to the train, hand-held ultrasonic units are used to
A special grade of rail steel utilized throughout the world, carry out work in areas not covered by the test train and also to
albeit in relatively small quantities, is austenitic manganese steel examine, in greater detail, defects which have been picked up by
(12-16% Mn) which is usually used in heavily trafficked tur- the test train but which require more detailed study. In addition,
nouts, switches and crossings. Many crossing vees (frogs) are the hand units are also used for monitoring defects which are
produced as austenitic manganese castings. Rolled austenitic allowed to remain in track until such time as they can be
manganese rails are produced in Britain in relatively small repaired or removed.
quantities being used in the fabrication of turnouts and S and C Ultrasonic testing of rails is carried out at a frequency
work, and occasionally in curved track. Austenitic manganese determined by the types and speeds of traffic carried. It ranges
from 6 months to alternate years for some of the lightly used Maximum cant:
branch lines. on curved track 150mm
In addition to this routine testing, other specialized tests are at station platforms 110mm
carried out by both the test train and the hand operators which maximum cant gradient 1 in 400
include gauge measurement, crack size estimation in special deficiency on plain line, CWR 110mm
cases and weld testing. deficiency on plain line, jointed track 90 mm
deficiency on switches and crossings welded
into CWR
25.6 Curved track on through line 110mm
on turnout 90 mm
The main curves of the railway are nominally of constant radius, with negative cant on turnout 90 mm
i.e. circular curves; curves made up of two or more circular at switch toes 125mm
curves of different radii curving in the same direction are called deficiency on switches and crossings in
compound curves. Straights are generally and desirably con- jointed track
nected to circular curves by transition curves of progressively on through line 90 mm
varying radii; and adjoining circular curves of different radii are on turnout 90 mm
commonly joined together in a similar way if the difference of with negative cant on turnout 90 mm
radii exceeds about 10%. Two adjoining circular curves curving at switch toes 125mm
in opposite directions comprise a reverse curve, and here, Maximum rate of change of cant
whatever the radius, the presence of connecting transitions is on plain line 55 mm/s
relatively more important than with circular or compound on switches and crossings 55 mm/s
curves. Maximum rate of change of cant deficiency
For practical purposes the cubic parabola y = kx* gives a on plain line 55 mm/s
uniform change of curvature between tangent point on the on switches and crossings 55 mm/s
straight and tangent point on the curve, or between the tangent Maximum rate of change of cant deficiency
points of two curves, and is the most used form of transition on plain line 55 mm/s
curve. The versines, measured on half-chord overlapping chords on switches and crossings (inclined design) 55 mm/s
along the transition, change with linear uniformity from zero to on switches and crossings (vertical design) 80 mm/s
R although it is usual to smooth out the rate of increase and
decrease at the start and end of the transition by putting on
about one-sixth of the rate of the first versine at the zero station (2) The proximity of permanent speed restrictions, junctions,
and reduce the increment at the final transition station to about stopping places, etc.
five-sixths of the half-chord rate of increase. Versines are (3) Track gradients which may cause a reduction in the speed of
conveniently measured in millimetres. freight or slow-moving passenger trains without having an
The geometrical relation between a circular curve and a appreciable effect on the speed of fast trains.
transition curve tangenting on to both the straight and the (4) The relative importance of the various types of traffic.
circular curve involves the moving inwards along a diameter
normal to the straight of the circular curve by an amount termed Generally, where fast and slow trains run on the same lines,
the 'shift'. The transition curve bisects the shift at its midpoint an intermediate speed is selected to fix the cant. In this situation
measured along the straight tangent line and the offset from that it may exceptionally be necessary to limit the cant and therefore
line to the tangent point of the transition and circular curve is 4 the maximum speed to prevent surface damage to the low rail by
times the shift or 8 times the offset at the mid-transition point. It heavy axles on slow-moving freight trains.
follows that where no transition exists or where it is insufficient Each line of a double line should be separately assessed. In
in length the institution or extension of a transition can be done exposed locations subject to high winds it may be desirable to
only by sharpening the radius of the circular curve concerned or limit cant to below the 150 mm maximum.
moving the tangent straight away from the curve, though this Normally, cant or cant deficiency is uniformly gained or lost
may be worthwhile since any transition is better than none. within the length of a transition curve or, where there is no
The length of a transition curve is determined primarily by transition curve, as may occur in switches and crossings, over
what is judged to be an acceptable rate of change of cant or cant the length of the virtual transition, which for practical purposes
deficiency. For standard gauge plain track a desirable rate may is taken as the shortest distance between the centres of bogies of
be 35 mm/s, with a maximum of, say, 55 mm/s to secure coaching stock using the line. If the desired cant cannot be put
passenger comfort. In switches and crossings a rate as high as on within this length observing a maximum cant gradient of 1 in
80 mm/s may be applied but a good standard of switch and lead 400, the cant loss or gain is continued on to the circular curve.
design is desirable for this rate of loss or gain of cant or cant The 1 in 400 cant gradient mentioned relates to axle twist
deficiency. derailment possibilities, especially where four-wheeled vehicles
Some limiting cant and cant deficiency values observed in are concerned.
British practice on a 1.432m gauge are listed at top right. The maximum permissible speed on circular curves appropri-
ate to the determination of permanent speed restrictions may,
Wherever space permits, curve design should be based on the for standard gauge railways, be obtained from the following
desirable rate of change of cant or deficiency of 35 mm/s. expressions:
The amount of cant applied to a track depends upon con-
sideration of the following factors: Equilibrium (or theoretical) cant = E= ll.S2(Ve2/R)mm
Equilibrium speed= Ve = Q.29J(RE)km/h
(1) The line speed limit, i.e. the maximum speed at which traffic
is allowed to run on a line or branch or section of a line or Maximum speed = Vm = Q.29JR (E+ D) km/h
branch. This limit is usually fixed with reference to the value
and distribution of permanent speed restrictions on the line where R = radius in metres, E=cant, which may be either actual
or branch, or section thereof, involved. cant or equilibrium cant but in practice the difference is not
likely to be significant, though the distinction has to be kept in metres. Thus, what is described in American practice as a 10°
mind in certain circumstances, and D = maximum allowable curve would be described in Europe as a curve of 175 m radius.
cant deficiency in millimetres. Main railway curves are initially set out by theodolite gener-
ally on the basis that equal chords are subtended by equal angles
Desirable lengths of transition curves can be derived from the but informal setting out by an offset from a tangent followed by
greater of the two values obtained from: the use of overlapping chords of convenient length using the
versine appropriate to the radius can give a degree of accuracy
Length = L = Q Wl 5EVm m sufficient for less important curves. A selection of curve formu-
or L = 0.0075/) Vm m lae covering most calculations for the design or setting out of
railway circular curves is set out in Table 25.4.
where £=cant in millimetres, D = deficiency of cant in milli- It is desirable to keep rail joints more or less square, or at a
metres and Vm = maximum permissible speed in kilometres per constant stagger where this is preferred, on curves by inserting
hour. short rails in the inner rail of curved track. The difference in rail
length, D, for standard gauge and for 18.3m rails is given by
If space is limited, the length of the transition may be reduced to Z) = (27.45/radius in metres) m. Alternatively, the approximate
two-thirds L subject to a minimum cant or cant deficiency difference in length can be obtained from the formula D = § ver-
gradient of 1 in 400. sine. It is normal to take a standard range of short rails from the
On compound curves to be traversed at a uniform speed, the makers and for 18.3 m rails, these are 18.25, 18.20 and 18.15 m.
desirable length is obtained from the greater of the two follow- The precise alignment of curves is vital to a smooth ride,
ing expressions: stability of the track geometry and minimizing track wear.
There are several alternative methods of adjusting railway
L = 0.0075(JE1, - E2) Vm m or curves as a maintenance operation but all are based on versine
L = 0.0075(Z)1 -D2) Vm m measurements and relate, either to a smoothing or averaging
approach, in which the differences between a limited number of
where £", and Z)1 are the cant and cant deficiency conditions for adjacent versines are adjusted to give a fairly uniform rate of
one curve and E2 and D2 are the similar values for the other change in transitions or to a fairly uniform value on circular
curve. curves; or to a design lining approach in which the whole of the
Similarly, on reverse curves the transition lengths are given versines of a curve are adjusted as one revision operation to give
by: a precise rate of increase or decrease in transitions and a strictly
uniform value on the circular curve portion, as far as clearances
L = 0.0075(£, + E2) Vm m or from structures, etc. will permit. It is generally convenient to use
L = 0.0075(Z)1 + D2) Vm m smoothing or local adjustment techniques after a curve has been
aligned on a design basis. It is also normal practice to set
It should be noted that in using the above formulae the markers or monuments or pegs in or beside the tracks when
constants used have reference to a standard gauge, to an design lining is carried out.
assumed height of the centre of gravity of vehicles of about Curve realignment can be based on manual measurement of
1.5m and a subjective passenger comfort assessment of the versines or with less accuracy on the versine measurements of a
tolerable rate of change of cant or cant deficiency. To this extent track geometry recording car or of a track lining machine.
the values are arbitrary rather than absolute and refer to The side and interbody clearances shown on the diagram
standard gauge. Further qualifications are that the springing of contained in the Department's Requirements (see Figure 25.15)
vehicles may be such as to produce excessive lean under cant relate to straight track and may need to be augmented on curved
deficiency running to encroach significantly on side clearances track for end throw or centre throw of vehicles, which are
or to diminish passenger comfort, whilst if the centre of gravity generally of the same magnitude.
of a vehicle is higher or lower than that assumed the maximum
permissible speed is affected in inverse ratio, so that certain Centre throw= C= B2/ZR
vehicles may be permitted to run at a higher speed than other
vehicles. End throw = E=(L2- B2)/8R
The versine or middle ordinate of a chord on to a curve is
proportional to the curvature and is the basis of all railway where B = wheelbase or bogie centres, L = length of vehicle, and
curve alignment, checking and adjustment. Its value as deter- R = radius.
mined from triangular analysis is given by:
To this increase of effective body width on curved track must be
2R = {(C/2f/V}+V (25.5) added a further allowance due to the tilting of the vehicle to the
low side on canted track. In Britain, the loss of side clearance at
where R = radius of a curve, C= length of chord on which the the vehicle cornice is about 2.25 times the actual cant.
versine is measured, and V= the versine, but since the value of V It is general practice slightly to widen the track on very sharp
is very small in relation to R in railway situations, the final V of curves to allow all vehicles, especially locomotives with long
the expression may be disregarded so that for both field rigid wheelbases, to pass round such curves without straining
measurements and calculation purposes: the track. The normal British practice is:
Curves over 20Om radius widened to 1435 gauge
V=C2IZR (25.6) 200 to UOm radius widened to 1439 gauge
110 to 70m radius widened to 1451 gauge
In Britain and on the Continent, railway curvature is usually
described by the length of the radius measured in metres. The Appropriate values of gauge widening for a given track radius
American practice is to describe a curve by the angle subtended depend on free play of wheelsets, length of half wheel flange
at the centre of the curve by a chord of 30.48 m. For railway below rail level and rigid wheelbase of the critical vehicle.
work it is sufficient in transposing degree units into radius units In the UK it is the Department of Transport's enjoined
to divide 1746 by the degree of the curve to give the radius in practice to install check rails on curves of 200 m or less radius.
Table 25.4 Curve formulae

Given Sought Formula Given Sought Formula

E, M C C=2MJ{(E+M)I(E-M)] T, (x M M= T cot (a/2) vers (a/2)


E, R C C=2RJ[E(2R + £)}/(/? + E) D R R = 50fsm(D /2)
E, T C C=2T(T2-E2)I(T2 + E2) C £ R O = /?3 + R2{(4& - C*)/8£} - (RC114} - (C2EfS)
E, (X C C=2E(sin (a/2)}/{ex sec (a/2)} C1M R R = [(M2 + (C/2)2]/2M
M, T C Q = C-2TC2 + 4M2C+8M2T C, <x R R= C/2 sin (a/2)
M, R C C=2J[M(2R-M)} E, (x R /? = £/exsec(a/2)
M, (x C C= 2Mcot(oL/4) A/, £ R R=EMf(E-M)
R, T C C=2TR/J(T2 + R2) M, (x R /?=A//vers(a/2)
R, (X C C= 2R sin (a/2) T, C R R= CT/J{(2T+ Q(IT- C)]
T, (x C C=2rcos(a/2) T, E R R = {(T+E)(T-E)]I2E
R D sin(/)/2) = 50//? T, M R 0=R*-R2(M2+T2)I2M+RT2-MT2I2
a, L Z) D= lOOa/L approx. T, (x R R= T cot (a/2)
CA/ £ E= M(C2 + 4M2V(C2 - 4M2) C£ T 0 = 2r-T2C-2TE2-CE2
C, a £ £= C{ex sec (a/2)}/2 sin (a/2) C, M T T= C(C2 + 4M2)/2(C2 - 4M2)
A/, a £ £=A//cos(a/2) C, <x T T= C/{2 cos(a/2)}
/?, C £ £= /?2M(# + C/2)(/? - C/2)} E, (x T T=£cot(a/4)
R, M E E=RMf(R-M) M, E T T= EJ[(E+ M)I(E- M)]
R, T E E= J(T2+R2)-R M, a T T= M{tan (a/2)}/{vers (a/2)}
R1(X E £=/?exsec(a/2) R, C T T= CR/2J[(R + C/2)(R - C/2)}
T, C E E= TJ[(2T- C)I(IT+ C)] R, E T T= J(E(IR +E)]
T, M E O = £3 +E2M-ET2 +MT2 R, M T T= RJ (M(2R-M)]I(R-M)
T1(X E £=rtan(a/4) R, (x T T=R tan (a/2)
R, (x E E=R{\-cos(a/2)/cos(a/2) D, L (x (X = DLI1OO approx.
(X, D L L= 10Oa//) approx. M, C (x tan(a/4) = 2A//C
C, £ A/ 0=A/ 3 + A/ 2 £+(A/C 2 /4)-(C 2 £/4) M, E (X cos(a/2) = A//£
Ca M A/=(C/2)tan(a/4) R, C (x sin (a/2) = C/2/?
£, a M A/=£ cos (a/2) /?, £ a exsec(a/2) = £//?
/?, C A/ A/=/?-V{(/?+C/2)(/?-C/2)} R, M a vers (a/2) = MjR
/?, £ M M= REj(R+E) R, T (x tan (a/2) =7/7?
R,T M M= R-[R2I J(T2 +R2)} T1C (x cos (a/2) = C/2 T
R ,(X M M= RVQTS (a/2) T9E (x tan (a/4) = E/7
T, C M M=(C/2)J[(2T-C)/(2T+C)} R, a L L = 0.017 453 292 5R(X
T, E M M=E(T2-E2)I(T2 + E2)

D = Degree of curve M = Mid-ordinate Note: ex sec A = sec A - \ = (1 - cos A)/cos A and vers A = 1 - cos A
R - Radius T= Tangent
a = Ext. angle = central angle C = Long chord
L = Length of curve £ = External distance

Check rails are also sometirftes installed in Britain on flatter to the temperature at which the rails were fastened to the
curves to diminish side cutting of the high rail or as a protection sleepers. If, as is usual, the rails are fastened down on installa-
against inadvertance or mishap at the bottom of a gradient. tion within a prescribed narrow temperature range situated at or
Wide flangeway check rails or guard rails may also be installed a little above the mean of the annual rail temperature range in a
to protect bridge supports or girders against being struck by normal or stress-free condition, then the amount of tension in
derailed vehicles. In the UK this provision is a Department of winter and compression in summer is limited to what is judged
Transport Requirement. to give an optimum compromise between a cold season hazard
of broken rails and a hot season hazard of track buckles.
The installation and maintenance of welded rail track need
25.7 Welded track more technical insight and attention than ordinary track. The
lateral strength of the track depends upon three main elements:
About two-thirds of the on-track maintenance work put into (1) the lyy of the two rails; (2) the framework stiffness of the
jointed permanent way is at or adjoining the rail joints and the assembled rails and sleepers as developed by the fastenings; and
great majority of rail failures occur at or near fishplated joints. (3) the frictional loading of the ballast on the sides, ends and
For these and other reasons the tendency today is to use long bottoms of the sleepers. The resistance of the track to vertical
welded or continuously welded rails. buckling, which generally occurs in combination with, or as a
This procedure entails the elastic containment of the longitu- trigger to, lateral buckling, is determined mainly by the total
dinal expansion and contraction stresses arising in the rails as a weight of the track, and in this context concrete through-type
consequence of variation in the rail temperature with reference sleepers show a considerable advantage. In a fully-ballasted
track the ballast representatively accounts for about two-thirds 25.8 Switches and crossings
of the total moment of lateral resistance. Loose sleepers and
kinks in the alignment are of especial significance to the stability All railway switch and crossing work is built up of three basic
of welded track so that a high standard of maintenance is units: (1) switches; (2) common or acute (angle) crossings; and
essential for this sort of permanent way. (3) obtuse (angle) or diamond crossings. Layouts of switches
and crossings are illustrated in Figures 25.7 to 25.10.

25.7.1 Fastening welded rails 25.8.1 Switches


The need to fasten the rails in order to get a stress-free rail at The heel of a switch is the point from which it is free to move.
about the mean of the annual temperature range would mean, in Early switch designs had a loose heel formed by a semi-tight
many parts of the world, a very short season for laying welded fishplated joint but this type is now rarely used outside of
rails without artificial assistance. This assistance is normally sidings. It is now the general practice for the heel of the switch to
supplied either by heating the rails by propane gas travelling be formed by a bolted connection through a block between
heaters or by using hydraulic tensors, so that when fastened switchrail and stockrail so that the switch joint is well behind the
down after extension by heat or tensile pull, the rail has a length heel. The length of the switch planing on the bead of the rail
equivalent to a stress-free condition at a temperature between varies between about 1.6 and 11 m and most railway administra-
prescribed limits (21 to 270C for the UK). In this way it is tions have a range of two to eight standard switches to meet the
possible to lay welded track all the year round. The pull required requirements of short leads in depots and various speeds of
to extend a 56 kg/m rail is of the order of 1.6 t/°C. The tensors traffic on the running lines.
have a capacity of about 701. Originally, ordinary or straight planing of switch blades was
universally applied but during the last few decades curved
planing, in which the switch rail is bent elastically whilst being
planed on one side of the head, has become general. In this way
the curve running through the lead is continued to the switch
tip. A recent practice is to apply a larger radius to the planing of
the switch than is applied to the switch beyond the end of the
planing to give a more robust switch tip with a finite entry angle.

25.8.2 Crossings
Crossings are described by the angle at the crossing nose. In
continental Europe it is common to state this in degrees but over
the English-speaking world the angle is usually described as 1 in
N. However, the angle of a crossing expressed as 1 in W varies
slightly according to the measuring convention adopted. Thus if
1 in 8 is obtained by measuring 8 units along the centreline for 1
unit of symmetrical spread normal to the centreline (centreline
measure), then measuring 8 units along one leg of the vee for a
spread of 1 unit measured at right angles to that leg (right angle
measure) will give 1 in 7.969, whilst if 8 units is measured along
Figure 25.6 Hydraulic rail stresser. This has a 70-t pull and each leg to give a spread of 1 unit the crossing size will be 1 in
380-mm stroke. For pushing action, the rail clamps are turned 8.016 (isosceles measure). It is therefore necessary for any
through 180°. (Courtesy: Permaquip Co. Ltd) railway to have a specific mode of measuring crossings which is
known to all supplying manufacturers of crossings, or to state
the angle in degrees.
Welded rails are not normally laid in Europe in curves with a In the UK fixed diamond crossings are limited by Ministry
lesser radius than 600 m. Long welded rails are made up by flash requirement to be not flatter than 1 in 7.5. In continental Europe
butt welding of standard rail lengths into welded rails of 200 to 1 in 10 is the general limit. Where a line crossing flatter than the
400 m length in depot and welded into continuous welded rails allowed limit is necessary, the points of the diamond crossings
by Thermit welds, except in the USSR where a transportable are constructed as switches and have to be set to suit the train
flash butt welder is applied to join rails in the track. movement desired.
It is normal practice in Britain and France to install sliding There is no official limit on the angle of common crossings but
switches at the ends of long welded rails but in Germany this is 1 in 28 is about the flattest angle at which the crossing nose has
not done, reliance being placed on very firm fastening of the sufficient robustness. Crossings are either made up from rails or
welded rails where they connect with jointed track. are cast in 12 to 14% manganese steel. Built-up crossings have
The advantages of welded track include an extension of rail the inherent limitations of bolted assemblies, and of recent years
lives by about a third, a reduction of on-track maintenance by it has become general practice in the UK to weld the vee section
about half, a dramatic reduction of rail breakages, an increase in and Huck-fasten the wings. In general, it is preferred practice to
running speeds, less damage to the formation, increased sleeper have cast crossings for high-speed or heavily worked lines using
lives, improved ride comfort, a reduction of traction energy of built-up crossings for less exacting duty. It is also preferred to
up to 5%, and a reduction in train noise. In effect, welded rails, use cast crossings for angles flatter than about 1 in 20. In the US
prestressed concrete sleepers and self-tensioning fastenings are it is common practice for the nose section of the crossing to be a
complementary to each other in extending the life and reducing manganese casting to which ordinary rail section wings are
the long-term overall cost of permanent way. attached to form what is known as a rail bound cast crossing.
track the ballast representatively accounts for about two-thirds 25.8 Switches and crossings
of the total moment of lateral resistance. Loose sleepers and
kinks in the alignment are of especial significance to the stability All railway switch and crossing work is built up of three basic
of welded track so that a high standard of maintenance is units: (1) switches; (2) common or acute (angle) crossings; and
essential for this sort of permanent way. (3) obtuse (angle) or diamond crossings. Layouts of switches
and crossings are illustrated in Figures 25.7 to 25.10.

25.7.1 Fastening welded rails 25.8.1 Switches


The need to fasten the rails in order to get a stress-free rail at The heel of a switch is the point from which it is free to move.
about the mean of the annual temperature range would mean, in Early switch designs had a loose heel formed by a semi-tight
many parts of the world, a very short season for laying welded fishplated joint but this type is now rarely used outside of
rails without artificial assistance. This assistance is normally sidings. It is now the general practice for the heel of the switch to
supplied either by heating the rails by propane gas travelling be formed by a bolted connection through a block between
heaters or by using hydraulic tensors, so that when fastened switchrail and stockrail so that the switch joint is well behind the
down after extension by heat or tensile pull, the rail has a length heel. The length of the switch planing on the bead of the rail
equivalent to a stress-free condition at a temperature between varies between about 1.6 and 11 m and most railway administra-
prescribed limits (21 to 270C for the UK). In this way it is tions have a range of two to eight standard switches to meet the
possible to lay welded track all the year round. The pull required requirements of short leads in depots and various speeds of
to extend a 56 kg/m rail is of the order of 1.6 t/°C. The tensors traffic on the running lines.
have a capacity of about 701. Originally, ordinary or straight planing of switch blades was
universally applied but during the last few decades curved
planing, in which the switch rail is bent elastically whilst being
planed on one side of the head, has become general. In this way
the curve running through the lead is continued to the switch
tip. A recent practice is to apply a larger radius to the planing of
the switch than is applied to the switch beyond the end of the
planing to give a more robust switch tip with a finite entry angle.

25.8.2 Crossings
Crossings are described by the angle at the crossing nose. In
continental Europe it is common to state this in degrees but over
the English-speaking world the angle is usually described as 1 in
N. However, the angle of a crossing expressed as 1 in W varies
slightly according to the measuring convention adopted. Thus if
1 in 8 is obtained by measuring 8 units along the centreline for 1
unit of symmetrical spread normal to the centreline (centreline
measure), then measuring 8 units along one leg of the vee for a
spread of 1 unit measured at right angles to that leg (right angle
measure) will give 1 in 7.969, whilst if 8 units is measured along
Figure 25.6 Hydraulic rail stresser. This has a 70-t pull and each leg to give a spread of 1 unit the crossing size will be 1 in
380-mm stroke. For pushing action, the rail clamps are turned 8.016 (isosceles measure). It is therefore necessary for any
through 180°. (Courtesy: Permaquip Co. Ltd) railway to have a specific mode of measuring crossings which is
known to all supplying manufacturers of crossings, or to state
the angle in degrees.
Welded rails are not normally laid in Europe in curves with a In the UK fixed diamond crossings are limited by Ministry
lesser radius than 600 m. Long welded rails are made up by flash requirement to be not flatter than 1 in 7.5. In continental Europe
butt welding of standard rail lengths into welded rails of 200 to 1 in 10 is the general limit. Where a line crossing flatter than the
400 m length in depot and welded into continuous welded rails allowed limit is necessary, the points of the diamond crossings
by Thermit welds, except in the USSR where a transportable are constructed as switches and have to be set to suit the train
flash butt welder is applied to join rails in the track. movement desired.
It is normal practice in Britain and France to install sliding There is no official limit on the angle of common crossings but
switches at the ends of long welded rails but in Germany this is 1 in 28 is about the flattest angle at which the crossing nose has
not done, reliance being placed on very firm fastening of the sufficient robustness. Crossings are either made up from rails or
welded rails where they connect with jointed track. are cast in 12 to 14% manganese steel. Built-up crossings have
The advantages of welded track include an extension of rail the inherent limitations of bolted assemblies, and of recent years
lives by about a third, a reduction of on-track maintenance by it has become general practice in the UK to weld the vee section
about half, a dramatic reduction of rail breakages, an increase in and Huck-fasten the wings. In general, it is preferred practice to
running speeds, less damage to the formation, increased sleeper have cast crossings for high-speed or heavily worked lines using
lives, improved ride comfort, a reduction of traction energy of built-up crossings for less exacting duty. It is also preferred to
up to 5%, and a reduction in train noise. In effect, welded rails, use cast crossings for angles flatter than about 1 in 20. In the US
prestressed concrete sleepers and self-tensioning fastenings are it is common practice for the nose section of the crossing to be a
complementary to each other in extending the life and reducing manganese casting to which ordinary rail section wings are
the long-term overall cost of permanent way. attached to form what is known as a rail bound cast crossing.
Figure 25.7 Timbered layout of
long switches

Figure 25.8 Obtuse crossing


Figure 25.9 Cast common crossing. (Courtesy: Edgar Allen & Co.
Ltd)

Figure 25.10 Part-welded crossing in lead on prestressed


concrete bearers. (Courtesy: British Rail, London Midland Region)

25.8.3 Leads
The design of railway connections is based on standard leads,
i.e. on specific combinations of switches and crossings forming
turnouts of specific length giving specific departure angles.
Exceptionally, as at important junctions where space is limited,
leads are specially designed on the basis of standard switches
with special crossings, e.g. instead of utilizing either a 1 in 8 or 1
in 9 crossing, a crossing is made to a fine decimal angle, such as 1
in 8.319, but this is avoided as far as possible in, the interests of
standardization. However, reference to a standard textbook on
permanent way, such as British Railway Track by C. L. Heeler is
recommended to civil engineers not familiar with fieldwork.

25.9 Slab track


Slab track installations have generally been constructed either
as a continuous ribbon of reinforced concrete or as a series of
precast units (usually specially designed sleepers) connected into
a reinforced slab by in situ concrete. Both systems have been put
into service in various parts of the world, .but in general the
continuously constructed slab (see Figure 25.11) has been of construction must be most attractive in areas having a
favoured both because of its higher accuracy and its lower cost. large temperature range of, say, 7O0C or more.
The use of precast units has been restricted to sites with limited (6) Because of the high resistance to buckling of the slab, it is no
possession periods or to very short lengths. longer imperative to restrict the maximum compressive
The benefits of this type of track can be summarized as force generated in the rails. The need for periodic restressing
follows: of the rail is eliminated and advantage can be taken to
accept a stress-free condition at a lower temperature thereby
(1) It provides an accurate and stable track geometry. In tight reducing the likelihood of rail fractures during cold weather.
locations it is not necessary to allow for the effects of track (7) Slab track, more especially continuous slab track, offers the
movement so that speed restrictions can be less onerous. possibility of continuous support to the rail. Even if the rail
Elsewhere, the high standards of accuracy that are attain- is supported on a series of discrete pads, the support is more
able allow for high-speed running without the problems of stable and the elimination of the possibility of voids at
maintaining alignment and top that are associated with support positions means that the rails are subjected to much
conventional track, thus providing a considerable economic lower bending stresses than those which they are designed to
saving. resist. There are grounds, therefore, for redesigning rails for
(2) The peak loading on the formation is reduced to something use on slab track either to use a lighter section or to transfer
less than a quarter of that produced under conventional more metal into the head to provide for extra wear before
track. Consequently, it is possible to use the system to replacement.
reduce formation problems, in many cases providing a good
track geometry where most other track systems would Although techniques are available to restore the track geometry
require considerable and frequent effort to do so. of slab track after subsidence of the slab, it is both difficult and
(3) The day-to-day maintenance cost of slab track is very low, costly in time and money to do so. It is far more preferable, and
requiring little more than standard patrolling. Additionally, always possible, to carry out the construction of slab'track,
however, experience has shown that periodic replacement including its foundations, in such a way that the likelihood of
costs are also greatly reduced since rates of wear and permanent slab movement is very low.
deterioration are much slower than for most other forms of The likely cost of installing slab track depends on the type of
track. design adopted, but generally the cost of site preparation up to
(4) The requirement of conventional track for considerable and the sub-ballast level would be much the same as for conven-
recurring engineering possessions to permit the working of tional track whereas the provision of the remainder is likely to
on-line maintenance equipment is eliminated. be 25 to 75% more than for conventional high-quality CWR
(5) The hazard of track buckling, either vertically or laterally, is track. However, this may be offset, and even reversed in many
eliminated. Conventional sleepered track has a safety factor cases, by the reduced construction depth of the slab track which
against lateral buckling which, at the high temperature will reduce the ancillary operations, e.g. new tunnels can be
limit, is typically of the order of 1.3. Some maintenance driven with smaller cross-sections; overhead electrification
procedures can severely reduce this further. However, with clearances can be achieved without expensive bridge raising or
slab track the full weight and stiffness of the slab is utilized formation lowering.
and the safety factor is many times higher so that this form The laying of slab track is much slower than that of conven-
tional track. The system which uses precast units surrounded by
in situ concrete would typically be laid at about one-third of the
rate of conventional track. The provision of a continuous slab
may well be slower still, with the complication that the work
cannot be subdivided and carried out in a series of short track
possessions.
The main difference in logistics of supplying materials for slab
track compared to conventional track is the need to place
concrete soon after it has been mixed. However, this is only a
problem of site organization and even in remote situations, such
as in long tunnels, has not caused major problems.

25.9.1 Prefabricated slab track


Prefabricated slab tracks have been installed in a number of
parts of the world. The major differences between these slabs
and those described above are:

(1) Prefabricated systems are designed for ease of replacement


of units during short possessions so that, except for the rail,
there is little connection between adjacent units. Conse-
quently, there is a much greater reliance on a strong,
accurate formation.
(2) In practice, the installations using this type of system have
suffered from the effects of dynamic forces generated as a
wheel has passed over the junction between adjacent units.
The need for maintenance of track geometry on a regular
and frequent basis is usually encountered. This is often
Figure 25.11 Section of slab track laid in tunnel (to increase provided by the introduction or removal of height-adjusting
headroom for electrification, and to reduce maintenance costs) pads located under baseplates mounted on the units.
Although these systems place a greater need on period demanding is the maintenance task. The stiffness of the rail, the
maintenance than do the more continuous forms of slab track, sleeper spacing and the depth of ballast are important factors
the ease and lower cost of adjusting the track following major affecting the cost of maintenance.
movement of the slab more than compensate for this extra effort The evolution of the automatic levelling lining and tamping
in certain locations. In such locations, where the stability of slab machine in the 1960s (Figure 25.12) changed the general pattern
track is required to allow high-speed traffic or the use of reduced of track maintenance. The original manual method of mainten-
clearances but where there is a strong possibility of significant ance, using beater picks, was to drive individual pieces of ballast
movement of the track, e.g. as a result of an earthquake, this under the sleeper to obtain the required rail level and firmness of
form of slab track construction has many advantages over support. A later development, pioneered in France, was to jack
others. the sleeper and spread small stone chippings over the bearing
Estimates of the limit of speed at which trains can run on area. This system was known as measured shovel packing
conventional tracks vary between about 250 and 400 km/h. The (MSP) and was extremely successful in producing good track
limits that are placed on speeds of trains by slab track are largely although expensive in labour.
those of accuracy of measurement in order to detect and correct A recent development has been the mechanization of this
misalignments at the construction stage. If the call for higher process using a machine known as a 'Stoneblower'. This
speeds continues to be made, it may only be possible to meet it machine automatically measures the voids under the sleepers
by using slab track. and, using sophisticated electronic controls, pneumatically in-
Similarly, if the need to provide sinuous railway routes jects the correct quantity of stone to produce the correct
through highly congested areas continues, the use of slab track longitudinal, vertical track profile. A prototype machine using
should allow this to be done using the least amount of space and this process has recently been constructed (Figure 25.13). Deve-
with the least constraint on train speeds. lopment work on this principle has shown that track maintained
by this system only deteriorates at approximately one-quarter of
the rate of track maintained by conventional tamping. Very
25.10 Track maintenance and renewal considerable savings are therefore possible in maintenance costs
by using this new technique.
Generally, the greater the strength and inherent stability of the Other machines used in association with tamping and stone-
design of the track construction and its foundation, the less blowing are ballast-regulating machines for positioning ballast

Figure 25.12 Tamping and lining machine suitable for use on


switches and crossings. (Courtesy. Plasser & Theurer)
and providing the correct ballast profile and, for cases where shortwave corrugations of 40 to 18Om frequency with a depth
ballast requires cleaning and renewal, ballast-cleaning machines of 0.1 to 0.4mm and also as longwave corrugations of 200 to
which screen dirty ballast, returning usable stone and rejecting 3000 mm in frequency, with depths up to 3 mm.
dirt which has accumulated over the years. Ballast cleaning is If corrugation is not removed from the running surface,
essential for maintaining track stability as it is vital to ensure defects occur which can lead to metal fatigue. As a result, rails
good natural drainage in the ballast bed; this is particularly require replacing prematurely to avoid the risk of fractures. The
important in heavily used lines with high annual tonnages and extra vibration induced by corrugation causes the fastening
axle loads. elements between rails and sleepers to become loose, leading to
With the reduction in manpower and greater reliance being excessive wear and early failure. The additional forces imposed
placed on machines, methods additional to visual inspection by by corrugation also increase the strain on sleepers and ballast
track walkers are necessary to ensure that track standards are causing deterioration and premature replacement. Corrugation
maintained. This is achieved by the use of track geometry generates noise, and in densely populated areas the result is an
recording cars. These produce graphical records of the right- unacceptably high level of aggressive noise for local residents. It
and left-hand top, track gauge variations, twist (the mutual is also contrary to the aim of achieving increased standards of
angular deflection between two axles on a rigid frame), right- comfort for rail passengers.
and left-hand versines and a location line showing reference Corrugations can be removed by means of rail grinding, and
points such as mileposts, bridges, stations, switches and cross- special trains operated by Messrs Speno provide this service
ings, etc. The data accumulated are recorded on an on-board worldwide. Grinding is carried out with the flat ends of rotating
computer and the information is presented in a printout and annular abrasive wheels and the trains operate groups of
also, if required, in graphical form. This information is used to grinding wheels set at different angles over the running surface
allocate priority to maintenance programmes, including tamp- of the rails. These wheels are applied to the rail head and, after a
ing and lining of the track and also other remedial work. number of passes at 5/7km/h, a new rail head profile is
A problem that has increased in recent years is rail corruga- produced eliminating the corrugation in the process. Various
tion. The cause of corrugation is not yet known but considerable sizes of trains are in service ranging from small machines with
research is being done by various academic and railway organi- sixteen grinding wheels to large trains operating more than a
zations on this subject. Meantime, civil engineers are faced with hundred. Recent research has highlighted the importance of
the problem of removing such corrugations. They occur both as maintaining the correct wheel-rail interaction involving both

Figure 25.13 Prototype 'Stoneblower' for packing and aligning


track. (Courtesy: Plasser (GB) Ltd)
electrical clearances (1977). Where dimensions are given in the
first of the above documents in imperial units, these have been
converted to (rounded) S.I. units for the purposes of this chapter.
The Requirements are subject to some variations and relaxa-
tions in the case of light railways and lines of local interest and
there are some modifications in the case of underground tube
railways.
None of the Requirements is necessarily applicable in retro-
spect to existing railway structures.

25.11.1 General
All design, materials and standards of workmanship should
accord with the appropriate current British Standard or Code of
Practice, of which the most generally used are listed at the end of
this chapter.
Where any of the Requirements cannot reasonably be met,
the special dispensation of the Railway Inspectorate is necessary
and may well be conditional upon additional stipulations.

25.11.2 Stations
The lines leading to passenger platforms should be arranged so
that platform roads may be entered in the normal direction of
Figure 25.14 Track-laying gantries for use on single lines. movement without reversing.
(Courtesy: Geismar) Curvature of platform lines, and of station yards generally,
should be minimized. Tracks through a station or serving a
wheel and rail profiles. Rails often wear unevenly, particularly siding should not normally be on a gradient steeper than 1:260.
on curves, and past practice has been to transpose such rails Platforms should be long enough to accommodate the longest
once sidewear becomes excessive. passenger trains serving them and have a non-slip surface. The
With speeds of modern passenger trains increasing, transpos- clear width of any platform throughout its length should not be
ing of rails is not now an acceptable practice as the transposed less than 2 m; at important stations and for island platforms, it
rail usually presents a sharp edge to the wheel; this results in should be at least 4 m over the greater part of the length, but
poor-quality running. It has therefore been necessary to develop may be narrowed towards the ends to not less than 2 m. The
an on-track rail planing machine which has the capacity to descent at the ends of platforms is to be by ramps with a
reprofile the rail head and thus provide an acceptable wheel-rail gradient not steeper than 1:8.
interaction suitable for high-speed running. Columns for the support of roofs, together with other fixed
Mechanization of track-relaying has been developed over works such as station buildings and passenger facilities, must
many years and present practice consists of laying sleepers by not extend to closer than 2 m from the platform edge. A general
means of gantries and beams which carry up to sixty sleepers. clear headway of at least 2.5 m is required over platforms.
These place the sleepers on the ballast and thereafter the rails Platform levels depend upon the floor heights of passenger
(jointed or long-welded) are installed using further specialist rolling stock using them, so that the gap between them is as
machines. On new construction, it is possible to lay 3 to 4 km of small as practicable. In any case, the stepping distances between
track per day but this is dependent upon good organization for the platform edge and the footboards of the passenger rolling
the supply of materials on a regular basis. On existing railways, stock should not exceed 275 mm laterally and 250 mm vertically.
different constraints apply, particularly relating to the passage At platform edges, coping should overhang the face walls by
traffic on adjoining lines. Speed of relaying on such tracks is 300 mm and the recess so formed should be kept clear, so far as
much slower but can easily exceed 2 km per day if large relaying possible, of permanent obstruction.
machines are used. Where a hazard exists at the rear of a platform or around the
sides of stairwells or subway ramps, suitable protective fencing
must be provided.
25.11 Railway structures All station premises used by passengers or staff during the
hours of darkness must be adequately illuminated, the minimum
In the UK, all railway construction is subject to the approval of level of lighting on an open platform being 4 Ix. Station names
the Railway Inspectorate of the Department of Transport on should be conspicuously displayed at intervals along platforms
behalf of the Secretary of State for Transport. Works of new and illuminated at night.
construction, reconstruction, alteration or addition are accord- Where passengers must cross the lines to reach a platform, a
ingly governed by Requirements and Recommendations laid footbridge or subway should normally be provided.
down by that Inspectorate; these are currently undergoing Stairways and ramps must be of adequate width to avoid
complete revision and metrication but the only section so far overcrowding (but not less than 1 m wide) and at no point
issued in the revised form is that relating to structural and narrower than at the top or contracted by any fixed obstruction.
electrical clearances. The following paragraphs detail the main The steps of stairs should not be less than 280 mm in the tread
requirements, being based as appropriate on the undernoted nor more than 180 mm in the rise (with optimum dimensions of
publications of Her Majesty's Stationery Office and such direc- 300 and 150 mm respectively). Inclined slopes and ramps are not
tives as have been given by the Railway Inspectorate since their to be steeper than 1:8 (7.12°) while the angle of inclination of
issue: Railway construction and operation: requirements for pas- escalators should not exceed 30° to the horizontal. Intermediate
senger lines and recommendations for goods lines (1963 reprint), landings should be provided between fixed flights of steps, with
and Railway construction and operation and structural and no single flight exceeding 3 m overall rise.
Stations should be constructed to be as fire resistant as Overline bridges and elevated roads alongside railways must
practicable and extinguishing equipment provided for dealing be provided with parapets complying with Department of
with fires in station premises. Transport Technical Memorandum (Bridges) No. BE 5. These
parapets are intended to protect pedestrians and/or to contain
errant vehicles and prevent them from falling on to the railway;
25.11.3 Bridges and viaducts they may also be required to be solid, to prevent splash, reduce
noise or screen railway electrification equipment.
Bridges and viaducts may be constructed in steel, concrete For bridges carrying roads, such as motorways, from which
(reinforced or prestressed), brickwork or masonry. The use of pedestrians, animals and pedal cycles are excluded by order, the
other materials such as light alloys will be considered on their minimum height of parapet above the adjoining paved surface
merits, but cast iron must not be used in any portion of the must be 1.250 m. The lower 600 mm of the parapet should have
structure of a bridge carrying a railway except when subject to a mesh or solid infill panel, which may be mounted outside any
direct compression only. Structural timber is usually restricted longitudinal members.
to light overline bridges. For bridges carrying all-purpose roads and footbridges, the
New and reconstructed bridges must be built to provide at parapet is to have a traffic face which is smooth and without
least the mandatory clearances to the kinematic envelope (des- hand- or footholds. The minimum height of parapet above the
cribed below) as illustrated in Figure 25.15. For British Rail, adjoining paved surface must be 1.500m. For bridges used
this requirement gives a standard structure gauge 4.640mm frequently by equestrians, the height must be at least 1.800m.
high (above rail level) and 2.340mm clear laterally from the If a bridge over a railway which is electrified on the overhead
centreline of the nearest track (when the latter is straight; system has a parapet with a plinth on its outer face, access must
additional lateral clearance is necessary alongside curved be denied to that plinth. Any parapet more than 100 mm thick is
tracks). to be surmounted by a 'steeple-shaped' coping (i.e. with steep
Underline bridges must be provided with robust kerbs as part sides meeting at the top at an acute angle).
of the bridge structure and extending to a height of at least At locations where the likelihood of vehicle impact with the
305 mm above rail level to contain the wheels of any derailed parapet and consequential damage resulting from its penetra-
vehicle. Such bridges must provide for a safe lineside walkway, tion outweigh the hazards resulting from the containment and
with a substantial parapet or railing not less than 1.250m in redirection of errant vehicles within the traffic scheme, 'high
height above the walkway (unless the main girders themselves containment' parapets must be provided.
provide a sufficient parapet). On bridges and viaducts which are Pipelines carrying liquids or gases over the railway must be
longer than 40 m or where visibility of approaching trains is incorporated in a bridge constructed for another purpose or be
limited, it may be necessary to incorporate recesses in the supported by a purpose-designed beam or service bridge. Such a
parapet design to afford the refuges described below. bridge should preferably span the railway without intermediate
Bridges and other structures built over or immediately adjac- supports. Consideration may be given to a free-standing design
ent to railway lines must be protected against the consequences of pipe crossing only in the case of low-pressure water mains or
of their supports being struck by railway vehicles in the event of similar pipes conveying non-hazardous materials.
a derailment. Such supports should be located as far from the The design loadings and other criteria for both underline and
tracks as practicable. If they can be kept 4.5 m or more clear of overline bridges are generally as set out in BS 5400. The major
the nearest rail, there will normally be no requirement to design railway undertakings in Britain require underline bridges to be
for impact forces. Where this clearance cannot be achieved, the designed and constructed by their own staff or under their direct
supports must be designed with a degree of robustness and control.
continuity to minimize the effects of contact by a derailed Where bridges are to be constructed under or over existing
vehicle and to withstand nominal impact forces. railways, special techniques are usually necessary to minimize
Clearance between kinematic
Standard structure gauge envelope and railway operational
structures above cantrail level.
Normal — 250. Minimum — 100.
for standard gauge railways. But see Note 5
Minimum dimension to underside of bridges

Kinematic Envelope On railways with existing or


proposed overhead electrification
the requirements for electrical
Maximum height

clearance, where
of Static Load

Normal these are greater,


Minimum (new lines) shall apply
Minimum
(existing lines)
Gauge

Columns and other


fixed works on platforms
Maximum width of rolling
stock over all projections
Nominal
Standard Gauge
Designed Rail Level
Nearest face of signal posts and other
isolated structures less than 2 m in Recess for signal wires and cables if required
length but excluding masts carrying This space to be kept clear as far
overhead line equipment on electrified as possible of permanent obstructions
railways. [ Centre Line of Track Centre Line of Track
Nearest face of all other structures Standard dimension between structures
including masts carrying overhead line for double line standard gauge railway
equipment on electrified railways.
Figure 25.15 Department of Transport-standard structure gauge
and kinematic load gauge
the interruption to the normal operation of such railways; the 25.11.5 Refuges
requirements of these techniques may significantly influence not Refuges are to be provided in all tunnels and also on long
only the temporary works but also the design of the permanent bridges and viaducts and where the railway is enclosed by
works. It is usually more economic to ensure that work adjacent lineside structures unless lateral clearances over a continuous
to running lines, particularly excavation, is located sufficiently length of 40 m or more are such that staff can stand in safety
far away from them to avoid the necessity for the imposition of during the passage of trains. Similarly, on embankments and in
speed restrictions on railway traffic. The design and construc- cuttings, wherever lineside clearances over a length of 40 m or
tion of all bridges and viaducts should also be such as to
more do not give safe standing room, refuge spaces are to be
minimize future maintenance on grounds of both economy and
provided. The criteria as to what clearance allows men to stand
avoidance of interference with railway traffic. Provision should
at the lineside in safety are defined as 830mm from the
be made to ensure that all parts of bridges are accessible for
kinematic envelope at its widest point for train speeds of up to
regular inspection and maintenance and that all exposed steel
160 km/h and 1.700m for train speeds between 161 and 200
can be painted. Underline bridges should be designed to carry
km/h.
normal ballasted track.
Refuges and refuge spaces should be located on both sides of
the line at a spacing not exceeding 40 m, staggered to give an
effective spacing of 20 m or less. Refuges must be at least 2 m
high, 1.400 m wide and 700 mm deep, with their floors substan-
tially at the level of the adjacent lineside walkway. Handholds,
25.11.4 Clearances to assist men in keeping their balance during the passage of a
The structural and electrical clearances (to be provided on new train, are to be provided in refuges and also elsewhere if lateral
lines and on existing railways where new structures are built or clearances only marginally exceed the criteria specified in the
existing structures are modified or where clearances are other- previous paragraph.
wise altered) are specified in the revised part of the above-
mentioned Department of Transport Requirements published
in 1977.
Structural clearances are related to the 'kinematic envelope' 25.12 Inspection and maintenance of
of the stock which will use the line and are illustrated in Figure structures
25.14 in respect of lines carrying trains at speeds up to 200 km/h;
that figure is based for the purpose of illustration on the In the interests of safety and economy, it is essential to have up-
kinematic envelope applicable to British Rail vehicles. to-date and reliable information as to the current condition of
The kinematic envelope is derived from the static load gauge all railway structures and to carry out any necessary repairs or
as follows: (1) the maximum permitted cross-sectional dimen- renewals in due time.
sions of vehicles and their loads when at rest and located The key to proper maintenance, therefore, lies in a system of
centrally on straight and level track; (2) the static load gauge regular routine and methodical examination by suitably trained
must be enlarged to allow for the maximum possible displace- and experienced staff in order to provide the responsible main-
ment of the vehicles when at rest or in motion, with respect to tenance engineer with well-founded records, for each structure,
the rails, taking account of their suspension characteristics and as to: (1) its condition; (2) its current fitness for its intended
making allowance for maximum permitted tolerances in the purpose; (3) its rate of deterioration; and (4) the urgency for
manufacture and maintenance of the vehicles, including wear; remedial action.
and (3) the resultant kinematic load gauge must then be further It is common practice to legislate for superficial examinations,
enlarged to take account of the maximum permitted tolerances undertaken at intervals of about 1 year, and less frequent
in gauge, alignment, top- and cross-level of track including the detailed examinations, in which every element of the structure is
effects of wear. The kinematic envelope so derived thus contains carefully and thoroughly inspected at close range and the extent
the full cross-section of vehicles and their loads under any of any deterioration quantified. The frequency of detailed
permissible condition of operation and maintenance of both examinations will depend upon the nature, age and condition of
vehicles and of track. It does not, however, allow for the end- the structure, but the interval between such examinations
throw and centre-throw of vehicles on curved track, and addi- should rarely exceed 6 years unless there are special problems or
tional allowance for these must be made as appropriate. unjustifiably high costs in providing adequate access; in the
Electrical clearances are dependent upon the nominal voltage latter event, decisions as to the action to be taken following an
of the overhead conductor system and upon whether the cate- examination should have particular regard to the length of time
gory of clearance is to be normal, reduced or special reduced. likely to elapse before the next one. Additional special examina-
They must include provision for tolerances in the installation tions may be necessary after flooding, damage from impact, fire
and maintenance of the overhead equipment and of the track or vandalism and similar eventualities.
limiting values of the vertical clearance for normal, reduced and Proper examination depends upon adequate safe access to all
special reduced clearance conditions between the underside of a parts of a structure. Suitable provision should have been made
structure and the kinematic load gauge shown diagrammatically for this in the initial design by providing removable panels,
in Figure 25.15 (for 25 kV a.c.). Also shown are the corre- walkways, fixing points for ladders or safety lines and by
sponding clearances between the undersides of structures and avoiding the creation of inaccessible spaces. Where the latter has
the designed rail level, based on the normal British Rail static not been done, some 'opening-out' should be undertaken, at
load gauge. It will be noted that the standard structure gauge on least on a sampling basis. Recourse to expensive scaffolding may
British Rail allows for overhead electrification at voltages up to often be avoided by the use of mobile inspection platforms.
25 kV, albeit with 'close tolerances'; the vertical distance from Examiners must compile full written reports of detailed
rail level to the undersides of structures should ideally be examinations. To facilitate this, most railway undertakings use
increased to 4.780 m if this can be achieved with reasonable specially devised forms, which act as a checklist and encourage
economy, and further increased where a bridge is adjacent to a clear, concise and comprehensive coverage. Sketches or photo-
level crossing, over which the overhead equipment has to be graphs are valuable for illustrating defects. Reports must record
raised to give 5.600 m clearance over road levels. defects in quantitative form, e.g. the loss of section (or the
amount of section remaining), the extent of any displacement, these languages are used at UIC and ORE meetings, French
the magnitude of any movement, the width, length and orien- being the primary procedural tongue.
tation of cracks, the extent of hollow-sounding brickwork, the Another European body which makes a significant contribu-
depth of perished mortar or the degree of water percolation. tion to railway technical literature in its periodical bulletins, is
Where appropriate, 'tell tales' and plumbing/levelling points the International Railway Congress Association (IRCA) whose
should be established and readings from them recorded. In some administration is in Brussels.
cases, more sophisticated techniques of investigation may be The principal technical railway co-ordinating organization in
called for. The objective should be to ensure that the mainten- the US is the American Railway Engineering Association
ance engineer has readily available data as to the nature, rate (AREA) of Chicago which issues a periodical journal covering
and extent of the development of any defect, i.e. the way in minutes of meetings, reports of special committees and recom-
which deterioration is occurring over a period of time by mendations for specifications and technical procedures. The
comparing a succession of reports. Thus, he is assisted in AREA also sponsors research and development projects which
diagnosing the cause of trouble and guided in his judgement as are mainly progressed by the Association of American Rail-
to the urgency for remedial action. roads (AAR) at its Research Centre at Chicago. The Pan
Financial constraints may well limit the number of structures American Railway Congress is a similar but less developed
which can receive maintenance attention in any year, and it is organization covering the countries of South America. Much
therefore necessary to establish some kind of priority rating valuable railway research and development work is done in
system for defects, to ensure that available resources are dir- Japan and the English version of the monthly Journal of the
ected where the need is most urgent. This may well involve some Permanent Way Society of Japan, founded in 1958 in Tokyo,
assessment of the residual strength of members. Calculations provides a comprehensive contemporary reflection of this work.
and possibly instrumental tests may be necessary to determine Important permanent way research centres also exist in
critical stresses; these should be based on the nature and Prague, Moscow, Belgrade and Johannesburg but the results of
magnitude of the loads actually having to be sustained and their activities are normally limited to domestic distribution.
should have regard to the current condition of members, The chief technical and development railway work carried out in
allowing for loss of original section, distortion and similar the UK is associated with the Research and Development
defects. Centre at Derby which has a considerable international repu-
The nature, extent and timing of any repair will vary widely tation. Its reports are generally limited to internal circulation
depending on the circumstances applicable in individual cases. within the British Railways Board but most of its railway
Decisions hereon must rely heavily on the informed judgement research projects are reported through papers and articles for
of the experienced maintenance engineer. For repairs to be the British engineering institutions, chiefly the Institution of
effective, it is essential that the cause of the defect is correctly Civil Engineers, the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the
diagnosed and that that cause, rather than its results, is properly Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and the technical press. It
dealt with. Desirably, this should be done before serious defects also accepts commissions for research from outside the British
develop, by preventive maintenance of a stitch-in-time nature, Railways Board.
e.g. painting of metalwork and timber, pointing of brickwork The national railways of the UK, Canada, France, Germany
and masonry and sealing points of water percolation. and Japan are also associated with sponsored railway consul-
It is also a matter of professional judgement to determine tancy organizations which, whilst primarily concerned with the
when repairs are no longer economic and reconstruction is techniques of railway organization, also offer technical advice to
justified. clients.
Contemporary railway civil engineering practice and develop-
ments in the UK and elsewhere are more to be found in papers
presented to the railway division of the Institution of Civil
25.13 Research, development and Engineers and to the Permanent Way Institution, in the bulle-
international collaboration tins and journals of ORE, IRC, and the AREA and in the
railway technical press of the UK, France, Germany and
The principal railway co-ordinating body in Europe is the UIC America, rather than in the few standard textbooks on railway
(Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer) whose headquarters engineering which are necessarily less up to date.
is in Paris. Its primary purpose is the encouragement and
development of standard railway policies and practices through-
out Europe. It has a permanent secretariat but it works through Bibliography
committees covering the activities of most railway departments.
Twenty-six nations are constituent members. Berridge, P. S. A. (1969) The girder bridge. Maxwell.
Its technical research co-ordinating arm is ORE (Office for Eisenmann, J. (1969) 'Stress distribution in the permanent way due to
Research and Experiments) which has its office at Utrecht. The heavy axleloads and high speeds/ American Railway Engineering
UIC issues specifications, standards, and recommendations for Association Proceedings.
railway practice to which railway administrations are expected Fastenrath, F. (1981) Railroad track-theory and practice. New York.
Heeler, C. L. (1979) British Railway Track. Permanent Way
or encouraged to adhere. The ORE is represented on all Institution, London.
technical committees of UIC and issues reports made by work- Prud'homme and Bentot (1969) The stability of tracks laid with long
ing parties or by specially commissioned persons of academic or welded rails', International Railway Congress Association Bulletin
professional distinction to member administrations of UIC. (July 1969).
The field and laboratory work of ORE is assigned to member Schramm, G. (1961) Permanent way technique and economy.
administrations or to universities or technical schools; such Darmstadt.
work is usually progressed by an appropriate working party Turton, F. (1972) Railway bridge maintenance. Hutchinson, London.
composed of delegates from member administrations serviced Department of Transport (1983) Bridge inspection guide. HMSO,
London.
by a technical secretary from ORE. Distinguished men from Department of Transport (1982) 'Design of highway bridge parapets',
industry and universities are sometimes co-opted to serve on Technical memorandum (bridges) No. BE 5. HMSO, London.
specific working parties; UIC and ORE reports are normally Institution of Civil Engineers (1984) Proceedings of conference on track
issued simultaneously in English, French and German, and technology for the next decade at University of Nottingham.
Permanent Way Institution, Journals and reports of proceedings, list of BS 882:1983
papers and authors 1884-1976. 'Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete/
Railway Construction and Operation: Requirements for Passenger Lines BS 913:1973
and Recommendations for Goods Lines (1963 reprint). HMSO, 'Wood preservation by means of pressure creosoting/
London. BS 1377:1975
Railway construction and operation: structural and electrical clearances 'Methods of test for soil for civil engineering purposes/
(1977). HMSO, London. BS 2589:1955 (1984)
Railway Construction and Operation: Level Crossings (1981). HMSO, 'Railway track spanners/
London. BS 4521: Part I 1971: Part II 1975: Part III 1974: Part IV 1975
Railway engineering and maintenance encyclopaedia. Simmons 'Turnouts using flat bottom rails/
Boardman, US. BS 4978:1975 (Amended 1984)
Research and Development Division, British Rail and Association of 'Timber grades for structural use/
American Railroads (1981) Proceedings of conference on rail BS 5268:1984
technology at University of Nottingham. 'Code of practice for the structural use of timber/
BS 5400:1978 Parts 1 to 10
British standards 'Steel, concrete and composite bridges/
BS 11:1978 (Amended 1984) BS 5493:1977 (Amended 1984)
'Specification for railway rails.' 'Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structures
BS 47:1959 (Amended 1979) against corrosion/
'Steel fishplates for bullhead and flat bottom railway rails/ BS 5930:1981
BS 64:1946 (Amended 1960) 'Code of practice for site investigations.'
'Steel fishbolts and nuts for railway rails/ BS 6031:1981 (Amended 1983)
BS 144:1973 (Amended 1974) 'Code of practice for earthworks/
'Coal tar creosote for the preservation of timber/ BS 8110:1985: Parts I to HI
BS 500:1956 (Amended 1976) 'The structural use of concrete/
'Steel railway sleepers for flat bottom rails/ CP 2004:1972 (Amended 1975)
BS 751:1959 (Amended 1976) 'Foundations/
'Steel bearing plates for flat bottom railway rails/

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