TOPIC 2

Chemical Bonding
 Topic Scopes
• Electrovalent bonding
• Covalent bonding
• Co-ordinate/dative covalent bonding
• Metallic bonding
• Intermolecular bonding (including
hydrogen bonding, van der Waals)
• Electronegativity

2
 Topic Scopes

Bond energies, bond lengths & bond
polarities

Drawing Lewis structure and calculate the
formal charge

3
 Chemical Bond
• Chemical bond − the force of attraction
that binds atoms together in a chemical
compound
• When atoms react to form chemical
bonds, only the electrons in the outermost
/ valence shell are involved

4
 Forms of Chemical Bonds
1) Intramolecular bond – forces hold the
atoms within a molecule
• Ionic / Electrovalent Bond
• Covalent Bond
• Metallic Bond
2) Intermolecular bond – forces between the
molecules
• Hydrogen bonding
• Van der Waals
3) Co-ordinate / Dative Bond 5
 Electrons In An Atom
2 groups of electrons:
a) Valence electrons
• outermost shell electrons
• similar chemical properties
• similar group number in periodic table
b) Core electrons
• inner shell electrons
• not involved in chemical behaviour
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Valence & Core Electrons

B (1s22s22p1)
Core e- = [He]
Valence e- = 2s22p1

Br ([Ar]3d104s24p5)
Core e- = [Ar]3d10
Valence e- = 4s24p5
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Bond & Lone Pairs Electrons
• Valence electrons are distributed as
shared (bond pairs) & unshared (lone
pairs)

•• lone pair e-
H Cl
••
••

Shared or bond pair e-

This is called a LEWIS ELECTRON DOT
structure (Lewis Structure) 8
 Lewis Symbol &
Lewis Structures
• Lewis symbol — a chemical symbol to
represent the nucleus & core electrons of
an atom, together with dots placed around
the symbol to represent the valence
electron
• For example: Si
Electron configuration: •
2
[Ne]3s 3p 2 • Si •
•
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 Building A Lewis Electron
Dot Structure
Example 1: Ammonia, NH3
1) Decide on the central atom;
 Never H
 Central atom is atom of lowest affinity
for electrons.
Therefore, N is central.
2) Count valence electrons
H = 1, N = 5
Total = (3 x 1) + 5 = 8 electrons / 4 pairs 10
3) Form a single bond between the central
atom and each surrounding atom

4) Remaining electrons form LONE PAIRS

to complete octet (8 e-) as needed
••

3 BOND PAIRS and 1 LONE PAIR

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Example 2: Carbon Dioxide, CO2
1) Central atom = _______
2) Valence electrons = __ e- or __ pairs e-
3) Form bonds
6 pairs of electrons
O C O
are now left
4) Place lone pairs on outer atoms

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5) So that C has an octet, we shall form
DOUBLE BONDS between C & O

Each atom is surrounded

by an octet of electrons

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Example 3: Sulfur Dioxide, SO2
1) Central atom = S
2) Valence electrons = 18 e- or 9 pairs e-
3) Form bonds
Leave 14 e-
4) Remaining pairs become lone pairs, first
on outside atoms and then on central
atom •• •• ••
O S O
••

•• ••••
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5) Form double bond so that has an octet —
but note that there are 2 ways of doing this
bring in left pair or bring in right pair

•• •• ••
O S O
••

••
•• ••
This leads to the following structures
•• •• •• ••

••
O S O O S O
••

••

•• •• ••
•• ••
These equivalent structures are called
RESONANCE STRUCTURES
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 Resonance Structures

• 2 or more Lewis structures can be drawn

for a molecule or polyatomic ion
• For example:
a) Sulfur dioxide, SO2

-
b) Nitrite ion, NO2

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 Octet Rule
• Octet rule — the tendency of molecules &
polyatomic ions to gain, lose or share
electrons until they are surrounded by 8
valence electrons
• Each atom has a share in 4 pairs of
electrons, so each has achieved a stable
noble gas configuration

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 Exceptions To Octet Rule
Exceptions when molecules & ions have:
a) fewer than 4 pairs of electrons (8 valence
electrons) on a central atom (BF3)
b) more than 4 pairs of electrons (8 valence
electrons) on a central atom (PCl5, SF6)
c) have an odd number of electrons (NO,
NO2)

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 Formal Atom Charges
• The formal charge for an atom in a
molecule / ion is the charge calculated for
that atom based on the Lewis structure of
the molecule / ion
• Formal charge
= Group number – 1/2 (no. of bonding
electrons) – (no. of lone pair electrons)
= No. valence electrons in free atom –
1/2 (no. of bonding electrons) – (no. of
lone pair electrons) 19
 Example:
Carbon Dioxide, CO2

Formal Charge (O) = 6 – 1/2(4) – 4 = 0

•• ••
••

O C O
••
Formal Charge (C) = 4 – 1/2(8) – 0 = 0
∴ Sum of formal charge = 0 + 0 = 0 20
 Ionic Bonding
• Transferring of electrons from 1 atom to
another, creating positive & negative ions
• Electrostatic attraction between 2
oppositely charged ions
• For example:
•• •• ••
Na • + • Cl Na • • Cl Na+ Cl –
••

••

••
••
•• •• ••
metal nonmetal e- transfer from Ionic
atom atom reducing agent to compound
oxidizing agent
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Valence Electron Configurations
& Ionic Compound Formation
• For the formation of NaCl:
a) Na (1s22s22p63s1) Na+ (1s22s22p6)
≅ [Ne] noble gas configuration

b) Cl ([Ne]3s23p5) Cl- ([Ne]3s23p6)

≅ [Ar] noble gas configuration

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 Covalent Bonding
• The mutual attraction of 2 nuclei for the
same electrons
• Sharing of valence electrons between
atoms

H A +
H B H A
H B

• A region of high electron density resulting

from the overlapping atomic orbitals
between bonded atoms
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 Formation of Covalent Bond
Example: H• •H
1) When 2 atoms approach each other, the
electrons repel one another due to like
charges
Electron-electron repulsion

2) Similarly, their nuclei also repel each

other
Nucleus-nucleus repulsion
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4) The nuclei & the electrons of neighboring
atoms, however, attract each other
Electron-nucleus attraction

5) When the attraction forces > powerful

than repulsive forces, a bond is formed

Attraction is greater than repulsion

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 Polar Covalent Bond in Polar
Molecule

H F

 Non-uniform distribution of electron

density between the two atoms
 Due to F is more electronegative than H,
the F atom tends to exert a stronger
attraction on the bonding e– compared to
the H atom
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 Electron density of the bonding electrons
to be higher around the F atom than the H
atom
 ‘F end’ of molecule acquires a partial
negative charge while the ‘H end’
acquires a partial positive charge
 The covalent bond in the H–F molecule is
polarised 27
Coordinate Covalent Bonding

• Dative bond
• In some molecules or ions, a single atom
contributes both of the electrons (lone pair
e-) to be a shared pair of electrons
• _______________________― the atom
which donates the lone pair electrons
• _______________________― the atom
accepting the pair of electrons
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 Dative bond

A dative bond is represented by an arrow

pointing from the donor of the electron pair
(N atom) to the acceptor of the electron pair
(H atom)
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 Metallic Bonding
• Metallic bonding
– bonding in solid metals
– Electrostatic attraction between the
positively charged metal ions & the ‘sea’
/‘cloud’ of delocalised (mobile) electrons
• For example: Cu, Fe, Al….
• Electron Sea Model – describe the
metallic bonding
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 Metallic Bonding
Electron Sea Model

+ + + + +
+ + + + • e-
+
Positive
+ + + + + +
metal ion
+ + + + +
Delocalised valence electrons 31
• In metals, the valence electrons are
associated with a particular metal atom
but are free to move (mobile) throughout
the solid piece of metal
• Electrons are free to move away from a –
ve electrode to a +ve electrode
(delocalised) when an electrical potential
is applied
• With valence electrons now delocalised,
the metal atoms are effectively ionised
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 Effect of Bonding
on Physical Properties
1) Metallic Bonding
 high electrical conductivity
 high thermal conductivity
 ductility and malleability
 grey, black, brown/yellow in appearance
 not soluble
 melting point (depend on bond strength)
 solid at room temperature & non volatile
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2) Ionic bonding
• poor conductor in solid state (electrical
conductivity only in aqueous solution)
• no thermal conductivity
• no ductility and malleability
• most are colourless
• soluble in polar solvents but insoluble in
nonpolar solvents
• high melting points
• solid at room temperature
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3) Covalent bond
• no electrical and thermal conductivity
• no ductility and malleability
• water – colourless
• halogen – colour
• nonpolar molecules – insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents
• polar molecule – soluble in water
• giant structure – insoluble in all solvents
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 Intermolecular
Forces of Attraction

• In addition to the covalent bonds within a

molecule, there are also other forces of
attraction between molecules
• Intermolecular forces of attraction weaker
than covalent / ionic bonds
• 2 types of intermolecular forces:
a) Van der Waals forces
b) Hydrogen bond
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 Van der Waals Forces
• Van der Waals forces are weak
intermolecular forces that contributed by
permanent dipole – permanent dipole &
temporary dipole – induced dipole
attraction
• The larger the molecule size, or the larger
the number of electrons in a molecule, the
larger the van der Waals forces, & the
higher the melting point/boiling point of
the molecule
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 3 Types of Dipoles
1) Permanent dipole-permanent dipole
attractions
 The force of attraction between the
negative end of a ______ molecule & the
positive end of another ______molecule
dipole – dipole attraction

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2) Dipole-induced dipole attractions
• Interaction between a ______ molecule
& __________molecule

neutral + -

 The __________ is polarized by the

_________ molecule
polarized
+ + -
-
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3) Induced dipole-induced dipole attractions
(London Dispersion Forces)
• Interaction between ________ molecules
(O2, N2, CO2 & noble gases)
• This is caused by the random movement
of the e- in an atom or molecule
• For example:
Argon has 18 e- in its atom. Since it is
non-polar, the arrangement of e- is
symmetrical on the average
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• When these e- revolve around the
nucleus, the e- density might be higher at
one end than the other & cause a
temporary dipole
Electron cloud

δ+ δ-

temporary dipole

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• The positive end of the temporary dipole
will distort the e- cloud of the neighboring
atoms giving rise to induced dipoles

temporary dipole then attract one another

δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+

Temporary dipole-induced dipole attractions

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 Hydrogen Bond
• A special type of permanent dipole –
permanent dipole attraction between a H
atom (which is bonded to a small & highly
electronegative atom - O, N or F)
and a lone pair of electrons of another
very electronegative atom.

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 Hydrogen Bonding in
Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)

δ– δ– δ–

δ+ δ+ δ+
 If 2 molecules of HF are close to another,
the H atom of 1 molecule will be attracted
to the F atom of another molecule
 Electrostatic attraction between the partial
+ve charge on the H atom & the partial –
ve charge on F atom 44
 Hydrogen Bonding in
Ammonia (NH3)
δ+ δ+
δ+ δ– δ+ δ–

••
••
δ+ δ+

• In NH3 molecule, the N atom has 1 lone

pair of electrons
• Each NH3 molecule can form 1 hydrogen
bond
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 Bond Properties

• Bond Polarity
• Bond Order
• Bond Length
• Bond Energy

46
 Bond Polarity
• Polar bond in polar molecules – the bond
between the two atoms has a partial +ve
end & a partial -ve end (dipole moment)
• The unequal sharing of electrons leads to:
a) a partial -ve charge on the more
electronegative element (δ −)
b) a partial +ve charge on the less
electronegative element (δ +)
• A covalent molecule is polar if the covalent
bond is polarised
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• Electronegativity, χ
a) a measure of the ability of an atom in a
molecule to attract bonding electrons in
a covalent bond to itself
b) decide whether a bond is polar, which
atom of the bond is -ve & which is +ve
c) increase from left to right across a
period & decrease down a group
 Electronegativity trend: F > O > N > C > H
F > Cl > Br > I
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 Bond Order
• Bond order
= number of bonding electron pairs
shared by 2 atoms in a molecule

• Bond order (BO) =

Number of shared pairs linking X – Y
Number of X-Y links

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 Bond Order

Bond Type of Bond order

bonding
−C
C− Single 1

=C
C= Double 2

≡C
C≡ Triple 3

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 Bond Order
• Bond order is depends on to 2 important
bond properties:
a) Bond length
– the distance between the centers of 2
atoms joined by a bond
b) Bond energy
– the energy required to break a bond

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 Bond Length
• Bond length depends on size of bonded
atoms
• Size of bonded atoms ↑, bond length ↑

< <

H—F
H—Cl
H—I
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 Bond Length
• Bond length depends on bond order

> >

• The bond lengths become ________ as

the bond orders _____________
• Bond length:
Single bond > double bond > triple bond 53
 Bond Energy
Type of bond Typical bond energy
(kJ mol-1)
Covalent bonds 200 – 400
Hydrogen Bonds 20 – 80
Van der Waals bonds Less than 20

The relative strengths of chemical bonds:

covalent bonds > hydrogen bonds > Van der
Waals bonds
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Relation of Bond Length & Bond
Strength with Bond Order
• The ____________ the number of bonds
(bond order), the _____________ the
bond strength (energy required)

• The _________ the number of bonds

(bond order), the ___________the length
of bond
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 Learning Outcomes

 Apply principles governing properties of

chemical compounds, chemical bonds and
stoichiometry.
 Demonstrate laboratory skills by
conducting and analysing the results of
physical chemistry experiments.

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