Anna Hurova

Ensuring the Right to Safe and Favorable Environment Using Space Remote Sensing Data1

Anna Hurova, PhD in Law, Univ. Professor, research fellow at Koretsky State and Law
Institute of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. The area scientific expertise covers
legal protection of near-Earth from littering, legal ensuring the space resources mining and
avoiding armed conflicts on space. e-mail: a.m.hurova@gmail.com

Abstract | Global environmental changes are to be mitigated by comprehensive measures, one of

which is Earth Observation using Remote Sensing Satellites. In spite of that satellite data can be
used for monitoring compliance obligations contained in international environmental
agreements and resolving disputes at international courts, some legal framework of its usage,
doesn`t meet the requirement of modern space challenges. On the basis of scientific analysis of
the content of international space treaties, resolutions, regional treaties and their
implementation into national legislation, was founded common balance between rights of sensed
States with the high standards enhance of ecological rights and different types of national
interest of State, which exercise the jurisdiction and control over the all remote sensing activity
of their private operators. At the same time, the extension of the free of charge mechanisms of
the protection of the right on favorable and safe environment for the all peoples all over the
world through remote sensing data, regardless of capabilities to operate the remote sensing
facilities, does not make this priority higher. Furthermore, remote sensing data as evidence is
rapidly developing now thanks to constant enrichment of application practice and establishment
the infrastructure for taking into account this evidence to make the reasonable judgments.
Key words: remote sensing data, right to safe environment, evidence, satellite images, disaster
management, space law, sustainable development.
Introduction.
The right to safe and favorable environment and right to access the information have never been
so connected than nowadays. They represent the latest generation of rights which are derived
from consequences of the globalization. But in modern conditions of social-economic
development the first one is increasingly difficult to achieve, but in contrast to this the second
one has reached its heyday. For example, nowadays myriads of satellites through process of
remote sensing of the Earth give to humankind unique services connected with protection of
natural resources, detection of environmental crimes during the peaceful and war time,
1
Author uses the notion “remote sensing data” as any kind of remote sensing activity products, namely “raw data”, “digital images”, “geological
information” etc.
management of artificial and natural disasters etc. On this basis, it is evident that the fullest and
effective execution of the right to the access to the information with the aid of all types of remote
sensing satellite data plays the key role for respect of the right to the safe and favorable
environment.
Since, the usage of the remote sensing data includes different steps, i.e. collection, access,
distribution, and sharing, each of which has its own special legal regime connected with national
security, privacy, intellectual property rights, liability, court procedures, this research will be
divided into two parts. The first one is devoted to analysis of international and regional “hard”
and “soft law” space treaties, concerning the establishment of legal regime of collection and
distribution of all types of remote sensing data. In the second one, the legal practice of using
satellite images as evidences before such international courts as International Court of Justice,
International Criminal Court and some practices in this sphere of national courts etc. were
mirrored. These parts reflect the gradualism of remote sensing service cycle and material and
procedural aspects of its legal regulation.

II. International regime of creation and utilization remote sensing data enhances the right
to safe and favorable environment
The root of legal regulation of all the types of modern space activities is the Treaty on Principles
Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the
Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967 (Outer Space Treaty). On the basis of these Principles
the collection and dissemination of all types of remote sensing data are carried out, namely:
1) exploration and use of outer space for the benefit and in the interests of all countries;
2) recognition the outer space as province of all mankind; 3) freedom for exploration and use of
outer space on a basis of equality; 4) facilitate and encourage the international collaboration
(article 1); 5) international responsibility of the states for national activities in outer space
(article 6)2. So, it was recognized that the freedom of remotely sensing the Earth and collecting
information and also call for international cooperation and dissemination of the information,
collected to all the sensed States which might benefit from it. Later these principles were
reflected in the special “soft law” international act – UNGA Resolution 41/65 “Principles
Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space”, adopted in 1986. That is, in the
principles 2, 4 and 14 are recalled all of mentioned freedoms 3. But it would be noted that all
these principles during the history of space activity were interpreted in different ways. As Ram
Jakhu said, accessibility of data by the sensed State as well as the freedom of using and
2
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial
Bodies, 1967 (Outer Space Treaty), United Nations publication, New York , 2002
3
UNGA Resolution (1986) 41/65 “Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space”. available at:
http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/remote-sensing-principles.html
disseminating data gathered by sensing State, that ultimately depends on data policies adopted by
the State concerned.4 That is why he calls for understanding these principles comprehensive and
closer to text, namely: 1) common interests he recognizes as inclusive interest of all countries,
regardless of their status as the parties of the treaty; 2) province of mankind was interpreted as
possession jurisdiction over all matters, related to the exploration and use of outer space, 3) and
finally, he proves that freedom of space activity must be considered in the light of equity of all
sovereign states and admissibility of abuse and misuse of the rights5.
Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space also indicate the special
with respect to the previous one principles, such as need of especially inclusion the necessities of
developing countries, full and permanent sovereignty of all States and peoples over their own
wealth and natural resources and avoidance of conducting detrimental to the legitimate rights and
interests of the sensed State. It reflected the balance between rights of the sensed State, which
often has the status of developing country with rich natural or another value resources and
sensing State with technical opportunity for removed sensing of the Earth and extract and use
such resources. On this basis, the difficult questions of national security interests occur.
Commercialization of the space activity, including Earth`s remote sensing creates the additional
issue of the price for remote sensing data.
The common regime of access to the products of Earth`s remote sensing for the sensed states
based on the non-discriminatory basis and on reasonable cost term. These bases were criticized
in science as vague and unclear. It is evident on the examples of the questions. Is it
discrimination to allow developing states better terms of satellite data access than developed
states? Is it discrimination to allow satellite data access to befriended states while refusing it to
inimical ones? Is it discrimination to allow satellite data access to states co-fund satellites on
better terms than those which do not? Response on these questions allow to make a conclusion
about positive discrimination of developing states, which would be most likely to find
themselves only in the role of a sensed state 6. So, these States have the rights on participation in
remote sensing through establishment and operation of data collecting and storage stations and
processing and interpretation facilities (principle 6), acquiring technical assistance (principle 7),
request for the enter into consultations in order to make available opportunities for participation
and enhance the mutual benefits to be derived therefrom (principle 13). But real access to the

4
Jakhu R. (2003) International Law Regarding the Acquisition and Dissemination of Satellite Imagery, Journal of Space Law 29 (1\2), 65-91
5
Jaku R., Vasilogeorgi I. (2013) The Fundamental Principles of Space Law and Relevance of International Law, in Stephan Hobe and Steven
Freeland (Eds.), “In Heaven as on Earth? The Interaction of Public International Law on the Legal Regulation of Outer Space,” Institute of Air
and Space Law, Cologne University, Cologne, Germany.
6
Frans G. (2009) European Satellite Earth Observation: Law, Regulations, Policies, Projects, and Programmes. Cyber, and Telecommunications
Law Program Faculty Publications, 397-445
different types of space data depends on the wiliness of sensing States that grounded on their
financial and security interests.
Exceptions of common regime of Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer
Space are connected with the aim of protection of the Earth's natural environment; because
identification of information that is capable of averting any phenomenon harmful to the Earth's
natural environment is the cause for disclose such information to States concerned. Another
cause for free disclose of information also concerns the protection of mankind from natural
disasters. Namely States participating in remote sensing activities that have identified processed
data and analyzed information in their possession that may be useful to States affected by natural
disasters, or likely to be affected by impending natural disasters, shall transmit such data and
information to States concerned as promptly as possible. It needs to be noted that differences
between that cases connected with nature of cause to disclose information (in the first case there
are both natural and artificial phenomenon, in the second case it is only natural disasters) and
time at which such information will be provided (in the first case it is the moment prior to harm,
in the second one it is the time both prior to natural disaster and during and after it). But these
provisions don`t regulate cases informational supporting the elimination consequences of natural
disasters. Nevertheless, these provisions declared that the interest of the protection of
environment and disaster management is higher than commercial interest. On the other hand,
there are no any sanctions for the States that reject such provisions in their practice. The
establishment of ideological basis is straightening the legal essence of “soft law” provision, but
in such legal relationships it turns into the weakness of provision that is difficult to fulfill.
Mix of such legal regimes is reflected in the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO)
Policy and Practice for the Exchange of Meteorological and Related Data and Products including
Guidelines on Relationships in Commercial Meteorological Activities, approved by Resolution
40 (Cg-XII) in 1995. It is declared as fundamental principle of the WMO broadening and
enhancing the free and unrestricted international exchange of meteorological and related data
and products. Herewith “free and unrestricted” means non‐discriminatory and without charge, in
turn “without charge” means at no more than the cost of reproduction and delivery, without
charge for the data and products themselves 7. Hence, all members States even in the crucial
situation must pay for reproduction and delivery of data and products and positive discrimination
of environmentally affected States is relatively.

7
WMO Policy and Practice for the Exchange of Meteorological and Related Data and Products including Guidelines on Relationships in
Commercial Meteorological Activities, approved by Resolution 40 (Cg-XII) in 1995. available at:
http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/documents/wmo_827_enCG-XII-Res40.pdf
Beside this, on the regional stage international treaties are concluded. Special attention among
them should be paid to Convention about transmission and use of Earth`s remote sensing data 8,
adopted in 19.05.1978 and Charter on Cooperation to Achieve the Coordinated Use of Space
Facilities in the Event of Natural or Technological Disasters9, adopted in 20.10.2000.
Before preceding the study of these international acts, it is necessary to clarify one terminology
aspect. Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space contain three
different notions to explain the products of remote sensing activity, i.e “primary data”,
“processed data” and “analyzed information”, but in the both of supra regional international acts
it was mentioned only two notions “space data” (Earth remote sensing data) and “information”.
Access to the each of this type of remote sensing data has its own legal regime. But, legal
regimes of acquiring on such types of data are not extremely different neither in Principles
Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space, nor in Charter on Cooperation to
Achieve the Coordinated Use of Space Facilities in the Event of Natural or Technological
Disasters. Convention about transmission and use of Earth`s remote sensing data also reflect
only different physical characteristics and functional purposes of these kinds of remote sensing
products, namely in article 4 access to the data with resolution better than 50 meters is
prohibited, at the same time as in article 5 access to the information about natural resources and
economic potential is prohibited. So, on the international level there are no significant
distinctions between raw data and processed data or analyzed information. For the protection of
the environmental rights, States supply the most appropriate for these aims information
(Principles 10, 11 of Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space and
article 4.5 of Charter). But, on the national level access to the different types of remote sensing
data is connected with significant expenses. In particular, raw data consists of the sensed data
that has not been transformed in any way whereas remote sensing product refers to any data or
image that results from transforming raw data in any way. Prohibiting the dissemination of raw
data is founded in the fact that it contains the potential to be used in many different ways; this
rationale is undermined by other practical requirements. Although an entity in control of raw
data has the ability to transform that data into a variety of different products – and while this, in
and of itself, can be harmful in the wrong hands – the reality is that processing and transforming
this raw data requires uncommon, technical expertise. Remote sensing products, on the other
hand, are the result of transforming raw data into a useable form by adding new information and,
unlike raw data, comprehending and using remote sensing products do not require special

8
Конвенция о передаче и использовании данных дистанционного зондирования Земли из космоса, Москва, 19.05.1978. available at:
https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_498/conv/print
9
Charter On Cooperation To Achieve The Coordinated Use Of Space Facilities In The Event Of Natural Or Technological Disasters Rev.3
(25/4/2000).2. available at: https://disasterscharter.org/web/guest/text-of-the-charter
expertise10. Thus, differentiation of the remote sensing data is important for commercial and
security aims, but it does not matter for enhance ecological rights, namely, for this aim it is
necessary to supply the most appropriate data as quickly as possible. At the same time, parallel
existence of three-tier and two-tier system of remote system data is adversely influence on the
transmission of remote sensing data between different States. So, we should agree with R. Jakhu
that supposed to removing the distinction between raw data and remote sensing products are
feasible from a security standpoint11.
The first one was concluded by States of socialist bloc for the five years with the possibility of
prolongation. Nowadays it is binding only formally but de facto it is not executed. The interest of
its provision is stipulated by high respect to the rights of sensed State. Namely, according to
articles 4 and 5 of this Convention, any types of remote sensing data: firstly, was not heard;
secondly, was not transmitted without explicit consent of sensed State and thirdly, could not be
used to cause the harm to such State. By the way, it was not any ecological guarantees through
the use of remote sensing data, except protection the data about natural resources of sensed State.
The aim of this act was not connected with ecological interests, only with protection of other
types of national security, i.e. economic, military etc.
Extremely different mechanism has been adopted in Charter. The general principles of
international cooperation and dissemination of the information collected to all the sensed States
which might benefit from it has been taken on seriously by States with remote sensing
capabilities, and many of them are taking part in this Charter, which provides a unified system of
space data acquisition and delivery to those affected by natural or man-made disasters 12. Charter
establishes complexity mechanism of cooperation between space agencies and space system
operators in the use of space facilities to pursue: a) supply the data providing a basis for critical
information for the anticipation and management of potential crises: b) participation by means of
data, information and services resulting from the exploitation the space facilities in organization
of emergency assistance or reconstruction and subsequent operations (article 2). There are
executed by the means of: 1) maintaining an up to date list of space facilities under the
management of private and public operators; 2) designing scenarios for each type of crisis, which
are subject to the regular update and are the basis for action plan in the event of identification
crisis; 3) identification the crisis situation; 4) implementation of action plan in the crisis
situation, which include, for example, access to data archives, merging the data, routing of
information to users etc. (article 4). The mechanism of application of this Charter is as follows:

10
Jakhu R., Kerkonian A. (2017). Independent Review of the Remote Sensing Space Systems Act. Institute of Air and Space Law Faculty of
Law McGill University. available at: https://international.gc.ca/arms-armes/assets/pdfs/2017_review_of_remote_sensing_space_systems_act.pdf
11
Ibid., at 9.
12
Schoenmaker A. (2011) Community remote sensing legal issues. Security World Foundation`s official site. available at:
https://swfound.org/media/62081/schoenmaker_paper_community_remote_sensing_legal_issues_final.pdf
the authorities and bodies concerned in a country affected by disaster (beneficiary bodies) should
request the interventions of the parties of the Charter (associated bodies) in order to obtain data
and information on a major disaster. In some circumstances, cooperating bodies, namely
European Union, the Bureau for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and other recognized
national and international organizations, may also request data in the event of a disaster. Then,
associated bodies: prepare an archive and acquisition plan, that is submitted to the relevant space
agency, who tasks their satellite accordingly if it is possible to meet the request; coordinates the
delivery of maps and takes the data provided by member agencies and interprets this, assessing
what they see from the satellites and compiling it into value added products13. During the
existing mechanisms of this Charter, 597 activations were conducted. The last one was made for
the aid to Plurinational State of Bolivia on 08.02.2019, which was affected by the landslide14.
So, the sensed States without of any or sufficient remote sensing facilities have a wide range of
guarantees and rights to protection of their environment by the means of remote sensing facilities
of sensing States. In this context, it need to be note that, unlike the legal mechanism of
Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space, all these activities of
Charter`s Parties have voluntary basis, thus, no funds being exchanged between them.
Furthermore, the term crisis means the period immediately before, during or immediately after a
natural or technological disaster, in course of which warning, emergency or rescue operations
take place.
But, it is a lot hander that it seems. There is common characteristic of Convention about
transmission and use of Earth`s remote sensing data and Charter on Cooperation to Achieve the
Coordinated Use of Space Facilities in the Event of Natural or Technological Disasters. Both of
them is grounded on the principles of Outer Space Treaty, namely on the principle of
international responsibility of the states for national activities in outer space. That means that
each State Party of such international acts adopts their own national mechanisms for regulation
activity of their operators. One of the Charter`s founding States, Canada, in 2000, entered into
the bilateral Agreement Concerning Operation of Commercial Remote Sensing Satellite Systems
with the United States to ensure that private remote sensing activities. The main idea of this act
is to keep the control over the private remote sensing activities by each State even after the
commercialization of the industry so as to protect the shared national security and foreign policy
interests of both States. According to the Annex I of this Agreement, owner, operator or
registered entity shall make available to the government of any country, including Canada, data
acquired by its system concerning the territory under the jurisdiction of such a government
13
Activating the Charter. The International Charter`s Space and Major Disasters official site. available at:
https://disasterscharter.org/web/guest/how-the-charter-works
14
Landslide in Bolivia. The International Charter`s Space and Major Disasters official site. available at:
https://disasterscharter.org/web/guest/activations/-/article/landslide-in-bolivia-plurinational-state-of-activation-597-
(sensed state) in accordance with the United Nations A/RES/41/65 Principles Relating to Remote
Sensing of the Earth from Space 15. However, such data shall not be provided to the sensed state
if its uncontrolled release is determined to be detrimental to Canada's national security and
foreign affairs interests. It seems that this rule applies to the execution of the supra Charter. As
R. Jakhu noticed, given the sensitivity of the data collected by remote sensing systems, the
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Canada has special powers to request priority access to data
collected by a remote sensing space system or to order an interruption of service if necessary to
protect national security, national defence, foreign policy interests and/or upholding Canada’s
international obligations. In granting licenses, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Canada has the
authority to impose conditions or restrictions on the operation of remote sensing satellite
systems, as well as the reception, storage and dissemination of data collected by such systems 16.
So, even if it will be necessary to sensed State all satellites of Canada may not supply the remote
sensing data concerned this State due to, for example, protection of national security, national
defence, foreign policy interests. This little example mirrored the common balance between
rights of sensed States with the high standards enhance of ecological rights and different types of
national interest of State, which exercise the jurisdiction and control over the all remote sensing
activity of their private operators. Extension of the free of charge mechanisms of the protection
of the right on favorable and safe environment for the all peoples all over the world through
remote sensing data, regardless of capabilities to operate the remote sensing facilities, does not
make this priority higher. On the one hand, principle of international responsibility of the states
for national activities in outer space allow to reach common agreement between States and
enhance that persons over their jurisdiction share remote sensing data on free of charge basis. On
the other hand, such principle makes all private activity dependent on the national interests of the
States and therefore, access to remote sensing data by the State depends on their geopolitical
relationships with sensed States. Fortunately, today more and more States gained such status,
albeit with different opportunities.

II. Remote sensing data as evidence in environmental international litigations.

The history of utilization of remote sensing data to resolve litigations in international courts
begins from 80th of XXI century. The first litigations are concerned with delimitation of
countries’ boards, which followed the rivers and other natural environment. Such kind of court
disputes concerned the environment indirectly, but they include legal conclusions, which help to

15
Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America Concerning the Operation of
Commercial Remote Sensing Satellite Systems, E103522 - CTS 2000 No. 14. available at: https://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?
id=103522
16
Jakhu R., Kerkonian A. (2017). Independent Review of the Remote Sensing Space Systems Act. Institute of Air and Space Law Faculty of Law
McGill University. available at: https://international.gc.ca/arms-armes/assets/pdfs/2017_review_of_remote_sensing_space_systems_act.pdf
solve the case essentially. For example, in the case between Burkina Faso and Republic of Mali
International Court of Justice was highland different evidence value and technical reliability of
text and maps17. Thus, the court cited the question of confidence to the remote sensing data in the
context of different ways of it interpretation.
The second kind of litigation is concerned with protection the environment during and after
armed conflicts. Remote sensing data allow obtaining information about territories, which may
be closed due to armed conflict. The most famous case in this context is the case between
Islamic Republic of Iran and United States of America, which concerned oil platforms and
polluting the Persian Gulf. During oral proceeding of this case, the United States had presented
the missile site photographs that were produced from original photographic data captured by
U.S. reconnaissance satellite and testimony of satellite imagery experts who had explained and
confirmed the substance of this evidence to the Court. The need of the experts` explanations can
be easily explained by the fact that U.S. analysts based their assessment of Iran's missile facilities
on the original photographic data, which provided the analysts with greater detail and clarity than
can be seen in the photographs that accompany this submission, but national security
considerations preclude the United States from submitting the original photographic data to the
Court. So, United States has reduced the resolution of the original images using computer image
processing techniques18. As was above mentioned, remote space data is divided at least into two
types, namely raw data and analyzed images. As evidence in the court procedure can be only
second one, but the last one also has different characteristics, which depend on measures of data
analyzing. Considering military content of such dispute and creation the evidences by space
facilities of one part of it, which also had corrected evidences at its own discretion, it cannot be
guaranteed credibility of such images. It is the question of impartially of court decision. An
example of solution of this problem is shown by Office of the Prosecutors of International
Criminal Court, which in the Strategic Plan on the 2016-2018 noting that it had invested in
internal expertise in the form of ‘cyber-investigators and analysts experienced in online
investigations, which had improved its ability to ‘identify, forensically collect and process this
new evidence’. However, the Office of the Prosecutors also noted that strategic partnerships with
the law enforcement community, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and academic
institutions were crucial for keeping up with the developments in the field. Going forward, the
OTP outlined a strategy that combines internal capacity-building through recruiting experts and
investing in specialized equipment, staff training and partnerships, in addition to increasing the

17
Case concerning the frontier dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali): International Court of Justice. available at: https://www.icj-
cij.org/files/case-related/69/069-19861222-JUD-01-00-EN.pdf
18
Case concerning oil platfoms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.United States of America) :Iinternational Court of Justice. available at:
https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/90/8632.pdf
use of technology for presenting its cases in court 19. In this case it should be mentioned about
Space Detective Agency, which is Spin-off Company that specialized on using remote sensing
data in evidential context, detect illegal waste, tackle and deter environmental crimes, conduct
historical site analysis20. The last activity is crucial for the cases about environmental pollution
during armed conflict, especially in the context on the adoption in 06.12.2017 by the United
Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme of Resolution
3\1 on pollution mitigation and control in areas affected by armed conflict or terrorism that
stressed the need to raise greater international awareness of environmental damage and pollution
resulted from armed conflict or terrorism and to take appropriate measures to minimize and
control pollution in situations of armed conflict or terrorism 21 Unfortunately, this situation is
currently very close to Ukraine. The experts of Conflict and Environmentally Observatory had
made the conclusion that data collection during conflicts can provide opportunities for dialogue
between warring parties, especially in the case of Ukraine, there appears to be a growing appetite
for cooperation on common environmental risks caused by the conflict between civil society
organizations and local administrations on both sides of the line of contact. These are
opportunities that may be missed by delaying environmental data collection until conflicts are
over.22
The third kinds of cases with remote sensing data usage are concerned environmental issues, i.e.
between Algeria and Uruguay about huge concentration of chlorophyll; between Costa Rica and
Nicaragua about environmental harmfully activity etc. As C. Candelmo and V. Nardone write,
the use of satellite evidence in human rights, the key of which is also environmental rights,
courts to rule not only on the admissibility and value of GPS tracking and satellite imagery in
legal proceedings, but also on their compatibility with human rights principles, when they are
used as evidence in national legal proceedings23. Abuse the right on access to information
through remote sensing frequently lead to jeopardize right on privacy, but sometimes such threat
is necessary. For example, the indigenous peoples try to restoration of the right to life on the
lands of their origin, which has close connection with their life traditions and which they lost due
to actions of government, just like San community that live within their traditional territory in
north-central Namibia. Such community collects all kind of information about boundaries of

19
Evidence Matters in ICC Trials: An International Bar Association International Criminal Court & International Criminal Law Programme
report providing a comparative perspective on selected evidence matters of current importance in ICC trial practice, August 2016, 72 p. (P. 21)
20
Air and Space evidence: The World’s First Space Detective Agency official site. available at: http://www.space-evidence.net/what-we-do
21
Resolution 3\1 on pollution mitigation and control in areas affected by armed conflict or terrorism, adopted by the United Nations Environment
Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme 06.12.2017. available at: http://www.trwn.org/resolution-unea3-pollution-mitigation-
and-control-in-areas-affected-by-armed-conflict-or-terrorism/
22
Monitoring environmental risks and damage during conflicts is vital, the case of Ukraine highlights how it can be improved, Conflict and
Environmentally Observatory,22.12.2017. available at: https://ceobs.org/monitoring-the-monitors-studying-the-ukraine-conflicts-environmental-
impact/
23
Candelmo C. and N. Valentina (2017) Satellite Evidence in Human Rights Cases: Merits and Shortcomings Merits and Shortcomings, Peace
Human Rights Governance, 1(1), 87-113. (101)
their territory, including data from Google Maps with imagines of private lands, which belonged
before them24. Use of remote sensing data as evidence in court and its compatibility with right on
the privacy are treated differently in different country. While Germany declared Google Street
View as legal, Swiss courts ruled that Google must take action to protect privacy by blurring out
faces and license plates numbers. In some countries, the term “privacy” is not even translated
directly and is not protected as a right as such25. Another example is Belgian policy in such
sphere, namely Privacy Commission of this country decided that the use of satellite images to
detect potential breaches of planning law counts as proactive investigation, and is therefore
prohibited in principle. Satellite images must comply with privacy law if used in non-proactive
investigation. For example, their detail must be no greater than needed for the specific objective
of the case, they should not be kept longer than necessary and they must be destroyed once they
have no further use. However, they pose no legal problem if they are used to deter crimes or to
trigger remedial administrative sanctions. Satellite images would also be permissible in proactive
investigations into environmental crimes conducted by criminal organizations, such as illegal
waste trafficking.26 Regardless of the States` approach in this sphere, rapid development of space
and digital services affects the courts` procedure of assessment evidence for balance with right to
privacy.
So, there are three categories of judicial cases, dealing with the protection of environmental
rights with the help of the remote sensing data. Such data as evidences are used more frequently
regardless doubts of judges. Furthermore, the special institutional infrastructure occurs. All these
issues show compatibility collection and dissemination of remote sensing data with human
rights, including right to privacy.
IV. Conclusion
Remote sensing activity is the closest to activity enhance environmental rights, because one of
the key procedural environmental rights is access to the information about environment. From
the one hand, this activity helps us to imagine environmental changing, natural and artificial
disasters comprehensively and therefore to make reasonable decisions. On the other hand,
remote sensing data includes hidden information about hard-to-reach territories, objects and
activities. This shows high value of the remote sensing data for protection of environment.
Such tendencies are mirrored on the material and procedural legal basis of remote sensing
activity. In this article was found that such common principle of international space law, as
international responsibility for the national space activity influence on regime of dissemination
24
Gilbert J., Begbie-Clenc B. (2018) “Mapping for Rights”: Indigenous Peoples, Litigation and Legal Empowerment ELR| No. 1, 13 p. (9-10)
25
Schoenmaker A. (2011) Community remote sensing legal issues. Security World Foundation`s official site. available at:
https://swfound.org/media/62081/schoenmaker_paper_community_remote_sensing_legal_issues_final.pdf
26
Satellite images as evidence in court: legal obstacles to their use in environmental investigations: Environmental Compliance Assurance and
Combatting Environmental Crime in European Commission, July 2016 Thematic Issue 56. available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/satellites_as_evidence_in_court_legal_obstacles_to_their_use_56si8_en.pdf
of remote sensing data in two contrary ways. First, this principle allows reaching common
agreement between States and enhancing those persons over their jurisdiction share remote
sensing data on free of charge basis. Second, such principle makes all private activity dependent
on the national interests of the States and therefore, access to remote sensing data by the State
depends on their geopolitical relationships with sensed States.
Use the remote sensing data in the court as evidence requires compliance with different
requirements, including probative value, adequacy, sufficiency and compatibility with other
human rights. Fortunately, this evidence is rapidly developing now thanks to constant
enrichment of application practice and establishment the infrastructure for taking into account
this evidence to make the legitimate and reasonable judgments.
Summaries
FRA. [L’exercice du droit au l’environnement sécurisé et favorable par utilisation des
données spatiales télédétection]
Les changements environnementaux globaux doivent etre indemnisées par les measures
compréhensives, dont l’un est données spatiales télédétection. Les peuvent etre utilisées pour
contrôler le respect des obligations internatinaux environnementaux et règlementer des
différends aux cours internqtionaux, mais les regles de leur utilisation na satisfait pas aux
exigence  des défis spatiaux moderne. Étude des dispositions des traités internationaux, des
résolutions, traités regionaux et transposition leur en droit interne a permis de recenser du
balance commune entre du droit d'État observe avec normes élevées d’exercice des droits
environnementaux et des intérêts d'État que exerse juridiction et contrôle sur spatiales
télédétection des leur opérateurs privés. Dans le même temps, l’extension des mécanismes
gratuits de protection du droit d’environnement favorable et sûr pour tous, partout dans le
monde, grâce aux données de télédétection, quelles que soient les capacités de fonctionnement
des installations de télédétection, cette priorité plus élevée. En outre, les données de
télédétection en tant que preuves se développent rapidement grâce à l’enrichissement constant
des pratiques d’application et à la mise en place de l’infrastructure permettant de prendre en
compte ces preuves pour prendre des décisions raisonnables.
RUS. [Обеспечение права на безопасную и благоприятную окружающую среду с
использованием космических данных дистанционного зондирования Земли]. Право на
безопасную окружающую среду является основным правом на выживание человека и
устойчивое развитие. Глобальные изменения окружающей среды должны быть смягчены
комплексными мерами, одним из которых является наблюдение Земли с использованием
спутников дистанционного зондирования Земли. Несмотря на это, спутниковые данные
могут быть использованы для наблюдения за выполнением обязательств, содержащихся
в международных экологических соглашениях, и разрешения споров в международных
судах, законодательного обеспечения его использования. Основной международный акт в
этой сфере, Принципы, касающиеся дистанционного зондирования Земли из космического
пространства, не отвечают требованиям современных космических вызовов, в
частности это касается доступа к данным дистанционного зондирования, уверенности
в космических изображениях, достоверности обработки данных и нейтральности
субъектов по их интерпретации. В связи с этим, необходимо изучить современные и
перспективные международные правовые рамки для использования данных
дистанционного зондирования для обеспечения права на безопасную среду.
ESP. [Garantizar el derecho a un entorno seguro y de apoyo utilizando datos satelitales de
detección remota]. El derecho a un ambiente seguro es un derecho fundamental a la
supervivencia humana y al desarrollo sostenible. Por lo tanto, los cambios ambientales globales
deben ser mitigados por medidas complejas, una de las cuales es la observación de la Tierra
utilizando satélites de detección remota. Los datos satelitales se pueden utilizar para supervisar
la implementación de obligaciones en virtud de acuerdos ambientales internacionales, la
resolución de disputas en tribunales internacionales y la disposición legislativa de su uso. El
principal acto internacional en esta área, los Principios relativos a la teledetección de la Tierra
desde el espacio exterior, no cumple los requisitos de los desafíos espaciales modernos, en
particular, los temas de acceso a datos de teledetección, la fiabilidad del procesamiento de
datos y la neutralidad de los sujetos en su interpretación. En este sentido, es necesario estudiar
el marco legal internacional moderno y en perspectiva para el uso de datos de teledetección
para garantizar el derecho a un entorno seguro.
DEU. [Sicherstellung des Rechts auf eine sichere und unterstützende Umgebung durch
weltraumgestützte Fernerkundungsdaten]. Das Recht auf eine sichere Umwelt ist ein
grundlegendes Recht auf menschliches Überleben und nachhaltige Entwicklung. Globale
Umweltveränderungen sollten durch komplexe Maßnahmen abgemildert werden. Dazu gehört
die Beobachtung der Erde mit Fernerkundungssatelliten. Trotzdem können Satellitendaten
verwendet werden, um die Umsetzung der Verpflichtungen, die in internationalen
Umweltabkommen enthalten sind, zu überwachen, Streitigkeiten vor internationalen Gerichten
beizulegen und deren Verwendung in der Gesetzgebung sicherzustellen. Die wichtigsten
internationalen Gesetze in diesem Bereich, die Prinzipien der Fernerkundung der Erde aus dem
Weltraum, erfüllen nicht die Anforderungen moderner Weltraumaufrufe. Dies betrifft
insbesondere den Zugang zu Fernerkundungsdaten, das Vertrauen in Weltraumbilder, die
Zuverlässigkeit der Datenverarbeitung und die Neutralität der Probanden entsprechend ihrer
Interpretation. In diesem Zusammenhang ist es notwendig, den gegenwärtigen und zukünftigen
internationalen Rechtsrahmen für die Verwendung von Fernerkundungsdaten zu prüfen, um das
Recht auf eine sichere Umgebung sicherzustellen.
POL. [Zapewnienie prawa do bezpiecznego i wspierającego środowiska dzięki wykorzystaniu
satelitarnych danych satelitarnych]. Prawo do bezpiecznego środowiska jest podstawowym
prawem do przetrwania człowieka i zrównoważonego rozwoju. Dlatego globalne zmiany
środowiskowe należy łagodzić za pomocą złożonych działań, z których jedną jest obserwacja
Ziemi za pomocą satelitów teledetekcyjnych. Dane satelitarne mogą być wykorzystywane do
nadzorowania realizacji zobowiązań wynikających z międzynarodowych umów środowiskowych,
rozstrzygania sporów przed sądami międzynarodowymi oraz przepisów ustawowych dotyczących
ich stosowania. Głównym międzynarodowy akt w tej dziedzinie, Zasady dotyczące teledetekcji z
kosmosu, nie spełniają współczesnych wyzwań kosmicznych, w tym kwestii związanych z
dostępem do danych, teledetekcji, rzetelność danych i neutralności badanych dotyczące ich
interpretacji. W związku z tym konieczne jest zbadanie nowoczesnych i perspektywicznych
międzynarodowych ram prawnych dotyczących wykorzystywania danych teledetekcyjnych w celu
zapewnienia prawa do bezpiecznego środowiska.
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