Control System Engineering

EE312
Dr. Ali MOHAMMADI

Time-response
Outline
 1 Introduction
 2 Poles, Zeros, and System Response
 3 High order systems
 4 Transient-Response specifications
 5 First order systems
 6 Second order systems
 7 Reduced order models
 Objectives
• Influence of poles on the time response of a system
• Analyze the transient response of first/second-order
systems
• Find the damping ratio and natural frequency of a
second-order
system
• Find the damping ratio and natural frequency of a
second-order system

• Find the settling time, peak time, percent overshoot,

and rise time for an underdamped second-order system

• Approximate higher-order systems

Zeros of a TF
The zeros of a transfer function are :

• the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer
function to become zero

• any roots of the numerator of the transfer function that are common to roots
of the denominator

Transfer function of a physical system:

Y ( s ) ( s  1)( s  0.2) ( s  0.2)

 
R ( s ) s( s  2)( s  1) s ( s  2)
Zeros : 1,  0.2
Poles of a TF
The poles of a transfer function are

• the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
tend to infinite

• any root of the denominator of the TF that is also a root of the numerator

Transfer function of a physical system:

Y ( s ) ( s  1)( s  0.2) ( s  0.2)

 
R ( s ) s( s  2)( s  1) s ( s  2)
Poles : 0,2 ,  1
Characteristic equation of a system
The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the denominator of the closed-
loop transfer function to zero.

Y ( s ) ( s  1)( s  0.2) ( s  0.2)

 
R ( s ) s( s  2)( s  1) s ( s  2)

Characteristic equation::

S 2  2s  0
 R (s ) E (s ) C (s )
 G (s )

B (s )
H (s )

Y ( s) N G ( s ) DH ( s )

R ( s ) DG ( s ) DH ( s )  N G ( s ) N H ( s )
Characteristic equation
DG ( s ) DH ( s )  N G ( s ) N H ( s )  0
where
N H ( s) N G ( s)
H ( s)  and G ( s ) 
DH ( s ) DG ( s )
Remind
R (s ) Y (s )
G1  G G
 2 3

. Forward path TF : G1G 2G 3

. Open loop TF : G 2 H

Y(s) G1 (s)G 2 (s)G 3 ( s )


R(s) 1  G 2 (s)H(s)
 Example
Find the characteristic equation of the system that is composed of the plant
3
G( s) 
s( s  1)( s  10)

and the pre compensation gain equal to 2.

It is assumed that this a unity feedback system.

R (s ) 3
Y (s )
2 
 s( s  1)( s  10)

3
. Forward path TF : 2 
s( s  1)( s  10)
Y(s) 6 6
3   3
Openloop TF : 1 R(s) s( s  1)( s  10)  3 s  11s 2  10s  3
s( s  1)( s  10)
stability, time response, low order approximation
 Consider the first order transfer function

Y(s) s  a

R(s) s  b
We want to find the step response of this system so we have to take the
inverse Laplace transform of
sa
Y( s) 
s ( s  b)
The partial fraction decomposition gives
A B
Y( s)  
s sb
with
sa a sa ba
A  ;B  
s  b s 0 b s s b b
So the inverse Laplace transform leads to the following response:

a b  a bt
y (t )   e
b b
Form of the response:

y (t )  y ss (t )  ytr (t )
where
. yss is the steady - state response (forced response)
. y tr is the transient response (natural response)
Influence of pole/zero on the response:
• a affects only the amplitude of the response: if a is large, the time response
will have large transient amplitudes.
• b affect both the amplitude and the dynamics: if b is large the exponential
converge fast to zero.
High order systems Example 1
Reminding the model of the simplified
suspension system, the TF is
X o ( s) bs  k
G( s)   2
X i ( s ) ms  bs  k
Step response (Xi(s) = 1/s) of this model when
m = 1, b = 2 and k = 1 so we have to take the
inverse Laplace transform of

2s  1
X o ( s) 
s[ s 2  2 s  1]
Partial Fraction Decomposition?

2s  1 1 1 1
X o (s)    
s ( s  1) 2
s s  1 ( s  1) 2

Inverse Laplace transform:

High order systems Example 1I
Assume that the closed-loop TF of a system is given by
1
G( s)  2
s  b1s  b2
P ( s )  s 2  b1s  b2 having complex conjugate roots  and 
so s 2  b1s  b2  ( s   )( s   )
 s  2 Re(  )  
2 2

 [ s  Re(  )]2  Re(  ) 2  

2

 [ s  Re(  )]2  Im(  ) 2

Then, the “completing the square method” gives

1 
G( s) 
 [ s  Re(  )]2   2

With   Im(  )
High order systems Example 1I
Finally, the inverse Laplace transform gives
g (t )  (1 /  )e Re(  ) t sin(t )
Three cases :
Re(  )  0 then lim g ( t )  
t  

Re(  )  0 then g (t )  (1 /  ) sin(t )

Re(  )  0 then lim g ( t )  0
t  

Real part of the pole of Convergence to finite value Bounded Solution

the closed-loop TF
Re(  )  0 ✗ ✗

Re(  )  0 ✗ ✓

Re(  )  0 ✓ ✓
General time Response

Closed-loop TF:

General form:
Factorized form:

where
• zi’s are the zeros of the TF
• pi’s the poles of the TF
 General time Response
The general partial fraction decomposition of the step response can be written
as follows
2 n
ci di eik f ik
Y (s)   i  i s      ...  
i s
 i k 1 ( s   ) k
i k 1 ( s   ) k
 i   i
   i

poles  0 R - poles of order 1 R - poles of order 2 R - poles of order n

g i  hi 2
lik s  mik
 2   2  ...
i s   i s  ki i k 1 ( s   i s  i )
k
 
C - poles of order 1 C - poles of order 2
n/2
oik s  pik
  2
i k 1 ( s   s   ) k
   i
 i

C - poles of order n/2

It is assumed that  i ,  i ,  i  0 and are distinct. The same assumptions are made for complex poles.
 However, the systems in this course will be mainly of this form

c1 di gi s  hi
Y ( s)  
s
i s    i s 2   s  k
  i  i
 i
R - poles of order 1 C- poles of order 1

so we can see that their response is the combination of the response of first
order and second order systems. That is why it is important to study in depth
first and second order systems.
 Partial fraction decomposition:

pi’s are the complex roots of the TF.

Inverse Laplace transform:

 General time Response
Denoting by z i and z i the complex roots of C(s) and using the completing the square method we get

c1 d gi [ s  Re( zi )]  gi Re( zi )  hi Im( zi )

Y ( s)   i   i [s  Re( z )]2  Im( z )2
i s  i i [ s  Re( zi )]  Im( zi )
2 2
s Im( zi ) i i

Inverse Laplace transform:

The response does not diverge if  i  0 and Re(p i )  0
. Convergence to c1 if  i  0 and Re(p i )  0
. Permanent oscillates if  i  0 and Re(p i )  0
Remark :
. -  i is a root of the denominator (a pole)
. Zeros and poles are defined for a transfer function
. Roots are defined for any polynomials.
Figure : Relation between pole location in the s-plane and the step response
Transient-Response specifications
• How to characterize the time response of your system?
• How to compare the response of various systems
Transient-response specifications
Criteria that quantify accurately the time-response of a system.
They are defined for stable systems regardless of the order of
the system.
Standard specifications
Delay time td (not so common)
The delay time is the time required for the response to reach
half the final value the very first time
Maximum overshoot OS
The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response curve
measured from the final value:

Mp y (t p )  y ( )
OS  
y () y ()
Peak time tp
The peak time is the time required for the response
to reach the first peak of the overshoot.
Settling time ts
The settling time is the time required for the system to reach
and stay within a range about the final value of size specified by
an absolute percentage of the final value (usually 95% or 98%).
Settling time ts
The settling time is the time required for the system to reach
and stay within a range about the final value of size specified by
an absolute percentage of the final value (usually 95% or 98%).
Rise time tr
The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%, 15% to
95% or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second order systems, the 0%
to 100% rise time is normally used whereas 10% to 90% rise time is commonly used
for over damped systems.
Rise time tr
The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%, 15% to
95% or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second order systems, the 0%
to 100% rise time is normally used whereas 10% to 90% rise time is commonly used
for overdamped systems.
Comments:

• Not all the specifications necessarily apply to any given

case.
• For first and second order systems, analytical
expressions (that depend on system parameters) of this
specifications can be computed.
• For more complex system they can be evaluated by
simulations
or experimental tests.
• or approximated analytical expression based on
reduced model can be computed.
First order systems
Standard form of first order (stable) systems:
Y ( s) K

with R ( s ) Ts  1
• T > 0: time constant
• K > 0: gain.

In the sequel, we study the time-response of the first order system to

• a unit-step input
• a unit-ramp input
Step response (unit step):

The Laplace transform of a unit-step is R(s) = 1/s so

Y ( s) K
  y (t )  K (1  e t / T )
R ( s ) s(Ts  1)

The smaller the time constant, the faster the system response.
 d y (t )
  K /T
dt t 0

 Specificat ions : t r10/90  2.2T; t s95%  3T; t s98%  4T

 Parameter identification
Find the TF of the system assuming that it is a first order system.

K  3
 3  95%  2.85 so 3T  6 then T  2
3
T(s) 
2s  1
Ramp response
The Laplace transform of a unit - ramp is R(s)  1/s2 so
K t / T
C(s)   c ( t )  K ( t  T  Te )
s (Ts  1)
2

so e(t )  Kt  c(t )  KT (1  e t / T )
The smaller the time constant and the gain, the smaller the steady - state error.
Second order systems
I. Introduction

II. Underdamped case

III. Undamped case

IV. Critically damped case

V. Overdamped case

VI. Example
Introduction
Standard form of second order (stable) systems
C (s) n2
 2
R ( s ) s  2n  n2
 : is the damping ratio,
n : is the natural frequency of the system
1
T is called the time constant of the system
n

Example :Find the damping ratio and the natural frequency of this TF

C ( s) 5
 2
R( s) s  2s  4
n2  4 so n  2
2
2n  2 so    0 .5
2n
C ( s) 5 n2

R ( s ) 4 s 2  2n  n2
The form of the solution will depend on the roots of

P( s )  s  2n  
2 2
n
Since
  4n2 ( 2  1)
four different cases will be studied according to the value of  :
.   0 : undamped case
. 0    1 : underdamped case
.   1 : critically damped case
.   1 : overdamped case
Underdamped case
Computing the step-response of the general second order system
n2
K  1; C ( s ) 
s ( s 2  2n  n2 )
Since 0    1,
-  t 
y(t)  1 - e (cos d t 
n
sin d t );
1  2

d  n 1   2
1
Factorizing by and using the trigonometric formula
1  2

cos(   )  cos( )cos(  )  sin( )sin(  )

we can rewrite the solution as follows :
1
y(t)  1 - e - n t (cos d t   );
1  2
with :   tan 1 ( / 1   2 )
Transient-response Specifications:
For the special case of stable, under damped second order systems, one can
explicitly compute:

. Peak time t p
. Maximum overshoot OS
. Settling time t s
Peak time:
Maximum value of y :

y (t p )  0
. n2
 y ( s )  sY ( s )  2
( s  2n  n2 )

Therefore, taking the inverse Laplace transform one obtains

. n
y (t )  e nt sin(d t ) so
1  2
.
y (t )  0  sin(d t )  0 then
d t  n 1   2  n so
n
t
n 1   2

Peak time: The maximal overshoot occurs for the first peak so n = 1 and


tp 
n 1   2
Maximum overshoot:
To compute OS we have to evaluate y in tp and apply

y (t p )  y
OS 
y
Using the value of tp previously obtained, one gets

y (t p )  1  e  / 1   2

For a unit-step input y(∞) = 1 so

OS  e  / 1   2

The inverse relation is useful for identification:

 ln(OS )

 2  ln 2 (OS )
y ( )  2  OS  M p / 2
Settling time:
1  n t
y (t )  1  e cos(d t   )
1  2

Since - 1  cos(d t   )  1 one has

1
 y (t )  y (t )  1  e nt
1  2
1 n t
 y (t )  y (t )  1  e
1  2
A conservative estimate (assuming that
cos(d t   )  1) can be found considering that
1
1 e nts 98%  0.98
1 2

1 n ts 98%
e  0.02
1 2
Solving this equation, we have
 ln(0.02 1   2
ts 98% 
n
  ln(0.02 1   2
ts 98% 
n
Conveniently, we often use this approximation

4
t s 98% 
n

 ln(0.05 1   2
ts 95% 
n

Similarly, we get
3
t s 98% 
n
 s1  n  id s2  n  id

3
(a) Constant settling time ts 
n (b) Constant real part
Increasing of the damped pulsation d
 s1  n  id s2  n  id

(a) Constant frequency d (b) Constant imaginary part

3
Decreasing settling time ts 
n
s1  [   i  2  1 ]n s2  [   i  2  1 ]n

(a) Constant overshoot (b) Constant damping ratio

Increasing of wd and ts
Application:
Determine the damping ratio and the natural frequency of a second order
system to have 10% overshoot and settling time (95%) equal to 2s.

Steps :
 The specificat ions are OS  0.1 and t s95%  2 s
 ln(OS )
 From OS one gets  
 2  ln 2 (OS )
3
 From t s95% one gets n 
t s95%
The numerical values are
  0.59 n  2.54
Application :
The second order system TF is
6.46
G(s)  2
s  3s  6.46
Application :
Determine K and T from the data below

(a) Closed-loop system

(b) Unit-step response curve

Steps :
 From the plot, we have t p  3 and OS  0.254
 ln(OS )
  is deduced OS thanks to  
 2  ln 2 (OS )

 n is computed from tp 
n 1   2
 K/T n2
 2
1
s  s  K /T
2 s  2 n s   2
n
T
Steps :
. Compute the closed loop TF
K 1
. We identify  n  and 2 n 
T T
K 1
. We solve previous  n  and 2 n  for K and T
T T
The numerical values are
K  1.42 T  1.09
Unity Step response of
Ki
(n  1.5)
2

s  0 . 6 s  1 .5
2
 Undamped case
Undamped case :   0

  4n2 ( 2  1)  4n2 so
s1  in s2  in

The solution for this case can directly be obtained by making   0

in
1
y (t )  1  e nt cos(d t   )
1  2
then   0, d  n and it follows that
y (t )  1  cos n t
 Figure : Undamped   0 : y(t)  1 - cos n t

y(t)  1 - cos n t
 t p , OS , t s are not defined in this case
 n : natural frequency
Critically damped case
Critically damped case :   1

  4n2 ( 2  1)  0

so one double root

s   n

and
 2
C (s)  n

s( s  n ) 2
and taking the inverse Laplace transform leads to
- n t
y(t)  1 - e [1  nt ]
 Figure : Critically damped case   1
- n t
y(t)  1 - e [1  n t]
 t p , OS do not exist in this case
 No simple expressions of t s
Overdamped case
Critically damped case :   1
s1  [   2  1]n ; s2  [   2  1]n
n2
C (s) 
s ( s  s1 )( s  s2 )

and taking the inverse Laplace transform leads to

n
e  s1t e  s2t
y(t)  1  (  )
2   1 s1
2 s2
 Figure : Overamped case   1 :

 t p , OS do not exist in this case

 No simple expressions of t s
 Figure : Comparison underdamped/critically damped case

• tp, OS do not exist in this case

• No simple expression of ts is available
Remark:
s1  [   2  1]n ; s2  [   2  1]n
When   1, | s1 |  | s2 | so s1 is the dominant pole.

n e  s1t e  s2t
y(t)  1  (  )
2  12

s1 s2
n e  s2 t fastly decreasing to 0
y(t)  1  ( )
2   1 s2
2

Figure : dominant dynamics   2, n  2

Reduced model
Y (s) n2 n2 / s1
 ( )
R( s ) s1 ( s / s1  1)( s  s2 ) s  s2

Since s1s 2  n2 :

Y (s) s2

R ( s ) ( s  s2 )
Example
Find the gain K to have a 3% overshoot for the closed - loop system

K K /2
T(s)  2 
2s  3s  1  K s 2  3 s  1  K
 By identification 2 2
 2n  3/2
1 K
 n2 
2
 ln(OS )
the specification yields    0.74
  ln (OS )
2 2

3
n  1
4
 K  2n2  1  1
Reduced order models
Preliminary comments
Dominant poles (no zero)
Dominant pole method
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Dominant zero
Example 1
Example 2
Pole/zero cancellation
Example 1
Example 2
 Reduced order models

Why do we want to reduce the order of the system?

• Both analysis and design are simpler for low-order models

• If the low-order is a first or second order model, a lot of information is

available relating to analysis and design.

• Insight is developed more easily for low-order models.

Dominant poles (no zero)

Let 1 ,  2 be two positive scalars such that 1   2 then

e - 2t  e -1t

pole/dynamics relation
The larger the magnitude of a pole is, the faster the associated dynamics will
be. Fast dynamics tends very quickly to zero so they can sometimes be
neglected without reducing too much the accuracy of the model.
• This rule can be applied to systems with complex and/or real roots of any
order.
• Rule of thumb (in this course): >> if 10 times larger
Y(s) 2
G(s)  
R(s) ( s  1)( s  15)
Unit-step response so
2
Y(s) 
s( s  1)( s  15)
The partial fraction decomposition
2 1 1 1 1 1
Y(s)   
15 s 7 s  1 105 s  15
so the inverse Laplace
2 1 1 15t
y ( t )   e t  e
15 7 105
Since −15 < −1 × 10 we can neglect this fast dynamics and obtained the
reduced model as follows
2
G( s) 
( s  1)( s  15)
2 / 15

( s  1)( s / 15  1)
2 / 15 2 / 15
 so  Gred ( s ) 
( s  1) ( s  1)
Can we approximate the model below by a first order model? Give this model.

Y ( s) 2
G( s)  
R ( s ) ( s  15)( s  160)

Since −160 << −15 we can neglect this fast dynamics and obtained the
reduced model as follows

Y ( s) 2
G( s)  
R ( s ) ( s  15)( s  160)
2

160( s  15)( s / 160  1)

1

2 / 160 2 / 160
  Gred ( s ) 
( s  15) ( s  15)
For system
Y ( s) 2
G1 ( s )  
R ( s ) ( s  1)( s  15)

−1 is a dominant pole so −15 can be neglected. However, for system

Y ( s) 2
G2 ( s )  
R ( s ) ( s  15)( s  160)

−15 is the dominant pole so −160 can be neglected.

When a dynamics is said to be fast, it has to be mentioned with respect to

which other dynamics.
 Find the overshoot and the peak time of this system

14.145
T ( s) 
( s 2  6s  9.01)( s  5)( s 2  0.24 s  0.01)

• Simplify the system to obtain a second order approximation

• Identify  and n

• Use the formula for second order systems to compute desired specifications
The roots of s 2  6 s  9.01  0 are

s1  3  0.1i ; s2  3  0.1i
The roots of s 2  0.24 s  0.01  0 are

s3  0.186 ; s4  0.054

So the 5 root of the system are

. s1  - 3  0.1i and s 2  - 3 - 0.1i

. s 3  - 0.186 and s 4  - 0.054
. s5  - 5

Figure : s3 and s4 are the dominant poles

 14.145 /(5  9.01)
T ( s) 
( s 2  6s  9.01)( s  5)( s 2  0.24 s  0.01)
0.314
T ( s) 
( s 2  0.24 s  0.01)
n2  0.01 so n  0.1
2n  0.24 so   1.2

 1
so the time specificat ions are not defined in this case.
 Dominant zero
Consider a system with one zero −a:
sa
G (s) 
( s  b)( s  c)
b a 1 ca 1
G (s)  ( ) ( )
bc s b cc sc
If | a |  | b | and | a |  | c | then - b  a  a and - c  a  a so
a 1 a 1
G (s)  ( ) ( )
bc s b cc sc
a ( s  c )  ( s  b)
( )
 b  c ( s  b)( s  c)
sa
so G ( s ) 
( s  b)( s  c)
can be approximated by
a
G (s) 
( s  b)( s  c)
We can now use the specifications for a second order system to characterize
the response of the system.
Rule of thumb (in this course): >> if 10 times larger
For systems with various zeros:

Simplify the system:

( s  1.5)( s  20)
T ( s) 
( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
 ( s  1.5)( s  20)
T ( s) 
( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
Since
| 1.5 |  | 20 |
−1.5 is the dominant zero and we can neglect 20 so we can have the
following
 20( s  1.5)
T ( s) 
( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
Note that −1.5 can not be neglected because it is not 10 times greater than 1,
2 and 3.
Find K1 and K 2 to have a t s%95  0.5s for the closed - loop system
below

The closed-loop TF is

Y ( s) 2 K1 ( s  K1 / K 2 )
 2
R( s ) s  ( 4  2 K1 ) s  3  2 K 2

Assuming that the zero can be neglected, find K1 to

satisfy the requirement. Then choose K2 to guarantee that
the zero can be neglected.
 Y ( s) 2 K1 ( s  K1 / K 2 )
 2
R ( s ) s  ( 4  2 K1 ) s  3  2 K 2
 2n  4  2 K1
3 3
 ts 95%  so n  6
n ts 95%
 K1  ( 2n  4) / 2  4

For the dominant zero approximation to be valid, one takes K2 such that the
zero K2/ K1 is much larger than the real part of the poles so

K2
 n
K1
so
K 2  24
Figure : K1 = 4, K2 = 240
Pole/zero cancellation
Is it possible to make a pole zero cancellation in these cases?

26.25( s  4)
Y1 ( s ) 
s ( s  3.5)( s  5)( s  6)
26.25( s  4)
Y2 ( s ) 
s ( s  4.01)( s  5)( s  6)
Method:
• Use the partial fraction decompostion

• Compare the residue of the pole to cancel with other residues

• if this residue is small with respect to other residues then the we can

cancel the pole and the zero.

Pole/zero cancellation
The partial fraction decomposition of

26.25( s  4)
Y1 ( s ) 
s( s  3.5)( s  5)( s  6)
gives
1 3 .5 3 .5 1
Y1 ( s )    
s s  5 s  6 s  3 .5

Since 1 is not negligible with respect to other residues, we cannot reduce the
system by performing a pole zero cancellation.
Pole/zero cancellation
The partial fraction decomposition of

26.25( s  4)
Y2 ( s ) 
s( s  4.01)( s  5)( s  6)
gives
0.87 5.3 4 .4 0.033
Y2 ( s )    
s s  5 s  6 s  4.01

Since 0.033 <<0.87 , 0.033<<5.83 , 0.033<<4.4

26.25
Y2 ( s ) 
s( s  5)( s  6)
Find the settling time (95%) of this system

s  11.5
T ( s) 
( s  1)( s  12)( s  135)

(Simplify this TF to obtain a first order model)

 Since 135 >> 1 and 135 >> 12 this is a dominant pole

1 s  11.5
T ( s) 
135 ( s  1)( s  12)
The partial fraction decomposition gives

s  11.5 1 1 21 1
 
( s  1)( s  12) 22 s  12 22 s  1
so since
1 21

22 22
21 1 1 0.0071
T ( s)  
22 135 s  1 s 1

0.0071 K
T ( s)  
s 1 sT  1
For a first order system, t s%95  3T so here
t s%95  3
Other solution:
• Dominant pole:
1 × 10 < 12 and 1 × 10 < 135

( s  11.5) /(12  135)

T ( s) 
( s  1)

• Zero simplification:
11.5 > 10 × 1 so

(11.5) /(12  135) 0.0071

T ( s)  
( s  1) s 1
Find the value of Ki and Kp to have a stable
system in closed-loop with OS = 5%

Y ( s) 2( K p s  K i )
 3
R ( s ) s  11s 2  (10  2 K p ) s  2 Ki
The stability conditions are
. 10(10  2K p )  2K i
. Ki  0
Find the relation between K p and K i to obtain a second order TF.
(advice reduce the model)
 ( K p s  Ki ) K p ( s  Ki / K p )
K p  Ki / s  
s s
so the open - loop transfer function is
K p ( s  Ki / K p ) 2
G(s) 
s ( s  1)( s  10)

Taking
Ki
 10
Kp
then the pole/zero cancellati on gives
2K p
G(s) 
s( s  1)
Note that 10(10  2K p )  2K i becomes 100  0 with K i  10K p .

Y ( s) 2K p
T ( s)   2
R( s) s  s  2 K p
 Ln(OS )
  0.69 with OS  5%
  Ln(OS )
2 2

1
2n  1 so n   0.72
2
n2  2 K p so K p  n2 / 2  0.26
K p  0.26 K i  2 .6
The settling time cannot be modified with this controller
(t s95%  6s)
Summary
In this chapter, you have learnt to
• analyze qualitatively the time-response of a system
according to its poles and zeros
• define quantitatively the specifications of a time-
response for first/second order systems
• reduce high order systems by neglecting dominant
poles or zeros and by making pole-zero cancellation