THINKING

Human are rational beings & our rationality consists in our ability to think & reason.  It is because
of our capacity for better thinking that we are superior to other animals in learning & in making
adjustment.

DEFINITION

Ross: “Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental activity with regard to
psychological objects “.

Garret: “Thinking is behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols (Images,
Ideas, Concepts) or ordinarily employed.”

Warren: “Thinking is an activity concerning ideas, symbolic in character initiated by a problem or

task which the individual is facing, involving some trial & error but under the directing influence of
that problem & ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem.”

NATURE OF THINKING

 It is essentially a cognitive activity.

 It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose.
 It is described as a problem-solving behaviour.
 It is a symbolic activity.
 It is mental exploration instead of motor exploration.
 It can shift very rapidly.
 It is internal activity.

TYPES OF THINKING

Perceptual or Concrete thinking

It is simplest form of thinking. The basis of this type of thinking is perception that is
interpretation of concision according to one’s experience. It is carried over the perception of
actual or concrete objects or events.
Conceptual or Abstract thinking
Like perceptual thinking it does not require the perception of actual objects or events it is an
abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts, generalize the ideas and language. It is
regarded as a superior type of to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding
and problem solving.
Reflective Thinking

It is somewhat of a higher form of thinking. It can be distinguished from simple thinking in

the following ways. It aims at solving complex problems rather than simple problem. It
requires re organization of all relevant experience and finding new ways of reacting to a
situation. Mental activity in reflective thinking does not undergo any mechanical trial and
error type of effort. There is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking. It takes
logic into account in which all the relevant facts are arranged in a logical order, in order to
get the solution of problem in hand.

Creative Thinking

This type of thinking chiefly aimed at creating something new. The thinking of scientist and
inventors are the examples of creative thinking. It is the ability to integrate the various elements
of the situation into a harmonious whole to create something novel. In other words, cognitive activity
directed towards some creative work refers to creative thinking. Creative thinkers are great boons to
the society as they enrich the knowledge of mankind. The creative thinker tries to achieve something
new, to produce something original & something unique.

Two main types of thinking are free thinking & controlled thinking

Controlled thinking – Here the process of thinking is controlled & regulated. Thoughts keep
in close touch with reality & are directed towards the achievement of specific goal.
Reasoning, problem solving & creative thinking are examples of controlled thinking.

REASONING
Reasoning plays a significant role in adjusting to one’s environment. It not only controls
one’s cognitive activities, but also the total behaviours and personality is affected by the
proper or improper development of one’s reasoning ability

Garrett: “Reasoning is step-wise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind.”

Gates: “Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful controlled selective thinking.” •
Munn: “Reasoning combining past experience in order to solve a problem which cannot be
solved by mere reproduction of earlier solution.”
NATURE OF REASONING
Like genuine thinking it revolve a definite a purpose or goal.
It is also an implicit act and involves problem solving behaviour.
Like thinking here one makes use of one’s previous knowledge and experience.
Like thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration in reasoning as we try
to explore mentally reason or case of an event or happening.
TYPES OF REASONING
Inductive Reasoning
In this type of reasoning we usually follow the process of induction. Induction is the way of
proving or statement or generalizing or rule or principle by proving or showing that if a
statement or a rule is true in one particular case it will be true in cases which appears in some
serial order. It may be applied generally to all such type of cases. Examples: Robert is a
teacher. All teachers are nice. Therefore, it can be assumed that Robert is nice. Jenny is a
dancer. Dancers are thin and tall. Jenny is thin and tall.
Deductive Reasoning
It just opposite to inductive reasoning, Here one start completely agreeing with some already
discovered or re-established generalizes fact or the principle and types to apply it to particular
cases. Example of Deductive Reasoning • Examples: To earn a master’s degree, a student
must have 32 credits. Kareem has 40 credits, so Kareem will earn a master’s degree.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Everybody in this world is faced to some problems are the others there needs and motive that
are to be satisfied. For this purpose definite goals or aims are set. In an attempt to realize
them one experience obstacles and interference it creates a problem for him needs serious
attention and deliberate effort on his part to overcome the obstacles or interference in the
attainment of the objectives.
According to Skinner: “Problem Solving is process of overcoming difficulties that appear to
interfere with the attainment of goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment in spite of
interferences”.
Scientific method of problem solving involves following steps
1. Problem Awareness
2. Problem Understanding
3. Collection of Relevant Information
4. Formulation of Possible Solution
5. Selection of Proper Solution
6. Verification of Concluded Solution
Problem Awareness - The first step of problem solving behavior is concerned his awareness
of the difficulty or problem that need solution

Problem Understanding - The difficulty or problem felt by the individual should be properly
identified by a careful analysis. He should be clear about what exactly is his problem.

Collection of Relevant Information - In this step the individual is required to collect all the
relevant information about the problem to all possible sources.

Formulation of Possible Solution - In the light of collected relevant information in nature of

his problem one may then engage in some serious cognitive activities to think or the various
possibilities for the solution of the one’s problem.

Selection of Proper Solution - In the important step all the possible solutions thought of in the
previous step are closely analysed evaluated. One should determine the conclusion that
completely satisfied the demands of the problem.

Verification of Concluded Solution - The solution is arrived at or conclusion drawn must be

further verified by utilizing is in the solution of the various likewise problems.

CREATIVE THINKING

Creative thinking is a process in which the individual generates an unusual & productive
solution to the problem. It is defined as personal, imaginative thinking which produces a new
novel & useful solution

STAGES OF CREATIVE THINKING

Preparation – the creative thinker formulates the problem & collects the facts & materials
necessary for the new solution. Very frequently he finds that the problem cannot be solved
inspite of days & weeks & turns away from it

Incubation – this stage is initiated when creative thinker turns away from problem. During
this stage ideas that were interfering with the solution of the problem begin to fade. The
unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking are also at work in this stage.

Insight (illumination) – here the creative thinker experieces sudden appearance of the
solution to his problem which is called insight

Verification – during this stage the insight is tested to see if it solves the problem. If not
satisfied he starts from the beginning of creative thinking process or else goes to next stage

Revision – during this stage any modifications needed are made. A acreative thinker never
considers his solution as perfect or final. It is open for modification or revision at any time
FREE THINKING

In free thinking, thought processes are allowed much freedom of action. There are no
restrictions in terms of time, space or desire. Examples of free thinking are imagination,
daydreaming & dreaming.

Imagination – it is a mental activity in which we make use of images & go beyond them.
When we are imagining an object or situation, we don’t have any sense perception of that
object or situation. We only have mental image of that or situation & create something of our
own.

Day dreaming - In day dreamers, impossible things becomes possible, for example our
wishes which cannot be fulfilled in real life. It provides opportunity to experience pleasure &
escape from reality which we may not be able to cope with the actual problems

Dreaming – dreams are mental activities of lighter sleep which is not subject to personal &
envt control. In some of our dreams we solve problems, & some dreams may be the simple
reminiscences or reproduction of what happened during that day

LEVELS OF THINKING (Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy)

There are six levels of thinking / learning within cognitive hierarchy of behaviours;

Level1: Knowledge

Level 2: Comprehension

Level 3: Application

Level 4: Analysis

Level 5: Synthesis

Level 6: Evaluation

Knowledge: It involves recall of facts, principles & terms in the forms in which they are learned. Key
words: who, what, when, omit, where, which, choose, find, how, define, label, show, spell, list, match,
name, relate, tell, recall, select. Eg; when did ---------------------happen? Which one --------------? It
represents the lowest form of understanding. The student knows what is being communicated without
relating it to other material or seeing it in its fullest meaning.

Comprehension: It demonstrates understanding of facts & ideas by organizing, comparing,

translating, interpreting, giving descriptions & stating main ideas. Key words: Compare, contrast,
demonstrate, interpret, explain, extend, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, rephrase, translate, summarize,
show, classify. Eg; What facts or ideas show-------------? Which is the best answer----------?

Application: It involves the use of abstractions in concrete situation such as nursing or other specific
situations. It is solving problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques & rules in a
different way. Key words: apply, build, choose, construct develop, interview, make use of, organize,
experiment with plan, select, solve, utilize, model, identify. Eg; what would result if--------------? Can
you make use of the facts to--------?

Analysis: It is examining & breaking information into parts by identifying motives or causes; making
inferences & finding evidence to support generalization. Key words: Analyze, categorize, compare,
contrast, discover, dissect, divide, examine, inspect, simplify, survey, take part in, test for, distinguish,
list, distinction, theme, relationships, function, motive, inferences, assumption, conclusion. Eg; what
are key parts or features of---------? What motive is there------? What evidence can you find--------?

Synthesis: It is compiling information together in a different way by combining element in a new

pattern or proposing alternative solution. Key words: build, choose, combine, compile, compose,
construct, create, design, develop, estimate, formulate, imagine, invent, makeup, originate, plan,
predict, propose, solve solution etc. Eg; Can you propose an alternative-----------? Can you formulate
a theory for--------? What facts can you compile--------?

Evaluation: It is presenting & defending opinion by making judgment about information, validity of
ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria. Key words: award, choose, conclude, criticize,
decide, defend, determine, evaluate, judge, justify, measure, compare, mark, rate, recommend,
prioritize, prove, disprove etc. Eg; What is your opinion of-------? Would it be better if---------? How
would you rate the----------?