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The integumentary system has multiple roles in homeostasis. All body systems work in an interconnected
manner to maintain the internal conditions essential to the function of the body. The skin has an important
job of protecting the body and acts as the body¶s first line of defense against infection, temperature
change, and other challenges to homeostasis. Functions include:

à Protect the body¶s internal living tissues and organs

à Protect against invasion by infectious organisms
à Protect the body from dehydration
à Protect the body against abrupt changes in temperature, maintain homeostasis
à Help excrete waste materials through perspiration
à Act as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold (see Somatosensory system)
à Protect the body against sunburns
à Generate vitamin D through exposure to ultraviolet light
à Store water, fat, glucose, and vitamin D
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This most extensive organ system has the skin and accessory structures, including hair, nails, glands
(sweat and sebaceous), and specialized nerve receptors for stimuli (changes in internal or external
environment) such as touch, cold, heat, pain, and pressure. Its functions include protection of internal
structures, prevention of entry of disease-causing microorganisms, temperature regulation, excretion
through perspiration, pigmentary protection against ultraviolet sunrays, and production of vitamin D. The
body stores about half its fat in the underlying hypodermis.c

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The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a surface area of 18 square feet. Its two main layers are
the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer). The epidermis has several strata (layers) that contain
four cell types. Keratinocytes produce keratin, a protein that gives skin its strength and flexibility and
waterproofs the skin surface. Melanocytes produce melanin, the dark pigment that gives skin its color.
Merkel's cells are probably involved with touch reception. Langerhans' cells help the immune system by
processing antigens (foreign bodies).c

The deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, is a single layer of cells resting on a basement
membrane (layer between the dermis and epidermis). The stratum basale cells divide continuously. As
new cells form, older ones are pushed toward the skin surface.c

The epidermis does not have a direct blood supply; all nutrients that feed these cells come from the
dermis. Only the deepest cells of the stratum basale receive nourishment. The cells that are pushed away
from this layer die. When the cells reach the skin surface, they are sloughed off in a process called
desquamation.c

The next layer, the stratum spinosum, consists of spiny prickle cells that interlock to support the skin. The
stratum granulosum, the thin middle layer, initiates keratinization (production of keratin). This process
starts the death of epithelial cells (the cell type that makes up skin).c

During desquamation, keratinocytes are pushed toward the surface. These cells begin to produce the
keratin that eventually will dominate their contents. When these cells reach the epidermis outer layer, they
are little more than keratin-filled sacs. Millions of these dead cells are worn off daily, creating a new
epidermis every 35 to 45 days.c

The stratum lucidum protects against sun ultraviolet-ray damage. This thick layer appears only in
frequently used areas such as palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Thick skin epidermis has all five
strata. Thin skin covers thinner epidermal areas such as eyelids. Thin skin has three or four of the five
strata; it never has stratum lucidum.c

The stratum corneum, the fifth, outermost layer is thick with rows of dead cells. These cells contain soft
keratin, which keeps the skin elastic and protects underlying cells from drying out.c

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