SETS AND RELATION

I. Sets and Basic Notation

Definition: A set is a well-defined collection of objects. The objects are called the elements/members of the set. If
an element x belongs to set A, we write x ε A. If x does not belong to A, we write x ε A.

Remarks: Sets are usually denoted by capital letters, A, B, X, Y …. Elements in sets will usually be represented by
lower case letters, a,b, x,y …

 A set is a collection where elements is the same in the set of two or more person; otherwise it is a group or
collection
Example: Collection of names of students in BSA 1-3 (Collection)
Collection of names of students in BSA 1-3, 2nd Sem, AY 2019-2020 (Sets)

II. Special Kinds of Sets

1. Natural Numbers /Counting Numbers () -  = { 1,2,3,4 … }
2. Integers/ Signed Numbers ( Z ) - Z = {… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …}
3. Rational Numbers (Q) - fraction and some of the decimals - Q = { x| x = m/n, where m and n are integers and n is
not equal to 0}
a. Terminating. A decimal number that has digits that end (0.25)
b. Non Terminating . A decimal number that continues endlessly, with no group of digits repeating endlessly
(they can go forever)
c. Repeating. A decimal representation of a number whose digits are periodic (repeating its values at regular
intervals) and the infinitely repeated portion is not zero. (1/3 = 0.3333 …)
d. Non-Repeating, Non Terminating. A decimal number that continues endlessly, with no group of digits
repeating endlessly. This type cannot be repeated as fractions, and as a result are irrational numbers (Pi)
4. Irrational Numbers (Qc or Q’) - numbers that cannot be expressed as fraction (Pi, √2, √3)
5. Real Numbers ( R ) - R = Q U Q’
6. Complex Numbers (C ) - C= {a + bί | a, b ε R and ί2 = -1}

III. Methods for Describing a Sets

1. Roster/Tabulation Method. It indicates the set by listing the elements and enclosing them in braces
Example: Let A consist of all even numbers from 2-10, then we write A= {2,4,6,8,10}
2. Rule Method/Set Builder Notation. It indicates the set by enclosing in braces a descriptive phrase and agreeing
that those objects, and only those, which have the descriptive property are elements of the set.
Example: Let A consist of all even numbers from 2-10, then we write A= {x|x is even and 2 ≤ x ≥ 10}
*between - inclusive of the limit; in between - exclusive

IV. Equal Set.

Definition. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have precisely the same element. In this case we write A= B,
otherwise we write A ≠ B {} - ORDER NOT DEFINED;() - POSITION MATTERS
 Precisely the same elements; same element and same number of element
1. A= {1,2,3} , B= {3,2,1} ,C={1,1,2,2,3,3}; three sets are equal unless there is a distinction between the element (1a and 1b)
2. D = {x|x is a distinct letter in the word “follow”} D= E, E ≠ F. D ≠ F
E = {x|x is a distinct letter in the word “flow”}
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 F = {x|x is a distinct letter in the word “wolfs”}
V. One to One Correspondence. A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and B if it is possible to
associate the elements of A with the elements of B in such a way that each element of each set is associated with
exactly one element of the other.
Definition. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their
elements.

Example: A = {1,2,3} B = {a,b,c}

1→a They have the same number of elements, there is a
2→b one-to-one correspondence.
 A is equivalent to B
3→c
AB
Statements:
1. If the two sets are equal, then the two sets are equivalent - True
2. If the two sets are equivalent, then the sets are equal - False

VI. Subsets and Power sets

A. Definition. A set which contains no elements is, called empty set or a null set. The empty set is denoted by {}
or Ø

Example: (Empty Set)

1. A = {x|x > 4 but x<2}
2. B = {x|x is the name of a person such that his/her height is greater than 200 ft.}

B. Definition. The set A is said to be a subset of the set B if every element of A is an element of B. More
specifically, A is a subset of B if x ε A implies x ε B. We denote this relationship by writing A  B.
Example:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} B = {2,4,6} C = {1,3,5} D = { 5,6,7,8}
Relationships:
-BA -DA -DC -A B
-C A -D B -C  B

Remarks:
1. If there is an element of A which is not in B, then we say that A is not a subset of B and we write A  B.
2. Every set is a subset of itself. (Reflexive Property of Inclusion)
3. Two sets - A and B - are equal if and only if A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A.
4. The null set or empty set is a subset of every set
5. If A  B and B  C, then A  C (Transitive Property of Inclusion)
6. The number of subsets of a given set is 2n when n is the number of elements of a set.

Example: Find all subsets of a given set.

1. A = {1,2,3} Subsets of A: { }, {1,2,3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}
2. B ={a,b,c,d} Subsets of B: { }, {a,b,c,d}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {a,d}, {b,c}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {a,b,c}, {a,b,d},
{b,c,d}, {a,c,d}
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 C. Definition: The set A is a proper subset of B if, first, A is a subset of B and secondly, if A is not equal to B. We
denote by writing A  B. (2n - 1 - number of proper subset of a given set; itself is not included}

Example: A = {1,2,3} Proper Subset of A: { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}

D. Definition: The set A is a superset of B if every element of B is an element of A, Specifically, A is a superset of B

if x ε B implies x ε A. We denote this relationship by writing A  B.

A = {1,2,3}
Superset of A
{1,2,3,4}, {1,2,3,4,5} …

E. Definition: The collection of all subsets of any set A is called the powerset of A and we denote this as 2A.
Example: A = {1,2,3} Powerset of A: 2A = { { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} }

VII. Cardinality of Set

Definition: A set is finite if it contains a specific number of elements. Specifically, a set is finite if in counting the
different elements the counting process can come to an end. If a set is not finite, we say it is infinite.

Example: hair in the table - finite ; hair in the head - infinite; boundaries are time and space

Definition: The cardinal number of a finite set is the unique counting number n such that the elements if A are in
one-to-one correspondence with the set {1,2,3 …} . We denote the cardinal number of A by the symbol n(A).
*If the set is infinite then the cardinality is infinite.
*Finite on Natural Number (aleph null ‫ﬡ‬0 / ‫ﬡ‬1)

VIII. Operations on Sets

Definition: In any application of the theory of sets, all the sets under investigation will likely be a subset of a bigger
set called universal set. We denote this by Ա or U
A.
Definition: If A is a subset if an universal set Ա, then the compliment of A is defined to be the set of all elements
in the universal set that is not in set A. We denote this by A’ or Ac

Example: U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,3,5,7,9} A’ = { 2,4,6,8,10}
B = {2,4,6,8,10} B’ = {1,3,5,7,9}
C = {1,2,3,7,9,10} C’ = {4,5,6,8}

Remarks:
1. (A’)’ = A 2. (Ø)’ = Ա 3. (Ա)’ = A U Ա = Ա

B. Definition: The union of two sets, A and B, denoted A U B is a set of all elements in set A or set B. AUB={x|x ε A
or x ε B}

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 Example: Ա = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,3,5,7,9} A U B= { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
B = {2,4,6,8,10} B U C= {1,2,3,4,5,7,9,10}
C = {1,2,3,7,9,10} A U Ա= Ա
Remarks:
1. A U A = A 5. A U Ø = A
2. A U B = B U A 6. A U A’ = Ա
3. A U B U C = (A U B) U C = A U (B U C) 7. A  (A U B) ; B  (A U B)
4. A U Ա = Ա

C. Definition: The intersection of two sets, A and B, denoted by A ꓵ B is a the set of all elements in A and in B.
A ꓵ B={x|x ε A and x ε B}
Example: Ա = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,3,5,7,9} A ꓵ B= { }
B = {2,4,6,8,10} A ꓵ C= {1,3,7,9}
C = {1,2,3,7,9,10} B ꓵ C = {2,10}
Remarks:
1. A ꓵ A = A 5. A ꓵ Ø = Ø
2. A ꓵ B = B ꓵ A 6. A ꓵ A’ = Ø
3. A ꓵ B ꓵ C = (A ꓵ B) ꓵ C = A ꓵ (B ꓵ C) 7. A ꓵ B  A ; A ꓵ B  B; A  A ꓵ B; B  A ꓵ B
4. A ꓵ Ա = A

D. Definition: Two sets A and be are said to be disjoint if their intersection is empty. A disjoint B if A ꓵ B = Ø
Examples: A disjoints A’ ; A disjoint Ø;

AUB ꓵ C
(AUB) ꓵ C ≠ AU(B ꓵ C )

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