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DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to those who stand up for the truth; the persecuted and prisoners
of conscience for always insisting on equal opportunity, fair play and justice,
irrespective of race, creed and gender.

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After reading History and Journalism at University of Lagos, Nigeria and Nigerian
Institute of Journalism, Mike Echi worked for years as independent producer and later
joined the all-time award winning Channels Television as reporter, producer and editor,
now teaches broadcast journalism in Nigeria‟s first private Broadcasting Institute.

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REPORTING FOR RADIO AND TELEVISION: A PRACTICAL GUIDE

PUBLISHERS

Eminem Communications Books and Journals

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Copyright © Mike Echi 2016
Conditions of sale
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise,
be lent, re-sold, hired out or circulated without the publisher‟s prior consent in any form
of binding or cover other than that which it is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

ISBN NO: 978-089-663-5

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Contents
Introduction: Reporting For Radio & Television- A Practical Guide
Chapter 1
Communication, Media Defined
History of Broadcast Media in Nigeria
Role of Electronic Media in Society
Role of the Reporter and other Broadcast Functionaries

Chapter 2
Challenges facing the Reporter, Editor
Broadcast Format: The Airwaves Content
Who is the News Editor in a News Room Setting?
Is the News Editor still the gate keeper in the News Room?

Chapter 3
News Evaluation & Budgeting
Headlines and Headline Writing: Definition of Headline
Functions, Kinds, Characteristics & Skills of the Headline Writer
Guidelines on Headline Writing
Interview Techniques
Chapter 4
Make Up/Screen Display of Graphics
Use of Chromakey, Deployment of New Edge Technology – TV

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Sound Effect/Mood – Radio

Chapter 5
Broadcast Ethics
Press Law
Scripting for Television & Radio
Writing Documentaries/Dramas for TV & Radio
Broadcast Equipment, Tools for Production
Online Media-Skills Required of the Reporter
Digital Broadcasting

Chapter 6
Understanding News And What Is News?
Characteristics of News
Guidelines on News Writing
Types of Lead

Chapter 7
Inverted Pyramid Style of Writing
News Gathering Techniques
Who Qualifies As A Journalist/Reporter
Approved Training Institutions
Mass Media Write Up
Editorial Writing

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Introduction
Reporting for Radio & Television-A Practical Guide as the title of the book suggests, is
meant to refresh the thought process and encourage media reporters and consumers to
appreciate the dynamic nature of the language of communication. Language is not
static; it keeps evolving according to space and time. As media practitioners we are
made to understand that nothing is cast in gold. Flexibility is the watch word as it
concerns reporting the media.
Currency in the choice and use of words, and even idiomatic expressions tells much
about the journalist. Did you know that expressions and idioms such as “rub minds”,
“make ends meet” , “blueprint”, “turn a blind eye”, “a bold from the blue” are now
tired words and lost their original impact because they have been overused ? Find out

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the current usage and avoid being trapped by stale and boring phrases in the book
Reporting for Radio & Television-A Practical Guide
Or look at the coinage “upliftment” meaning to raise, lift up has notoriously gained
currency, desperately invented by the local church pastor to emphasise God‟s
uncommon grace on the faithful, if not checked may sooner than later be counted
among the 10,000 commonly used words in the English lexicon. What should be the
correct usage? The answer is in Reporting for Radio and Television-A Practical Guide.
Again, the colloquialism “a lot of” or “lots of” has become one of the unfortunate
victims of overused words or phrases, waiting and begging for employment in every
day speech and in writing, weakening the power of the word concerned and can
therefore be regarded as misuses. Check out the correct and current usage in Reporting
for Radio and Television-A Practical Guide
Still on commonly misused phrases, “Knowing full well” and “knowing fully well”,
“rest assured” and “be rest assured”. Where do you draw the line? Be guided by
Reporting for Radio and Television-A Practical Guide.

In his book „Wordpower: A Test Yourself Guide‟, Neil Wenborn listed among others,
the tag in this day and age, the point is, I hate to mention it but…and to tell you the
truth, far be it from me to… as some of the many clichés and blind spots in the written
and spoken English you will find and more of the booby traps in the book one should
avoid.
Similarly, tautology, according to the author, is the practice of saying the same thing
once in different ways. For example, completely unique has no comparison. Something
that is unique is complete. Nothing can be „relatively unique‟ or „less unique‟. The same
applies to words such as fundamental, empty, supreme, simultaneous, ultimate, absolute
and perfect which are also often misused.
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Reporting for Radio & Television-A Practical Guide also gives a step-by-step approach
even for the layman who desires to follow the production process and what takes place
behind the camera in a Television station, broadcast functionaries and their tools.
The book also teaches you how to write and produce top flight documentary, News
reporting that would inform, educate, entertain and persuade, and above all, rouse
curiosity.
The style and approach used or adopted in this book is journalistic rather than scholarly.
It covers every aspect of the broadcast media up to giving details of Newsroom
production process in a typical Radio or Television station.
It is also designed to meet the needs of beginners, students preparing to acquire industry
experience. Practicing broadcast and print journalists, mass communication students,
teachers, and media researchers would also find the book useful.

2.5% of your investment on this book and indeed, other Eminem Communications titles
is donated to charity such as internally displaced persons around the world. Buy now
shelter the homeless and feed the hungry. Thank you.

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 CHAPTER
BROADCAST MEDIA
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Communication, Media Defined: As a matter of fact, according to the communication
expert, Padre Mike Umoh, you need media today to succeed in all spheres of life,
whether you engage in commerce, education, entertainment, politics, relationship,
organizations, and even religion; in everything.
Malcom X affirms that: “the media is the most powerful entity on earth. They have the
power to make the innocent guilty and to make the guilty innocent, and that‟s power
because they control the minds of the masses”.

Media and Communication are two words often used and misunderstood as meaning the
same thing. Communication generally refers to the effort by living beings to relate to
their environment.

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Human communication refers to human activity aimed towards sharing or conveying
meaning, relating to and with one another, sharing or exchanging of ideas.
Media refers to all the various means through which these human activities are
enhanced.

Media is the plural of medium. A medium is whatever we use when we want to

communicate indirectly with other people rather than in person or by face-to-face
contact. A medium is an instrument for mediating human interaction.

Basics of human communication: From the above, media can only be discussed and
understand within the context of human communication. Animals communicate but
they do not use the media because they do not invent means/tools to mediate their
communication process. Basically, we identify two major models of communication.
The Linear or Transportation Model and Convergent or Communion Model.

The Linear or Transportation Model: This is one way traffic or the sender receiver
model of communication. Here one person speaks while the others listen. It is the
conveying or transporting of information from one person (encoder) to the other person
or several persons (decoder).
The Communion Model: This is the interactive model. It gives room to all units
involved in the given community to share their views. It is dialogical because it is based
on respect for the dignity of the individual and his right to speak and be heard; the right
to self expression. It is interactive thereby making everyone in the community one and
at the same time listener and speaker.

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Elements of Authentic Communication:
Following from the communion model, we come to understand human communication
as a process of sharing ideas, information, and feelings between peoples. It is dynamic
and not static.
The basis of this sharing or exchange is in order to establish a common ground of
understanding.

Communication as understood here is an inter-conveyance, inter-transmission or inter-

exchange of meaning for messages between any individual and group of persons.
Communication, for it to be authentic, must give rooms for feedback thereby making all
units of the community both subjects and objects simultaneously. (Intersubjectivity
means an activity that is carried out between subjects as opposed to that between a
subject and an object or between objects). It is in this manner that communication
expresses and maintains social reality.

James Carey says that communication is a process through which a shared culture is
created, modified, and transformed. It is directed towards the construction and
maintenance of a meaningful and a cultural world.

Communication, Culture and Society: Relationship

No society (community) without communication, just as no communication without
society. Social order is based on communication, when communication is effective;
there is social harmony and growth. Therefore in a given community, media and culture
are interrelated.
Media and culture:
The means of communicating (media) in every age is the greatest singular factor which
determines the prevailing culture of the time. This is because, culture is dynamic, (i.e.
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product of interactions among the people of a community), and it is the dominant
culture that rules. This dominant culture is determined by these ideas that find easiest
access through the prevailing and most effective media at the time. E.g. today, video,
music, blackberry, social networks, satellite TV, GSM phone and all its possible
applications are mainly found here.
Padre Mike Umoh of the Catholic Archdiocese of Lagos and Director, Center for Media
Development in his submission noted that whoever is able to capture or control some of
these mediums, indirectly controls the culture of the age and time.

Conclusion: Media as a Currency

Today, Media is not just an agent for creating, transmitting and sustaining culture, it is
culture itself.

Since they are currencies, they are owned and controlled by whoever is ready to possess
it. That means that he who pays the piper dictates the tune. If you “acquire” the
“currency”, you determine its content and use. You are at liberty to determine the type
of meaning you use it to create and to share. The media, according to the
communication expert, are used to promote the ideology of its owner.

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BREADCAST MEDIA IN NIGERIA-EVOLUTION
History of Radio in Nigeria: Radio broadcasting began in Nigeria with the Nigerian
Broadcasting Service which terminated in 1957 when its successor, the Nigerian
Broadcasting Corporation was established.

Indeed, the war period caught Britain, Nigeria colonial masters in a state of
unpreparedness, for oversea broadcasting to her colonies including Nigeria. Meanwhile,
Germany, the Great War power was dishing out effective propaganda to overseas
countries preparing to launch itself into the war.
Before now, the British has just what can be
regarded as “overseas service of the BBC”.

Modern broadcasting was introduced to Nigeria in

1932 by the British colonial, administration.
However, modern broadcasting in Nigeria began in 1958 through an Ordinance. A
committee known as the Plymouth Committee was set up by the colonial masters to
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consider and recommend what step could be taken to accelerate the provision of
broadcasting service in the colonial empire, co-ordinate such services working in
tandem with the BBC- British Broadcasting Corporation (Service) to make them more
effective instrument for promoting local and imperial interest. One of the outstanding
recommendations was to set up a wireless broadcasting. This was however, perfected
by the Tumer-Byron Report of 1949 which saw the urgent need for the setting up of a
well organized radio broadcasting for the British Colonies.

They recommended that studio centers should be established in Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna,
Enugu, and Kano using the major Nigerian languages such as Hausa, Fulani, Igbo,
Yoruba, Edo, Ibibio and Efik to inform and sensitize people of the different ethnic
groups in Nigeria.

In Nigeria, radio broadcasting business began as part of the Department of Post and
Telegraphs, under government control. The Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation
(Service) NBS was establish in 1954, divided into three regions, Western, Eastern and
Northern regions, from then metamorphosed to Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation in
1958 and now the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN), Voice of Nigeria
(VON), became an arm of its External Service.

History of Television in Nigeria: Television

broadcasting unlike radio broadcasting was
introduced in Nigeria through efforts of Nigerians
themselves. This took place 27 years after radio
had arrived and made impact on mass
communication.

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The story of the Western Nigeria Television, first in Africa we are familiar with. Chief
Obafemi Awolowo‟s vision brought about WNTV in 1958.

This step taken by the Western Government led by the Action Group however
influenced the Federal Government few years after to establish its own Nigerian
Television Service (NTS) in February 28, 1963 and later the Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA). Colour television broadcast debuted in Nigeria in 1976.

Today Nigeria relies heavily on Eutelsat in Europe and other foreign based satellite
stations to relay its signals to homes, efforts by the Nigerian government to build its
own satellite has so far failed but then efforts are still on the drawing board to float a
truly home satellite.

THE ROLE OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA IN SOCIETY

Every Broadcast media, just as print media is a medium for transmitting some kind of
message. This message may be news; it may be ideas, entertainment, education,
information or propaganda. To transmit any or all the massages effectively, the design
or mode of presentation, is essentiality part of the process.

However, the mode or presentation of a given broadcast station must be determined by

its message or philosophy and that design make up the “personality” of each broadcast
outfit-be it Radio or Television. Basically, broadcast journalism can be classified into
three broad groups, the News station, Entertainment and Sports, Documentary channels.

The News channels, though it appeals to the high class and the educated elite,
essentially the business class, top civil servant or university teacher, it targets also the
man in the street, that is persons of average education who standard of living is seen as
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modest, or even humble. Channels television, TV Continental, Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA), African Independent Television (AIT), BBC, CNN, Aljazeera, CCTV
are some of the serious and popular News stations that most Nigerians watch to get the
latest news and events around the world.

The Entertainment channels thrive mainly on music, football/sports, dramas and soaps
etc. and targets the youths and adults alike. Here we can talk of broadcast stations such
as Brilla Sports devoted to reporting sport stories, live relay of matches both local and
international sporting events. SuperSports on DSTV, MTV Base music, Hip-Hop music
etc. are some of the popular entertainment channels on the DSTV bouquet.

Documentary channels such as History channel, Nat. Geo Wild and others chum out
historical artifacts, wild life to entertain and educate the viewer on the rare but very
important aspect of human life and the environment.

In developing countries such as Nigeria, where the elite groups are too few to support a
truly serious broadcast station, heavily dependent on dishing out just news on the hour,
the tendency has been for the so called popular stations to try to cater for the two main
social groups by means of combining the three News, Entertainment and Documentary.
This is why, a times, is difficult to say categorically whether stations such as TVC, NTA,
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STV, MITV, AIT and many others are not a combination of all the three to remain
relevant in the broadcast sub-sector.
In Europe where there is clearly discernible distinction between the serious press and
the popular press in the broadcast industry, among the main characteristic of the latter
are:
1. The generous use of music, drama and soap opera.
2. News items are scantily displayed in text and bulletin.
3. High premium on entertainment TV, Radio programmes and movies.
4. A deliberate bias for stories/dramas with mass appeal.
5. A contemptuous disregard for or underplaying of serious feature
documentaries/stories.
BROADCAST FORMAT: THE AIRWAVES
CONTENT OF BROADCAST MEDIA
Without doubt, and quoting Adidi Uyo of the Department
of Mass Communication Department of the University of
Lagos, „programming is central function of broadcasting
organizations. Programmes are the instrumentality by which the communication
functions of information, education, entertainment, and persuasion are enacted.
Programmes constitute the link between broadcasting outfits and the public‟.
In communication theory, message itself an element of communication is said to have
three elements-code, content and treatment as propounded by Berlo (1960:57-59).

Examples of message contents include assertions (facts or information), inferences and

judgments (opinions or comments). Shoremaker and Reese (1996:229) insist, there are
countless ways in which we could attempt to categorize media content. Besides
materials, they identify some as audience appeal (highbrow/lowbrow), particular effects

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(pro-social / anti social), sexual substance (pornographic/non pornographic). One
common approach is based on the use, or function that content is designed to serve.

The essential elements are surveillance, correlation, cultural transmission and

entertainment. Surveillance implies news content; correlation implies interpretation,
analyses as well as comments, view point; or opinion; cultural transmission implies
education and values, and entertainment implies amusements, relaxation, or recreation.

Accordingly, the essential content of media messages, whether print or electronic media
boils down to news, interpretation, opinion, education and entertainment.
Content is the core factor in broadcast programming. How much time the stations
and/networks devote to news programmes, interpretative programmes, educational and
entertainment programme depends largely on how the country broadcast system is
fashioned and influenced by ownership/public/ opinion.

Content Symmetry and the Big Challenge:

The question is, over the years, what has been the proportion of these content categories
in Nigerian Broadcasting? What challenges do broadcast programmer in Nigeria faces
in view of what is in the best interest of the country? Quality comes into play here.
What is the quality of broadcast programmes in Nigeria today, how does it compare
with what existed in the past?
Erudite media scholar, Adidi Uyo give some examples of quality programmes in the
days of redifussion in the
early 60s and early 70s
and 80s characterized by
live broadcasts of

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English and literature lessons via redifussion to highlife music featuring the like of
Victor Olaiya, Roy Chicago and Rex Lawson on the NBC, the Big Beat, starring
Benson Idonije, Ben Jay, and that one could also listen to programmes such as Around
Nigeria by Rex Lawson.

There was also the Bar beach Show, featuring Art Alade, The Village Headmaster,
featuring Jab Adu on the Nigerian Television Authority, NTA.
Later on, in the early 80s we relished watching programmes such as “mirror in the sun”,
“cockcrow at down, checkmate”. Then came Frank Olizes must watch News Line on
NTA.

Quoting Adidi Uyo, “whereas prices of goods go up and up in Nigeria, the qualities of
programmes go down and down.” Right or wrong the need to shore up or raise the bar
in programming has become imperative.

The Nigerian dilemma: To crown it all, Adidi Uyo compares the down down trend of
programming in Nigeria as lover of pun would humourously put it “seemingly, the
content of Nigerian broadcasting does not leave many people content”. Can we also say
proliferation of stations may have negatively impacted on content?

To some people, the biggest challenge of broadcast programming in Nigeria today is

how to formulate content that will not let Nigerian listeners or viewers become
foreigners in their country, because they are immersed in the content of foreign stations,
or in the foreign content of local stations.

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 CHAPTER 2

ROLE OF THE REPORTER, OTHER BROADCAST FUNCTIONRIES

Reporter/Correspondent- His or her assignments are in most cases outside the
broadcast stations. Call them foot soldiers or field men whose duty is to source for and
gather information from relevant sources. It could come as press invitation from the
government, the private and corporate bodies, institutions and other agencies.

Sometimes the reporter or correspondent is asked to do human angle or general interest

stories. Many stations devote sizeable airtime to report stories of human interest which
command greater listenership on Radio and viewership on the Television. Follow ups
often characterise human interest report; but how many broadcast stations have been

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able to sustain the tempo when it breaks, besides those generated by the reporter or the
station concerned here?

The reporter or correspondent, especially those planted in the states, regions and places,
away from their operational base are expected to mechanize their scripts if the report is
taken in the studio, more so far the Television reporter.
The reporter as a matter of fact, should know a bit of every human endeavour ranging
from the sciences to the arts; he should read wide.

Qualities of a Good Reporter:

a. Researches into the subject matter before writing.
b. Reads the works of famous and prolific writers.
c. Evolves a good writing style which is used to entertain, inform and to educate by
adding humour and use of appropriate words to captivate reader‟s interest.
d. Display of good command of English. He should also have adequate register on
the subject matter.
e. Currency in the use of words and spellings such as „allege‟ not „alledged‟ „a
wake‟ or „a Christian wake‟ or „a Christian wake keep‟ not „a Christian wake
keeping‟ „a ground breaking event‟ not „a foundation laying ceremony‟. „a fund
raising launch‟ not „a fund raising launching‟.
f. Illuminates his mind by reading all books under the sun so as to mirror and shape
society.
g. He should have adequate knowledge of support equipment like information
technology and cameras, still cameras and video cameras and tape recorders.
h. He should listen to news on television and radio and read newspapers to
influence his perception of event.
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 i. He should have passion for this profession.
j. He should be polite always and should not undermine the integrity of others.
k. He should write within the limit of the law and ethics of the profession.
l. Getting the right logistic ready for the assignment.
m. Should be neatly dressed for the event.
n. Early arrival to event venue.
o. Know whom you are writing for.

Editor:
The Editor gathers the materials both scripts and visuals (rushes) in the case of
Television, do the needful, to ensure accuracy, conformity to office or house style for
quality delivery of the news. The Radio Editor uses the same approach but without
visuals. He deploys music or sound effect to complete the process.
In some broadcast stations the news editor doubles as the production editor. The
production editor whose duty among others, is to organize the production desk along
with other production personnel and ensure that scripts and tapes are serially arranged
according to the line-up of broadcast materials.
In accomplishing his jobs, the production editor marks and distributes the scripts first to
the anchor person or presenter at least one hour ahead of the news – find out more at the
advances diploma class.
The Controller of News- he or she captains the production crew and ensure quality
delivery of the news. He along with the news editor, production editor plans the
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schedule of news items of the day with the approval of the co-ordinating chief executive
officer/editor- in -chief of the broadcast station.
The editorial, sometimes refer to as the front office accommodates the editorial staff of
the station. The back shop office has the production staffs who are mainly involved in
the technical aspects of production.
Other important broadcast functionaries are:
Finance and Administration: The Finance and Administration Department oils every
activity that goes on in the broadcast station. The purchase and maintenance of
equipment and recruitment, discipline and welfare of staff is crucial in the running of
any organization, so it applies to the broadcast stations worldwide. That explains why
some stations set up human resources department for the recruitment and regular
training and retraining of its personnel to expose them to the application of new
technology for better performance.
Advertising and marketing
The Advertising and Marketing Department as the name suggest take charge of all paid
advertisements, canvassing and maintaining clients for the station provide the materials,
schedule and duration, time of airing such item should be indicated in the copy. Copies
of Advert schedule should be conspicuously displayed on the production desk and the
transmission room, the MCR.
The interdependence of all the departments mentioned above cannot be over
emphasized. They have their roles to play and complement one another as an entity.

Who is the News Editor in the News Room?

Functions Defined: the News Editor is one among the editorial functionaries in a typical
newsroom. His duty is to edit script to fit into available space, correct grammatical
errors, ambiguity or legal or ethical issue, maintaining the house or office style of the
broadcast station.
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Copy editing, symbols, markings, news schedules, rewrites, follow ups, tracking
developing stories are all but some of the duties carried out by the Editor.
The News or Production Editor in certain quarters gathers the materials both scripts and
visuals in the case of Television and ensure or effect the following:

1. Ensures accuracy
2. Trims or strikes out unnecessary words
3. Protects and polishes the language.
4. Correct inconsistencies.
5. Makes the story conforms to style
6. Eliminates libelous statements
7. Eliminates passages in poor taste
8. Makes certain the News bulletin of the day is well delivered and completed.

After marking the copy, the Editor or Production Editor writes the headlines and the
aims will be to:
1. Attract viewers attention
2. Summarizes the news
3. Help the viewer follow the content of the News bulletin
4. Depict the mood of the report
Provide adequate graphical relief

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BROADCAST LANGUAGE
The Nigerian Broadcast language is the Standard English inherited from our colonial
master, Britain or the United Kingdom. To date it is assumed in many quarters that
English still remain the acceptable means of communicating ideas across the board.

 The key to writing News report is simplicity of language.

 There should be no grammatical error.
 The paragraphs should be clearly stated and logically following each other.
 There should be relaxed, friendly, inviting and contemporary acceptable.
 Avoid excessive use of words. Let synonyms and antonyms help you.
 You have the power to express that individuality by making your brand more
stylish.
 Write tightly to save space.

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 Example:
Ask for Question Basic for Elementary Buy for Purchase Each for Every End for
Conclusion Hurt for Injury Long for Lengthy Often for frequently on for upon
rebuke for reprimand send for transmit speech for address start for commence sure
for certain and so on.

Note on modern journalistic/ current usage of English as stated by the “Purist”.

English is dynamic; you just have to keep with the changing time.

Incorrect usage/cliché correct / current usage

this time around this time round.
10TH year anniversary 10th anniversary
contact the disease contract the disease
Join the bandwagon jump on the bandwagon
to rub minds to meet minds
blue print programme, scheme, agenda
electioneering campaign electioneering or campaign
flag bearer standard bearer
night vigil vigil
wake keeping wake keep
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literally, literarily figuratively
grounded to a halt ground to a halt
converge at Abuja Nigeria‟s capital converge on Abuja Nigeria‟s
capital
soothing balm balm
inputs input
evidences pieces of evidence or mass of
evidence
my grouse against him my grouse about him
a police informant a police informer
he is a dupe he is a duper
due to my ill-health owing to my ill health
infrastructures infrastructure (no plural)
of sort or of sorts of a sorts
the likes of the like of
presently at the present or currently
skeleton in his/her cupboard skeleton in the cupboard
paid through his//her nose paid through the nose
beehive of activities beehive of activity
media has media have
the police has the police have
hold the bull by the horn hold the bull by the horns
wears wear
letter headed paper letter head paper or letter heading
pay installmentally pay in installment

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Commonly misused phrases and constructions

People in the street means the masses is the correct usage.

People on the street on the other hand are those living off the goodwill of people,
beggars living on the street, the homeless.
Onset of the rain, disease etc. at the beginning of something is the correct term.
Outset of something, from the past, in the early stage or time when certain things occur
is the correct term.
Wrong (this will go a long way in addressing the problems the villagers are facing
daily in dealing with the outbreak of the cholera epidemic).
Right (this will go a long way towards addressing the problems the villages are facing
daily in dealing with the outbreak of the cholera epidemic).
Clichés to Avoid in Scripting
Take note that clichés are expressions that have lost their original impact because they
have been over used.

a bolt from the blues captain of industry

abreast of the times make ends meet
acid test blood is thicker than water
attached here to busy as a bee
add insult to injury by and large
as a matter of fact by leaps and bounds
avoid like a plague compared favorably
be that as it may conspicuous by his absence
born and bred contents carefully noted
by hook or crook co-operate together
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to cut a long story short each and every
far and wide enclosed herewith
needs no introduction taken into custody
powers that be thanking you in advance
in the neighborhood of we wish to state
in this day and age the weaker sex
it stands to reason the plot thickens .
make ends meet a storm in a teacup
kill two birds with one stone pure and simple
if the worst comes to the worst a sweeping statement
golden opportunity slowly but surely
first and foremost on the spur of the moment
up in arms go the whole hog
turn a blind eye every effort is being made to
with flying colors reading between the lines

Make conscious efforts to watch out for these words when making public speech.
Quasi (kweizai), sycophant (sikdfdnt), sycamore (sikdmd:(r)), grand prix/gra:pri
granite/graenit, hades/heidi:z, chaste/tseist, chastity/tfaetdti, gigantic/dzdigaentik,
Guinness/ginis, guiter/gita:(r), etc.

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THE CHALLENGES FACING THE REPORTER, EDITOR
The broadcast stations airtime often times is limited with so much material to cope with.
The challenge before the reporter and the editor is how to effectively utilize available
space to fit in tons and tons of materials at his or her disposal without compromising
quality and excellent delivery of the bulletin of the day.
One of the solutions is to prioritize the news, take those that are time bound and topical,
then consider others if time and space permit.
Another way of achieving this is to summarize the news. In short, Radio and Television
have no room for verbosity and long windy sentences, unlike the Newspaper that needs
to be filled with too much space to spare. The news items on radio and television are
summaries of the day‟s event; therefore, the radio and television reporter and editor
should write scantily and edit tightly to accommodate items lined up for the news. Often
times we hear such slogans as “we are running out of time” or “out time is up” to drive
home the point that time is of essence in the broadcast industry. In the extreme cases,
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programmes are yanked or taken off the air to the disappointment of the listener or
viewer. To make way for transition, a one hour or thirty minutes programmes is edited
to fifty five (55) minutes. Live programmes taken in the studio or via the outside
broadcast van (OB van) suffers the same fate.
As explained earlier, the broadcast media thrives on these four but essential letters-

KISS (Keep It Short and Simple).

Still on the production chain for Television and Radio, other Newsroom Broadcast
Functionaries: Broadcast functionaries have their roles clearly defined, as earlier stated
the Editor gathers the materials, does the needful as mentioned in our exercise to ensure
quality production of the news.

The Radio Editor uses the same approach but without the visuals, but deploys music
and sound effect to complete the process.
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The Production Editor whose duty among others, is to organize the production desk
with other production personnel ensure that scripts and tapes are serially arranged
according to the lineup handed to him or her by the Controller of News or in his place,
the News Editor.

In carrying out his job, the Production Editor marks the script to match reports and
other illustrations with text. The treated script is then handed to the anchor or presenter
to get familiar with the contents of the scripts often times one hour ahead of broadcast
time.

The tapes which have the edited visuals or films and the hard copies of the news
bulletin are sent to the master control room (MCR) for the director of the news and the
transmission staff to use in packaging of the news. Meanwhile, the presenter‟s scripts
are uploaded into the teleprompter in addition to the hard copy should the teleprompter
fail as sometimes is the case.

Here the person who directs the news or the director and the producer work hand in
hand to ensure tapes and matching scripts are harmonized for smooth production of the
news.

The Reporter or Correspondent: - His or her assignment is to hunt for the news or
source for news as may be directed by the News Editor or Controller.

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The reporter as a matter of fact, should know a bit of every human endeavour from the
sciences to the humanities.

The Presenter or Anchor Person:

the presenter or anchor personality
is generally seen as the face of the
station. Nothing is spared therefore,
to ensure that he or she delivers
his/her lines clearly with good
diction, fluency in the language and
flawless voice texture, mastery of
the idea or issue on focus. Comportment and self-confidence are some of the attributes a
good presenter or anchor person must possess.
The presenter should, when it becomes necessary, adlib- make a statement without
preparation away from a prepared text in the event of technical problem at the peak of
production. The presenter should be able to point out grammatical errors or wrong
choice of words and correct them.

Before now, the gate keeping role was the exclusive duty of the editor. Today, the
modern presenter plays the gate keeping role in virtually all the broadcast stations
around the world. By this the presenter is able to pick out grammatical errors, wrong
choice of words, ambiguous or clumsy sentences, cut them to size, mark words for
stresses; use the presenter symbols for smooth delivery of the news.

We now have sophisticated presenters with good education and command of the
language. He or she should possess a minimum of a B.A. in English or the arts and
sciences to be able to take on the role of the gate keeper in our newsroom.
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The Back shop or Production Personnel: Here we have the Cameraman, Studio
Engineer, ENG (Electronic News Gathering) Editors, and the Master Control Room
(MCR) where the mixing of audio visual takes place, Director of the news, Graphics
and other technical staff who maintain broadcast facilities on and off air.

The Cameraman: His tool is what sometimes we call the electronic news gathering
hardware –the camera. They come in
different sizes and dimension. They are the
simple and easy to use cameras such as
camcorders, mobile phones installed
camera and other miniature cameras to the
professional cameras that are handled by trained personnel. Television stations mainly
use professional and high definition cameras such as Sony HD, Max, and Panasonic etc.
for news gathering and to broadcast signals from the studio to television sets at home.

The Studio Engineer: The Studio Engineer is charged with the maintenance of
facilities in the studio, while the Premises Engineer overseas the entire facilities within
the zone ranging from the generator house and indoor equipment to ensure steady and
uninterrupted programming round the clock.

ENG Editor: As the name implies, the Electronic News Gathering Editor‟s
responsibility is to cut out or edit the visuals or what is technically known as rushes shot
or gathered by the cameraman to eliminate unwanted details and keep to the duration or
time to fit in the limited airtime made available for such item.

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The Graphics Man: The graphics personnel generate pictures, maps, captions,
illustrations as directed by the News Editor or Controller. They come in colours and
dimensions to depict the mood of the news and provide graphical relief to the viewer.
Sound/Vision Mixer: These are trained personnel who man and mix the sound or
visuals for effect. They ensure that
harmony exists in audio and vision
using a hardware, the mixer or mixing
machine during live broadcast of events
and programmes.

The Librarian: The library is another important organ in the production chain. The
librarian ensures that tapes, memory cards, and other hard and software that contains
rushes and edited visuals and scripts used before and after the news are carefully
marked and stored for future reference or retrieval when issues or situation arise.
It is imperative to keep in the morgue or can visuals and audio recordings of important
personalities /memorable events in case of emergency and for reference purpose.

The Producer: The producer generates or works on already existing idea, develops and
fine tunes it for broadcast. Be it news programme, or any other programme for that
matter, he or she shops for the talents and props, designs and produces it often with the
supervision or approval of the Executive Producer who provides the enabling
environment and logistics in a television, radio or movie setting.

The Director: He or she directs the news or live programmes from within and outside
the studio. He directs for good camera positioning and framing. It is the director‟s duty
to ensure that all items lined up for the day‟s broadcast, live programmes in most cases,
are taken at the right time and duration allotted, otherwise he could over run or under
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run. It is viewed as unprofessional to do either of them that explain why the television
director or radio producer is conscious about time. This is so to make out time for
smooth transition at least five minutes to take on the next programme. At this time the
station identity (id) or commercials and even music in the case of radio especially,
could be used to usher in a standby programme.

In almost every live production, the director and producer work hand in hand to avoid
mistakes of guest identity and other useful materials and insertions that go with the
programme.

CHAPTER 3
NEWS EVALUATION AND BUDGETING
A good Editor or Manager of News should be able to evaluate and budget the news
from the following angle: Currency, Proximity, Prominence, Oddity, Conflict,
Suspense, Emotion and Consequence.
In determining the above, Accuracy, Balance, Objectivity, Conciseness and Clarity are
core in reporting news.

Accuracy: Every statement in the news story, names, dates, age, every quotation, word
or expression must be precise and factual/presentation of verifiable fact.

Balance: A news story that is balanced has all sides to the story reported.

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Objectivity: News should be reported without personal bias or external influence that
would make it attain some colouration or tinted.

Conciseness and Clarity: A news story must be simple, concise and clear, direct and
logically coherent.

Currency: The element of time is a very important determinant of news.

Proximity: What is news to some is not necessarily news to others. What happens close
to you or nearby is news

Prominence: The degree of importance of an event to the people makes it newsworthy.

Oddity: News is rendered newsworthy when it is odd. For instance “dog bites man” is
not news, but man bites dog is news.

Conflict: Wars, crisis situations such as Book Haram; scandals are newsworthy.

Suspense: Is another attribute of news selection. Would the children of a collapsed

building in a secondary school be rescued?

Emotion: Anything that speaks to people‟s experiences will help them connect to the
message.

Consequence: When the story affects someone else‟s life or organization that is news
to them, make your story impact on someone else.

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 HEADLINE AND HEADLINE WRITING

The headline is a device for describing briefly in readily legible type, the most salient
points of a story. Other functions of the headlines include:

1. To save the reader time in finding the meat or central idea of the story
2. To summarise the news
3. To convey relative significance of the news through type display
4. To convey relative importance of the news through headline size
5. To help sell the story to the listener or viewer.
6. Provide the ingredients of attractive display package essential to eye catching,
balanced and attractive slide or caption (TV).

Functions and Characteristics: The high point of lead and summary form of writing
facilitates reading/listening, raises and satisfies curiosity and keeps the audience waiting
to get details of the gist carried in the headline of the story. It must be colourful,
proportionally designed and bears the mood of the story.

Skills of the Headline writer and some guidelines on Headline writing

In writing headlines, the skill of the writer comes into play. Certain words are
understood and therefore omitted. These are the articles „a‟ and the verb „is‟ and „are‟.
Also „here‟ and „today‟ are assumed understood and consequently omitted except where
they reinforce the headline positively. Take for instance in writing the headline for the
end of the Nigerian civil war, it will not be adequate to write “Nigerian civil war ends”
rather it was written “the war has ended” or “the war is over”. Headlines are normally
written in the present tense, to give the illusion of currency, or in the future tense if
future is to be denoted.

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 SCRIPT WRITING
Why are you writing?
1. To inform straight forward report of an event as news or documentary
2. To explain reports, background and implication.
3. To analyze the facts, detail information, explanation and discussion of
implications.
4. To interpret explanation with deep insight and conclusions
5. To expose or draw attention to situations with intent to influence.
6. To convert facts or fancies well presenter

Writing for Television or Radio and indeed for Advertising or Public Relations, the
characteristics and ingredients mentioned earlier must apply.

Your script must have an introduction (INTRO) or lead and the body. The INTRO is to
prepare your mind for the major gist of the story or event as read by the presenter and
then the narration-body by the reporter or voiced in the studio that would follow.

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 INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES
What is Interview?
Interview is an official face to face meeting of important figure. It is the questioning of
a person or a conversation in which information is elicited. It is also a formal discussion
with somebody for the purpose of an evaluation
(promotion) or job candidates.
However, the kind of interview that perhaps needs
special technique is the one conducted by journalists.
Sometimes it is an unscripted, unrehearsed conversation
in which one person answer the question put by another
person and the third person (listener) listens.

Types of Interviews

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There are different types of Interviews: News Interview, on the Spot Interview,
Personality Interview, General Information Interview, Vox Pop (vox populi or voice of
the people), and Tele Conference Interview, One on One Interview.

News Interview: The News Interview is to get the background and additional
information of an event already covered for news.

Spot Interview: The spot interview is to get the assessment or the appraisal and the
reactions of an official who had just inspected a government project or an eye witness to
shed more light on an unexpected occurrence e.g. accident, disaster, crashes.

Personality Interview: The personality interview is for the purpose of knowing the
public figure the more; he/she may be an explorer, writer, an astronaut, or someone who
has suddenly become newsworthy. The question may be scripted and rehearsed.
Information Interview: The general information interview is for the purpose of
knowing what‟s going on maybe in the government circle, the public etc.

Vox pop: Vox pop is an interview conducted for a sizeable number of people for the
purpose of knowing their viewers, reactions and comments on certain public discourse
or government policy on an issue, e.g. the fuel scarcity, security challenges, national
conference etc.

Tele-conference Interview: It‟s an interview with a personality or a Television

Correspondent who is far away to the Interviewer.
One on One Interview: One on One Interview is usually a face to face interviewee to
get the fact or the truth of the subject matter.

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Interview Techniques: For a journalist, the main purpose of conducting an interview is
to get a news story for his/her organization, to seek additional information to his/her
story or to get a fresh background to the news report he/she already had. Reporters get
their exclusive stories from interviews.

News worthiness, general notification where the reporter makes a list of questions, a
good location before the interview should be considered.
The reporter should also think of questions to ask and if possible send the questions to
the interviewee. Follow up questions are expected during the interview and should be
well handled. Don‟t load your questions and let it be direct, short and concise. Don‟t
beat about the bush. Think about the medium. If you are interviewing for audio or
video, you want to ask a two part question, which encourages the interviewees to talk
for longer blocks of time. Avoid obsessing- don‟t be occupied with single topic or
emotion. Sometimes be provocative: Don‟t be afraid to relentlessly revisit a question or
topic that you feel hasn‟t been properly addressed by the interviewee. Be a little sneaky:
continue taking notes even after the interview is officially over. You may get a scoop.
Empower your subject, work them up e.g. ask “what is your ideal solution/resolution?”
or “what would like to be remembered for?” and “why do you care about this issue?”
Avoid interrupting the interviewee except when he or she goes off the mark or issue in
focus- derailing.
General Guide: As a reporter, before going out to conduct an interview you must be
well dressed, take along your pen, your reporter‟s notebook and your audio tape
recorder. It is only the television reporter that need in addition, to go along with his or
her camera. Checks must be carried out on the camera before the assignment.
Comportment: Get a brief bio-data of the interviewee (though this is optional). The
reporter must sound conversational. Let your question be direct, brief and clear.

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For the news interview and on the spot interview in which the question is unscripted,
the reporter must be well knowledgeable, articulate and be well versed in all
professional callings.

CHAPTER 4
WRITING DOCUMENTARIES
Writing Documentaries for Television and Radio: Documentaries are generally an
expanded form of the news but deals with specific topics in details. It could be to sell an
idea, product or service, educational or entertainment or just propaganda to draw
attention or sympathy, and win over the viewer or listener to act. It comes in 10, 30 or
60 minute‟s duration.

Documentaries like the news are tightly written and straight to the point. The
respondents are usually experts and sometimes ordinary citizens in the street depending
on the issue in focus.
Propaganda documentaries are mainly political in nature. The government for example
uses documentaries as a tool for social mobilization. (See the author‟s documentary
script on political mobilization entitled Uche Ngaji The Change We Need on page 62)
as a case study produced for television.

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We also have product or commercial documentaries to create awareness and for the
consumer to act. It could come in the form of infomercial. (See the author‟s 10 minutes
documentary script on GkK entitled Nigeria: A Land of Challenges And Opportunities
on page 58) produced for television as another case study.

WRITING RADIO DRAMA, SITUATION COMEDY AND SOAP OPERAS

Techniques: Radio drama/situation comedy (sitcom) story which emphasizes action,
drama or excitement will have short sentences, perhaps, some of only one or two words.
If a more leisurely pace is desired then sentences should be longer and written with
greater flow.

Like the Radio, Television drama, situation comedy and soap opera etc. embodies the
same characteristics in writing style, but pictures are matched with sound, and so, we
see body movement or sign with less talk.
Action they say speaks louder than word. Television drama script like the Radio is
short, crisp and tight. It is advisable to write in simple and plain language if you must
have the audience on your side.

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MAKE-UP/SCREEN DISPLAY OF GRAPHICS

Make-up/screen display of graphics, captions, and layout are aided with the deployment
of modern technology. The use of computers and other software to create and generate
images, slides and background or backdrops for Television station is now in vogue.
What is technically called chromakey that often comes in blue or any other colour
moving and dissolving at the same time has taken over a larger chunk of the job of the
set designer or set man of the early 80s and 90s whose tool was the wood and other
accessories to decorate and give our Television studio the aesthetic appearance we all
love to admire.

The moving blue, yellow or any other colour for that matter, backdrops that often adorn
our Television screen is all about visual communication that can be effectively and
efficiently employed to entertain and sway viewership in favour of the Television
screen. Watch the BBC, CNN, SuperSport, Channels Television and other stations that
generously deploy imaginative and breathtaking visual effect to excite and hold the
viewer interest during News hour and sporting events.

These images are created and generated by the graphics and animations experts using
laptop and desktop computers and other software. The graphics person also create
captions, still pictures, slides, maps, designs and illustrations to match a news item or
programme on display.

The duty Editor also plays a major role in the design and layout of the Bulletin. The
personnel or duty Editor corrects the copy-from language, to taste; from spelling errors
to errors of facts; from innuendoes to matters liable to give rise to litigation. He may re-
write, and extract fact, supply background information or expunge unnecessary details.

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He also marks the copy to indicate captions-chest and story captions based on the
materials made available to him. He cast the headlines.
Having done all the above stated on the manuscripts, he performs the same function on
or any appropriate illustration or graphics that may go with the matter. In other words,
he either drops or marks the illustration and also writes out the caption to the
illustration. The personnel or duty Editor lays out the page, in this case the production
sheet or line-up-a process by which he indicates the writer/reporter, date, duration and
source/place. Having carried out these duties, he sends the various element s to the
appropriate sections- the composer or teleprompter operator and graphics. These
sections will then carry out all instructions as indicated on the manuscripts, the
illustrations and line-up. First, the manuscripts go to the computer section where the
matters are set in type size, often in capital letters. Illustrations and graphics go to the
graphics person where they are all processed in appropriate colours and dimensions for
the bulletin.

Distribution of news, views, pictures, graphics and illustrations

News, views, pictures, graphics and illustrations (TV) are proportionally distributed to
achieve quality broadcasting. Every broadcast station in Nigeria try hard to balance
“materials” be it live or delay programme, to actualize the key communication functions
of information, education, entertainment and persuasion.

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SOUND EFFECT/MOOD TO DRAW ATTENTION- RADIO

Sound effect and actuality/mood are generously used by the Radio station to draw the
listener attention to it. The sound effect in motion pictures and radio create suspense or
tell the story better. For example, signature tune or what some people call station
identity indicates the personality of the station while motion picture relies on sound to
create mood.

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 CHAPTER 5
BROADCAST ETHICS
Like any other professional body, journalism practice has rules guiding it. In medicine
for example, there is what is called the Hippocratic oaths sworn to by medical doctors
not to compromise or act in any manner to endanger human life but to protect it. So also
the journalist is bound to observe certain regulations while going about his or her job.
The Nigerian Press Organization (NPO), Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ), and
Nigerian Guild of Editors (NGE) had drawn up a code of conduct based on popular
canons of journalism world-wide for the press in Nigeria to follow. It is a guideline to
the practice of journalism.

1. That the public is entitled to the truth and that only correct information can form
the basis for sound journalism and ensure the confidence of the people
2. The journalist or reporter must remain unbiased in reporting events. He has the
obligation to give to readers, without bias news of significance to be alive, as
fairly and complete as professional practice and judgment permit.
3. That it is the duty of the journalist to publish only facts; never to suppress such
facts as he knows to falsify either to suit his own purposes, or any other purpose.
4. That it is the duty of the journalist to refuse any reward for publishing or
suppressing news or comments, other than salary and allowances legitimately
earned in the discharge of his professional duties.
5. That the journalist shall employ all legitimate means in the collection of news
and he shall defend at all times the right of free access (as provided in the newly
enacted Freedom of Information Act passed by the 7 th National Assembly and
assented to by former president of Nigeria, Dr. Goodluck Jonathan at the twilight

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 of his administration) and provided that due regard is paid to the privacy of
individuals.
6. The reporter must not disclose the source of information and must not expose the
identity of the individual, more so, if expressly demanded not to be named. They
deserve to be protected by all means against any embarrassment, exposure, and
threat to their lives and job security.
7. “It is the duty of the journalist to regard plagiarism as unethical”.
8. That it is the duty of every journalist to correct any published information found
to be incorrect.

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PRESS LAW/WATCH DOG ROLE OF THE NATIONAL BROADCASTING
COMMISSION (NBC)
The Nigerian press, Newspapers/Periodicals of the late 50s were highly critical of
colonial rule just as the agitation for self rule heightened, the British colonialist became
impatient, uncomfortable with the critical press therefore, something must be done to
cut down the power of the local press that has began to multiply in their numbers with
Nigerians as proprietors and editors.

The colonial governors then, starting from Freeman to Lord Frederick Lugard applied
the Sedition Offences Ordinance and the Newspaper Ordinance to deal with the press
decisively, and send some of them packing.

The various laws passed by the colonial masters to checkmate the activities of the
Nigerian press during the first thirty years after 1900 have today formed the basis of
Nigerian Press Law. These are laws which constitute legal requirements for publishing
Newspaper; there are laws of defamation and others like contempt of court, seditions
publication, obscene and indecent publications and law of copyright.

However, these laws have developed from the 1903, 1906, 1909, 1916 and 1917 laws
have been modernized by Nigerian legal luminaries and the Authorities.
For instance, there was also the controversial Newspapers Amendment Act of 1964 as
part of the development of the laws under which the Nigerian press operated. This act
was enacted during the civilian era of the late Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa
Balewa.

The Military that forcefully took over power since 1966 up to 1998 also came up with
decree number eleven of 1976, and decree number four of 1984 and later abrogated in
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1986 by General Ibrahim Babanginda regime in line with its principles of liberalism and
human rights policy.

For the broadcast media, the laws governing the press also affects its operations just as
the print media which fall under the Nigerian Press Organizations made up of Nigerian
Union of Journalist (NUJ), Newspapers Proprietors Association of Nigerian (NPAN)
and Nigerian Guild of Editors (NGE) often tagged the militant organization perceived
merely as pressure groups. The media is also regulated by the Nigerian Press Council.

In addition, the broadcast media also have to contend with its watchdog, the National
Broadcasting Commission (NBC) that regulate and keep tab on the operations of
broadcast stations. The NBC as a government agency under the Ministry of Information
issues licenses and can revoke such license or sanction erring stations found to have
violated the codes and regulations as laid down by the NBC to be observed by all
broadcast stations operating within the Nigerian space.

We have the Broadcasting Organization of Nigeria (BON), and Independent

Broadcasting Association of Nigeria (IBAN), the former comprising both the public and
privately owned broadcast stations while the latter represents the interest of media
entrepreneurs as pressure groups for the broadcast stations.

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 BROADCAST MEDIA EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
The Microphone, Audio and Visual Mixer: - The microphone is a device which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The audio cable relays the electrical
impulse to the audio mixer which converts the electrical energy to audible sound which
is heard on the public address system. Vision mixer is for images interchanging from
one shot to another.

Pick up pattern of microphone

1. Uni Directional: This microphone picks one directions. This is good for news
casting and running commentaries.
2. Bi Directional: This microphone picks on two directions. This is a good for
interviews.
3. Omni Directional: The pick-up pattern of this microphone is on all directions.
This is the ideal microphone for picking up sounds from the crowd. It is also used in
drama.

Still Camera: This is an apparatus for taking photograph. Basically, it is a simple box
with a piece of film in one end and a hole in the
other end which allows light to enter the box.
The light strikes the chemically sensitized
surface of the film and freezes the image. When
the film is developed and the image printed into
the paper, the picture is produced.

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Television or Video Camera: It is an equipment which converts optical images into
electrical energy which is processed and relayed by a special cable called video cable
which goes into a video monitor or TV set where the
pictures and images are seen. Since video and television
is all about sound and picture, an audio cable is looped
from the microphone into the camera. If the recording
uses more than one camera, it will require equipment
known as vision mixer to use the different shots by all the cameras.
A video cable capable of carrying audio and video signals will be relayed to the
recording machine that records it into video tape.

Camera shots
1. Close-Up: Concentrates on the face or a specific detail of an object with little
background. Passport photographs are close ups.
2. Extreme Close Up: Is an extreme version of the Close Up. Extreme Close Up of
the face would show only the mouth or eyes, with no background.
3. Medium Shot: Contains a figure from the knees/waist up and is normally used for
dialogue scene. This shot has to be a maximum of three people. When there are
more than three people, the shot becomes long shot. It has a background.
4. Long Shot: This is full shot of a human being from toes to the head. This shot has
a background.

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 5. Extreme Long Shot: This is very wide short of a scene. It could be landscape or
panorama. There will be little details in short. A good example is the
photographic shot of all participants in the seminar seated in the lecture
auditorium.

ONLINE BROADCAST
Online broadcast is steadily picking up almost every station now uses the
internet/online platform to reach a global audience at the click of the button. Unlike
terrestrial broadcasting (free to air) that is regulated by the government and limits the
stations to certain area of coverage, although some stations now resort to network and
cable news to send their signals to beat the restriction placed on them, online
broadcasting enable the stations to stream live all its programmes to different parts of
the world simultaneously. Many broadcast outfits are now exploiting the unregulated
medium not only to reach wider audiences but also to attract big advertisements from
the big companies and organizations with global appeal.

Skills Required of the Reporter and Editor

The skills required of the reporter and editor remain same as earlier stated, but there are
specialized skills the online reporter and editor should possess to successfully run
online broadcasting, from the use of hardware and software such as the computer and
other cutting edge devices; a reporter and editor should be able to apply them to achieve
tangible result.

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DIGITAL BROADCASTING
Now that the world is fast transiting from analogue to digital broadcasting, we are now
exposed to the application of new edge technology in the broadcasting sub-sector.
In Nigeria, the deadline set for the take off of digital broadcasting owing to the non
availability of „boxes‟ and other digital broadcast components is June 2017 by the
federal government for all broadcast stations to go digital. Government is
experimenting with digital broadcasting in Jos, the Plateau State capital. While some of
the private stations are set for digitalization provided the government plays its part, by
putting in place enabling environment for a smooth take off of digital broadcasting as it
is obtained in the first world, there are however, strong indications that the digitalization
of the Nigerian broadcast system would, in a matter of days become a reality.

ANNEXE
1. Script on Uche Ngaji Campaign Doc- Political
2. GKK 10minutes Doc Script- Commercial.
3. Editing Symbol.
4. Log Book: The log book keeper is like the auditor who ensures that all broadcast
materials that have been used are entered in the log book after transmission for
inspection or view by the monitoring agency the National Broadcasting
Commission, (NBC) or advertisers and persons with a stake in the broadcast
industry; on whether such a material was used at the right time and for the
purpose of accountability and transparency.

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SLUG: NIGERIA: A LAND OF CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
DURATION: 10 MINUTES DOCUMENTARY (MECHANIZED SCRIPT)
VOICE OVER: MALE
SOUND TRACK: JAZZ

AUDIO VISUALS
Like other emerging democracies elsewhere, Swearing in Ceremony,
Nigeria is not without her share of problems. The Bad roads
difficulties of doing business in Nigeria include
lack of infrastructural facilities, unstable policies
and low purchasing power.

Though Nigeria is blessed with a long stretch of Pix showing the FRCS boss
coastal water ways and rail systems, these have not talking about billions lost to
been developed and fully harnessed to ease the traffic jam. Pix of trailers at
transportation of goods from one point to another. Warf, Roads
(Up Sound)

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Again, epileptic power supply makes companies to Pix of generators,
rely extensively on generators thereby increasing Disco Installation
operational costs.

Lately, the activities of ritualists have attained Pix corpses and police at the
unprecedented proportion as in the Okija shrine shrine.
saga in Anaba State. This calls for caution in Shots of arrested
penetrating the hinterland. Also, the activities of counterfeiters DG NAC MAN
fakers and counterfeiters have over the years President.
affected genuine manufacturers. These add to the
cost of business through provision of anti-faking
devices apart from loss of sales.

Again, Government policy somersaults add to the Pix Petroleum and people
pains of doing business in Nigeria. For example, working on rigs, long queues
the deregulation of the Petroleum Industry has at filling stations.
resulted in incessant increase in pump price of Okan-Nla‟s Budget speech
petroleum products with its over bearing effects on Speech by Compto-Gen of
the cost of production. Custom on banned products.
Furthermore, products including GKK Senses are
banned without giving ample opportunities to
manufacturers to adjust as contained in the
following statements. (Up Sound).

59 | P a g e
Frequent labour strikes to agitate for better pay and Pix of Oshomo addressing
conditions of service have become the order of the Labour.
day in the country with the attendant effect of loss
of sales.

Frequent fire outbreaks in major markets where a Empty markets, streets,

lot of selling activities take place also constitute bornfires.
another major challenge.

Bad as the situation may seem, recent Government President BJ Justice Akan of
actions to stamp out corruption and restructure the CPCI talking about stamping
economy show that there is indeed, a silver lining out corruption. Shots of
in the horizon. (Up Sound) destruction and burning of
adulterated products.
The clearing up activities of the National Agency Shot of roads being
for Food and Control and Governments attempt to maintained by LATMA or
provide some basic infrastructure are pointers to FEM
efforts aimed at restoring good business
environment.

The success of Government in the measures taken Shots of sea of heads

so far hopefully will impact positively on the (Crusade) type, pix large
country‟s large population and improve its market.
purchasing power.

60 | P a g e
However, the Company still has to contend with
competition from low cost producers such as Pix products on display Coy
chichi, Fuman, Deeli and Six for Live. logo/ commercial.

Though the challenges are daunting, GKK

Consumer is determined to face them in the pursuit
of our set goals.

----------------------------------------END-------------------------------------------

Names and places in this documentary are the writer’s imagination

61 | P a g e
SLUG: UCHE NGAJI, THE CHANGE WE NEED
DURATION: 30 MINS (NON-MECHANISED SCRIPT)
DATE: 23-02-2010
VOICE: MALE 1
OPENING: CAMPAIGN JINGLE FACE OF NABA STATE
NATURAL SOUND
HER POPULARITY HAS SOARED HIGH SINCE SHE TOOK NABA POLITICS
BY STORM-KEEPING MANY GUESSING, WHO IS UCHE NGAJI!
TRACK UP
YET, SHE IS SET TO BREAK THAT JINX. HONOURABLE UCHE NGAJI
BELIEVES NOTHING SHOUL D STOP A WOMAN FROM AIMING AT THE
HIGHEST OFFICE IN THE LAND. IN HER WORDS “I SEE BEING A GOVERNOR
AS AN OPPORTUNITY TO DEFEND THAT WHICH IS FAIR AND JUST”
TRACK UP
HER ANTECEDENT AS A LAWMAKER SPEAKS VOLUME OF THE
LEADERSHIP QUALITIES IN HER. AT THE HEIGHT OF CRIMINAL
ACTIVITIES IN THE SOUTH REGION OF NIGERIA, PARTICULARLY HER
OWN STATE OF NABA MISUSES UCHE NGAJI SPONSORED A MOTION ON
THE FLOOR OF THE LOWER CHAMBER TO ADDRESS THE SITUATION.
ALSO, THE PROGRESSIVE PARTY ALLIANCE GOVERNORSHIP CANDIDATE
IN THE NABA POLL WENT OUT OF HER WAY TO MOVE THE MOTION ON
THE EROSION MENACE IN ANKA WHICH HAS RENDERED MANY PEOPLE
HOMELESS, ALL IN HER DESIRETO SEE TO THE PROGRESS AND UNITY OF
THE STATE.
TRACK UP

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A DISTINGUISHED BANKER WHO SERVED IN MANY CAPACITIES, UCHE
NGAJI ADMIRERS SEES HER AS A ROLE MODEL, THE VOICE OF THE
VOICELESS AND A PHILANTHROPIST.
SHE IS CREDITED TO HAVE ASSISTED OVER TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY
UNEMPLOYED YOUTHS GAIN EMPLOYMENT IN BOTH THE PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTORS. SEVERAL WOMEN AND YOUTH HAVE ALSO BEEN
GIVEN THE LIFELINE, THROUGH THE HONOURABLE UCHE NGAJI YOUTHS
AND WIDOWS SUPPORT CENTRE. ON RECORD, OVER FIFTY INDIGENT
STUDENTS FROM NABA STATE WERE AWARDED SCHOLARSHIPS TO
PURSUE THE CAREER OF THEIR DREAMS JUST TO MENTION BUT A FEW
OF HER WELFARE SCHEME.
TRACK UP
JUST AS SHE IS SEEN AS A GRASSROOTS PERSON, HER ENVIABLE TRACK
RECORD APPEARS TO WORK IN HER FAVOUR. FROM THE INAUGURATION
OF SEVERAL BODIES, SUCH AS NGAJI BABES TO FACILITATE HER
CAMPAIGN, TO THE ONE MILLION WOMEN RALLY FOR UCHE NGAJI, THE
PEOPLE ARE UNITED TO BRING ABOUT THE CHANGE THEY NEED.
TRACK UP
THE FACE OF NABA STATE TODAY IS NOT WHAT THE CITIZENS WOULD
WANT TO SEE, WHAT WITH BROKEN DOWN FACILITIES AND DECAYING
INFRASTRUCTURE, THAT LITERS THE LANDSCAPE. IN THESE HOSPITALS,
AND EVEN SCHOOLS OUTSIDE THE STATE CAPITAL, NO ONE APPEARS TO
BE IN CHARGE.
THESE ROTS ATTRACTED SOME COMMENTS FROM THE PPA TOUCH
BEARER, EVEN AS THE CITIZENS LAMENT THE DEPLORABLE STATE OF
THINGS IN NABA STATE.
TRACK UP
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HAVING TOURED THE THREE HUNDRED AND TWENTY NINE WARDS AND
SEVERAL COMMUNITIES IN THE STATE, MISSUS UCHE NGAJI SAYS SHE
KNOWS WHAT THE PEOPLE WANT, AND WOULD GIVE IT TO THEM.
TRACK UP
THE BOTTOM TO TOP APPROACH, ACCORDING TO THE PPA
GOVERNORSHIP CANDIDATE, WOULD CHANGE THE UGLY FACE OF
SETTLEMENTS SUCH AS OKPIKI IN OSHA AND NABA WEST.
TRACK UP
ORDINARILY, NABA STATE THAT PRIDE ITSELF AS THE SUN OF THE
NATION, ENDOWED WITH NATURAL RESOURCES, INTELLIGENT AND
HARD WORKING PEOPLE, WITH A THRIVING ECONOMY IN OSHA, AND
OTHER TOWNS HAS NO JUSTIFICATION ROMANCING WITH POVERTY.
THAT MISSUS UCHE NGAJI BELIEVES SHE WOULD CHANGE. SIMILARLY,
AGRICULTURE, TOURISM AND SPORTS WOULD ALSO RECEIVE
ADEQUATE ATTENTION.
TRACK UP
POWER GENERATION, HUMAN CAPITAL EVELOPMENT, WOMEN AND
YOUTH EMPOWERMENT ALSO TOPS HER AGENDA.
AS THE FEBRUARY NINE GOVERNORSHIP ELECTION BECKONS, THE
GENERAL CONSENSUS IN NABA STATE IS THAT NEC SHOULD CONDUCT A
FREE AND FAIR POLL, AND THAT HARD TIME AWAITS THOSE WHO
WOULD WANT TO RIG THE PROCESS.
TRACK UP
AND FOR THE PROGRESSIVE PARTY ALLIANCE GOVERNOR CANDIDATE,
MISSUS UCHE NGAJI, THE JOURNEY TO STARDOM DID NOT JUST START
TODAY. ARMED WITH A BACHELORS DEGREE IN ACCOUNTING AND
MASTERS IN BUSINESS AMINISTRATION, MISSUS UCHE NGAJI, HAS
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SEVERAL LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL AWARDS AND CHIETAINCY
TITLES IN HER KITTY, AMONG THEM IYA UGOWATA OF ABI.
THE LAWMAKER REPRESENTING ANA, NJIKA, OFA FEDERAL
CONSTITUENCY, REMAINS A STRONG CONTENDER FOR THE NUMBER
ONE CITIZEN OF THE STATE, EVEN AS HER NUMEROUS AMIRERS ACROSS
THE NATION AND INDEED NABA STATE WISH HER WELL AT THE POLL ON
FEBRUARY THE NINTH, TWO THOUSAND AND TEN.
NATURAL SOUND – FADE OUT
-----------------------------------------END--------------------------------------
Names and places in this documentary are the writer’s imagination

65 | P a g e
EDITING SYMBOLS COMMONLY USED IN THE NEWSROOM

paragraph

let it be or cancel

underscore or underline

u/l upper and lowercase

Cap set in Capital letters

paragraph on the borderline

close up gap in a sentence or word

separate closed words

ᴤ transpose letter or word in a sentence

# conclusion or the end of script

Close up broken words

66 | P a g e
 Chapter 6
Understanding News And What Is News?
To every mass communicator, whether as student, practicing journalist or reporter and
in indeed, in whatever discipline in mass communication one chooses to specialize, the
knowledge of news reporting and writing cannot be overstated.
It is important to note that there can be no effectiveness in message dissemination
without a thorough knowledge of news reporting tools and what it takes to get the
message to the media consumer; in Public Relations, Advertising, Broadcasting and
Journalism-the four major areas or disciplines in mass communication, the practitioner
needs to be equipped with the right tools.
The writer‟s concern here and emphasis in on broadcast journalism and journalism as in
radio and television and the print media.
Broadcast journalism here refers to a situation where news item of information are
gathered, packaged and distributed or aired through the airwaves by the various
electronic media such as radio, television and the online media.
Journalism is basically, about the business of writing and editing news for
dissemination through the mass media, with special emphasis on the print media.

What is News?
News has been given different meanings by various persons and authorities. Simply put,
the majority of authorities in the discipline define news as “An account of an event that
is current, timely and made available to the people or public about what is going on. It
also been defined as “The timely and accurate reporting of an issue or issues that has
the public interest and most often relevant to the public”

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Yet others define news as “An accurate, unbiased account of the significant facts or a
timely happening that is of interest to the readers of a newspaper, or to the listener to
radio or viewer of television that broadcast or report event”
In summary, a news definition reveals three major components-the event in which some
kind of action occurs. A report in which the action is described or recorded in a
comprehensive manner. An audience to whom the news or description is presented,
either in print format, on the air, on telecast; moving screen or by words on television or
online platform.

Let’s also consider types of news stories, in determining news.

There are basically, two types or format through which news story can be classified;
Hard news and Soft news
Hard news simply refers to the presentation of information to the audience in a straight
forward way. It can also be referred to as raw news. It often comes in the form of
normal news of the day and breaking news, all belong to the category of hard news.
The goal of hard news is to inform or pass the information to the audience without
adding or giving the media or reader‟s opinion to the news-opinionating.
Soft news, on the other hand is the opposite of hard news. It gives information that
could allow the audience relax and have a nice time. Also, it seeks not to over burden
the newspaper reader, radio listener or television viewer with hard news.
Most of the entertainment and educational function of the mass media fits in this kind of
news format. Soft news also help give the audience details about existing news-news
behind the news, presenting the issues in such a manner as to add flavour in your
participation as a viewer, listener or reader.
Furthermore, it provides details, in depth analysis and interpretation to issues than the
hard news would usually provide. Often, features stories fall within this kind of writing

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or presentation. Entertainment news, musical news, sports, religious news, etc. fall
within the category.

Characteristics of news.
News is all about facts, objectivity, truth, impartiality, simplicity.
Facts: We must, as responsible journalists and reporters base every news story on facts
and not „hear says‟ or imaginations. It must be verifiable. That is, the journalist or
reporter should not temper with the facts of the news for whatever reason, editorialize
or come with his/her personal view-opinionating.
Objectivity: Every journalist or reporter should avoid sentiment and operate beyond
religion, political bias, learning or philosophical convictions. The journalist is expected
to be fair, sincere and non-judgmental inhis/her reportage and news delivery. Present
stories only with the public interest at heart, and based on the theory of social
responsibility-in which all practitioners are called to uphold.
Truth: The journalist or reporter should base all his/her report or news judgments on
the truth. False reportage runs counter to the tenets of the journalism profession.
Unverifiable claims, rumour mongering is not an option to the journalist, at worse it
destroy or damage the reputation of the reporter or media organization he or she
represents, creating the atmosphere of doubt and suspicion.
Impartiality: Balance reportage is seen as the hallmark of journalism practice. The
reporter should as much as possible strike a balance between two issues that could tend
to bend his or her decision in favour of one party against the other, capable of creating
the impression of partiality or favouritism.
Simplicity: The popular axiom KISS-keep it short and simple, simply tells the reporter
what to do with every day news story. News is not meant for only the highly educated
or elite, but for the generality of the society who make up the media audience. Reporters
and journalists are expected to use simple and plain words, straight forward expressions
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and grammatical constructions instead of using high sounding and flowery phrases to
enhance effective communication. The journalist is not meant to impress but to express
the news story.

Guidelines on News Writing

For the news writer or reporter consider the two broad areas of news writing which
include the Lead story, and the body, and or conclusion because every write up would
normally has a beginning, more details known as the body and lastly the concluding
part of the story.
As a reporter or journalist, your introductory part of the story, referred to as the Lead,
should normally carry the important gist of the story of the day through the 5Ws and H,
the Who, Where, When, What, Why and How in the first two or three paragraphs, and
then allows other details to come later, the additional details, the body about the event
or incident as the conclusion. The already known fact or historical additional is referred
to as back grounding.
It is important to note that the news story is written not in the conventional writing style
of the normal essay writing, providing preliminary information as introduction and then
centralizing the entire gist of the story in the body is because the news is supposed to be
served hot to hold the audience as they are so many things to read and worry about,
particularly in this part of the world. Even in most civilized countries as research has
proved, people do not take to reading but prefer viewing.
The lead story must be short, detail, straight to the point, inviting and meaningful. The
lead sentence summarizes the major elements of a news event. Leads are usually the
exclusive of hard stories so as to forestall the temptation of the readers, listeners or
viewers having to guess or wait to find out what the story is all about.
For purposes of effective communication, the lead is not expected to be more than 35 –
50 words as this are the conventional style for writing news. This differs from one
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media house to the other in keeping with their preferred office or house style. They do
not necessarily conform to the conventional style of lead writing.
As explained earlier, every good lead must or seek to answer the 5Ws and H, Who,
When, Where, What, Why and How.
Who-the who answers the question of the person the story revolves around. Stories
quite often, revolves around prominent personalities. They command attention at the
mention of their names, whether in politics, entertainment, business, education, health,
judiciary, sports and the media.
When-this has to do with the date, time and occasion. Depending on the style of
writing, the when could form the major plank of a news story. Take for example; “The
Cross River State Governor, Professor Ben Ayadeon Tuesday performed the ground
breaking ceremony of the Calabar-Ikom superhighway to boost commerce in the area.”
Where-the where answers the question of place, location and venue. It seeks to answer
where an event, the incident took place or is ongoing.
What-this answers the question of what happened. In some cases, the what of a story
could form the basis and major elements in the news story. For example; “the recent
industrial action embarked on by University lecturers over unpaid salaries and
allowances is said to be responsible for students staying idle, while some of them take
to criminal activities such as drug peddling and gangsters”
Why-this attempt to explain the reason, motive and essence of an event or occurrence.
It also helps to provide more details or insight into the event or occasion.
How-the how tries to explain the process or methods of an occurrence. It gives details
of the procedure followed or the issues that culminated to arrive at a particular
incidence to make the news.
A short lead is preferable. As explained, it should be between 35 – 50 words. Must have
subject and predicate. It should be an independent sentence or clause.

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The most acceptable, in writing the lead story, is to present it in present tense and not
past tense. For example; “100 people die in plane crash”, “Hit and run driver in police
net”
All lead story should be written in the active voice style and not passive. Another area
of emphasis to the reporter or journalist should not forget is choice of focal point in
writing the lead. When covering an event the journalist is confronted with many focal
points. The news writer should as a matter of fact, select the most important and
impactful focal point, what I call the meat of the story. How would it affect the ordinary
person in the street?
The writer must attribute his/her story to a particular source. This may not be advisable
in the lead rather from the point of view of the eye witness and then attribute it in the
subsequent paragraph. Let the lead be alive and active rather than bury it. The most
important point in the story should be accorded priority at the beginning of the
paragraph. As a news writer, you dare not editorialize. Avoid it. The news reporter
should not opinionate. Don‟t let your personal view surface in the lead.
Remember to spell names and titles correctly. When writing a person‟s name, write in
full, first name, other names, and of course, the titles should be correct. The reporter
should politely ask the interviewee or subject to write down his/her name and titles on a
piece of paper to avoid making costly mistakes that could ridicule the reporter or the
medium.
We can identify and summarise the different types of lead as spelt out by some
authorities in the business of mass communication as Summary Lead, Narrative Lead,
Contrast Lead, Staccato Lead, Direct Address Lead, Question Lead, Quotation Lead,
Descriptive Lead, Epigram Lead, Delayed Lead, Effect Lead, and Cartridge Lead.

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Types of lead and their impact on the news story
Summary Lead: just as the name implies, this is the lead that summarises the story.
The gist of the story is in the first paragraph. The lead summary is usually ideal for hard
news. Why the summary lead, because most people have no time to read the entire news
from beginning to the end. People spend little time with the news, which demand the
most important point of the story at the beginning.
Narrative Lead: This type of lead is most popular in writing features stories, non-
breaking news. Such stories you find in magazines and newspapers. It takes the form of
storytelling news.
Contrast Lead: The contrast lead tries to compare or differentiate one person or thing
from the other with the motive of laying emphasis. The contrast lead talks about the old
and new, past and present, cold and hot, the hero and villain, the proud and humble, day
and night, good and bad, etc.
Contrast lead can be used on any kind of story. A typical example is “Sergeant
OkoroLaibe would once more walk the streets of Enugu as a free man after three years
in jail undergoing trial but haven been acquitted by Justice Ini-ObongAwara of the
charges of murder level against him by his flat mate, Mr. OgbonnaAkiba.”
Staccato Lead: This type of lead is most common in the broadcast media, more so, for
the television. The phrase is short but impactful. It calls the reader, listener or viewer
into the story by dishing out some of the key elements of the news story. It is meant to
tease the audience and set the right mood for the reaction that would follow. For
instance, “Ken SaroWiwa 1941-1995, Tuesday, the day the sun set for the playwrights,
environmental rights activist and true federalism advocate, the day of his departure to
the great beyond masterminded by a dictatorial government of the military era”
Direct Address Lead: This type of lead tries to bring the audience into the story by
personalizing the lead using words such as „you‟. This is ideal for posters or handbills
or newspapers. But the reporter can also employ it to invite the reader and help sustain
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attention. It involves the reader or listener in the story and gets him or her emotionally
connected and captures the curiosity of the reader or listener and sustains it.
Question Lead: This type of lead can be used effectively to begin a news story,
features stories and articles. It must be appropriately applied when it is used. It is
adopted for stories likely to generate or provoke debate amongst readers or listeners.
The question in most cases must be answered. For example; “Can two wrongs make a
right?” “Is it possible to forgive and forget the wrong meted on you by a close friend
you so much trusted? This is the question we all must attempt to provide answers to in a
short while”
The question lead teases the reader and desires him or her to read more. Again, it
present the story in a more relaxed and analytical form, especially when the writer tend
to hold back the story, not in a hurry to tell it once.
Quotation Lead: Here the central character or the personality involved is allowed to
begin a news story by talking directly to the audience. It is very important to use the
exact words of the character when using the quotation lead. Take for example; “My
ambition and indeed, any one ambition is not worth spilling the blood of any Nigerian
citizen”, paraphrasing the words of ex-president Goodluck Jonathan, in one of his
public statements while seeking for votes en route occupying the Presidential villa and
in his second but aborted bid to elongate his stay in Aso Rock Villa, Abuja.
Quotation lead adds more credibility to the story as the exact words of the character in
the news is used. Again, when used on radio or television, it affords the audience to
hear or see the subject in his voice/appearance while making the speech. Direct
quotation properly packaged cannot be faulted.
Descriptive Lead: The descriptive lead is used when the reporter wants to set a scene
of event in motion in the minds of the audience. It helps to create or paints the
appropriate mental picture even where the matching visuals are not available. He writes
from the point of view of the eye witness account or expert opinion. For example; “The
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practice of self-medication can be dangerous to health. This according to Doctor John
Johnson of the University of Jos Teaching Hospital would result in the damage of
sensitive organs of the body which could progress to terminal illness and subsequent
death”
Epigram Lead: Epigram lead is usually associated with certain structured words
referred to as proverbs, words of wisdom or sayings of our fathers. They could also be
idiomatic expressions used in telling a news story. Most of the words or wise sayings
are already popular or known and help convey morality. Take for instance, “The
rejected stone has become the pillar of the house has become true for Abubakar Imam,
who as a child was regarded as the least promising among the seven siblings of the
Imams, but is, as we speak, now the bread winner of the family”, “When two elephants
fight the grass suffers”, “A stitch in time saves nine”, “Make hey while the sun shines”
Delayed Lead: Note that in writing the lead in news story, not all stories adopt the
inverted pyramid style, especially with stories that are of human angle or feature stories.
The story develops gradually until it gets to the climax, suitable for stories that are
interesting and not hard in nature. This kind of lead is also referred to as delay intro
lead. In the delayed lead, the writer relies more on his knowledge of the subject,
dexterity, literary prowess, humour and suspense to pass the message across the
audience easily. The lead is also expected to be short, but the impact could be felt more
in the narrative-the body.
Effect Lead: The effect lead is a lead that considers the end result of an event. The
smart reporter or journalist could use it as basis for telling the news. In other words, it
tells of the likely consequences or result of an event that is used in presenting the story.
For instance, “Nigerians will have to pay more for transportation fare in attempt to be
with their love ones this holiday season as well as kerosene beginning from next week,
owing to the decision of the Federal government to increase the price of petroleum
products by one hundred percent of the normal price”
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Cartridge Lead: The style of lead can be used for events or occurrence considered as
remarkable and epoch-making. They are normally given prominence using the cartridge
style of lead. The mere mention of the gun cartridge is scary enough, talk less of a gun
cartridge that is loaded is pointed at an individual. It is meant to attract attention of the
audience by employing powerful but penetrating words. For example; “Nigeria‟s
maximum ruler and military head of state, Sani Abacha has been confirmed dead in the
early hours of the mourning”
It is pertinent to draw a line between the lead and the lead story. According to the
authority and the purist, findings show that some writers can‟t really distinguish
between the lead and lead story. The lead story deals with the introductory paragraph
and sentence of the story, the lead story on the other hand refers to the story considered
to be most prominent or important to the particular edition, publication or bulletin for
radio and television. The most important stories usually ranging from five to fifteen
requires the editor‟s news judgment prowess to display them in bold characters or what
is referred to as headline news.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
The Inverted Pyramid Style of Writing
In writing the news story, particularly for the broadcast and print media employ style
that differs strongly from the familiar narrative style of wring.
It uses the inverted form of pyramid in presenting the news. Simplicity of language is
preferred which is lacking in narrative. It also uses block-paragraphing as a means for
achieving simplicity in delivering the message to the audience.
How is this achieved? In the inverted pyramid style of writing the story, the important
piece of information takes priority, than the additional facts arranged in descending
order of importance come next and then ends with back ground information-back
grounding, which involves a presentation of additional information that would help the
reader or listener understand the story better. Back grounding is like going back to
history to draw a correlation between related event and occurrence, and helping the
reader or listener have a clearer picture of the more recent development.
The inverted pyramid style of writing differs from the normal narrative style which
begins with introductory messages and then builds up to a climax. The style of writing
is usually adopted when writing an essay or report. For the broadcast and print media
story it is the opposite. It starts with the climax.
In summary, the inverted pyramid style of writing the news story becomes the preferred
choice because the average reader reads few items and moves on to the next; and for the
broadcast media, owing to its transient nature-shortness of time allowed for an
individual to get a broadcast message, it would require more attention to listen and
understand media message. It is therefore advisable to write in brief to avoid losing the
audience during broadcast.

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The main gists come first before any additional facts or information. Readers of today
are too selective about what they read. Study shows that only four out of ten readers
read a story from the beginning to the end.
The longer the story, the smaller the proportion of the audience and the faster chance of
losing the reader/listener.
Simplicity of language must again be emphasized here, more so for the broadcast
media. If the reporter or journalist must use technical or specialized words, it must be
immediately explained in more familiar words. Slangs, colloquial words and jargons
such as „Tokumbo‟, „Lepa‟ as used for second hand (imported) goods and extremely
tiny person; „Ogogoro in referring to locally brewed gin, must be explained.
Block-paragraphing emphasizes simplicity in arranging sentences. It makes for easy
reading and editing. For instance, the newspaper page is arranged in columns with the
standard column being slightly more than two-inches wide.

News Gathering Techniques

There are different sources for gathering news story. Basically, we have the informal
and formal news sources.
Informal news sources are those news stories we probably stumble into as accidental. A
good example could be a car accident, earthquake, flooding, and outbreak of epidemic.
A good reporter can still utilize the information to make a good story.
Formal news sources are those sources that are institutionalized and easily accessible
and verifiable. PR department of organization, police, army, government ministries,
departments and agencies, offices and organizations are some of the established and
popular sources of news.
Press releases/conferences, research materials, morgue, news agencies; Associated
Press (AP), Reuters, Agence France Presse (AFP), News Agency of Nigeria (NAN),

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Pan African News Agency (PANA), etc. Interviews; studio based interview; phone and
field interview, etc. are all formal news sources.
Other news sources include organized events such Annual General Meetings (AGM),
conferences, seminars/workshops, luncheon, convocation amongst other social events.
We also have the regular beats where reporters are assigned to. Areas considered as
prone to newsworthy event.
The beats could range from education, police, court, sports, health, government house,
national/state assembly complexes, stock market, etc.

INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING
The reporter is required to put in extra effort to uncover certain unknown facts about a
particular case or incidence. Such incidence, in most cases is crime related or how
conspiracy between certain persons involved wants to keep secret from the eyes of the
public. For instance, the issue of corruption involving highly placed government
officials, the judiciary, unresolved high profile murder cases, etc.
People as news sources-most reporters compile a list of contacts for news purposes.
Such persons are people the reporter may come across in the course of carrying out his
official duties or people introduced to him by other reporters or friends. The reporter
should be able to identify a regular meeting spots or places where such persons could be
easily seen, whether on official hours or not, (clubs, bars, etc.)
Exclusive reports or news could be obtained from these sources. From my personal
experience, as a correspondent for Channels Television, a female contact first broke the
news of the ADC plane crash in a remote area of Abuja that claimed many lives,
including an Emir, two serving senators and their siblings to me. Of course, Channels
TV broke the news, leaving others to go for the details of the crash afterwards.
Still there are the visible and invisible sources of news story the reporter must be
familiar with, and then not ignoring the less visible sources.
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The visible sources include people holding sensitive positions in government and
private organisations while the invisible source may just be the office clerks,
messengers, even supportive staff of politicians, advisers, special aides, confidential
secretaries and even the cleaner.
Less visible sources the reporter may also may also exploit include professionals and
other regular persons in society who go about their daily activities. Bankers,
industrialists, property owners, transporters and those described as salesmen of ideas-
Clergymen, teachers, salesmen, opinion leaders, newspapers or food vendors to the anti-
establishment persons-opposition party members, leaders of crime syndicates,
specialists such as doctors, engineers, architects, lawyers, accountants, etc., close
associates are potential sources of information.
Places and things, such as natural falls and scenes, police stations, documents, books,
judiciary, schools, newspaper clippings, government gazette etc. could provide the
journalist useful information.

QUALIFICATION OF THE JOURNALIST

The controversy of who qualifies as a journalist is still unsettled. Media experts are
however, unanimous about the minimum acceptable qualifications of the
journalist/reporter. A case has similarly been made for the training and retraining of
journalist to maintain the standards and professionalism.
The argument is that, and rightly so, to become a qualified lawyer, the individual aside
attaining a degree in law from a reputable institution must pass through the law school
to qualify to practice the profession; just as it also apply to the accountant, the engineer
and indeed, any other profession, the person must be certificated by a specialized
training institution to practice after obtaining first degree or diploma, so also the
aspiring journalist or reporter is expected to acquire practical experience from
recognized institution to qualify to practice.
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Here are the recommended qualifications of the journalist and identified training
institutions to obtain practical experience on graduation.

Qualifications of the Journalist/Reporter

1. Diploma in Mass Communication or Journalism or related discipline
2. Ordinary National Diploma (O.N.D) in Journalism or related discipline
3. Higher National Diploma (H.N.D) in Journalism or related discipline
4. B.A. or B.Sc.(Hons) in Journalism/Mass Communication or related field
5. Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism/ Mass Communication or related field
6. M.A or M.Sc. in Journalism/Mass Communication or related discipline
7. PhD in Journalism/Mass Communication or related discipline

Approved Public and Private Training Institutions

1. National Broadcast Academy, formally Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria
(F.R.C.N) Training School, Shogunle, Ikeja, Lagos – Public
2. Nigerian Institute of Journalism (NIJ), Ogba, Lagos – Private
3. Grajos Institute of Broadcasting (GIB), Abule-Egba, Lagos – Private
4. Daily Times Training School, Abebe Village, Iganmu, Lagos – Private
5. Television College, Jos, Plateau State, North Central Nigeria – Public
6. Independent Television Producers Association of Nigeria (ITPAN), Lagos –
Private

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Mass Media Write-up/Report
The mass media, in order to satisfy the yearnings of the diversified audience and fulfill
its fundamental and basic functions of educating, informing and entertaining the
audience, the mass media has to come up with programmes such as news, whether, hard
or soft news covering both the usual, unusual, sensational, human or general interest in
nature. In this case, not forgetting using the 5Ws and H to make sense out of the news
story.
Feature Stories: A Feature story is like the expanded version of the news story with in
depth analysis of event. It afford the writer to add new twist to an existing news story
by providing additional back ground or go beyond what the 5Ws and H would have
done.
News Analysis: This option of the news story is very common with the broadcast
media, radio and television. On television, it becomes the station‟s big story stuff or
special report of the week taken within the bulletin.
A news analysis could be an appraisal of key issues that affects the well-being of the
people, government policies on the various sectors of the economy- education, health,
social infrastructure, the economy, judiciary, sports and entertainment.
Articles: Though articles could hardly be separated from a feature, it is more lengthy
essay containing ideas, personal opinions or facts not necessarily in news form like that
of a feature story. Note that articles are usually written by an author who may not be a
journalist. He or she contributes to issues and debates of interest in the media, ranging
from politics, science, religion, sports, economy, finance, culture and tourism, arts etc.
Editorial: Editorial gotten from the word editor indicate the gathering of editors of a
particular medium, especially for the print media to take a common stand on topical
issue that affects the generality of the society. The opinions expressed are carefully
weighed by the medium concerned looking at the pros and cons before arriving at a
conclusion.
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Commentary: Commentary on the other hand, is seen by some as the „editorial of the
air‟, mostly used by the broadcast media. Commentaries are written, for example, to
explain government actions to a particular issue of the day. Check the commentary
usually done on the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (F.R.C.N), 7am, 4am and
10pm daily and other private radio stations. Television adopts this within the bulletin in
the form of special focus or the big story on issues of the moment.
Column: This is usually written and handled by a particular person called the columnist
in a particular medium.
The print media is popular for this. The columnist, in most cases is an experienced
writer or an expert, but where he or she is not an expert, he or she is expected to seek
expert opinion and sometimes present the expert during the programme, especially for
broadcast media.
The columnist or presenter might not be working for the particular medium. Columns or
air time could be dedicated to general issues such as sports, idle talks/gossips,
entertainment, music, science and technology, religion, business, education, single
affairs, marriage issues, others.

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EDITORIAL WRITING
Editorial writing is further broken down to: Explanatory or Interpretative editorials,
Argumentative and Exhortative editorials. One authority, Wilson (2000: 66.68)
explained further that explanatory or interpretative editorials try to provide details or do
an appraisal on a particular issue. According to the writer, it helps to expose and
provide answers to certain issues already on the public domain and create room for
public understanding of an issue believed to have been misconstrued by the public, in
attempt at enlightening the public on issues at stake, while argumentative editorials is
meant to support or buttress an issue by presenting various angles to it.
In doing an argumentative writing-up, the writer is expected to remain unbiased and
factual in line with the public interest in mind. The mood could either be that of anger,
disappointment, sincerity or humorous.
Exhortative editorials, the author argued, must be appealing or persuasive in approach
in getting the public or audience to support a particular issue.
Similarly, Adefela (2008) says an argument involves giving reasons for or against
something, proving or trying to prove by giving reasons, to persuade by giving reasons,
to contend or disagree in words and to consider the pros and cons to an issue.
We may also include here methods of arguing. Providing evidence, using the cause and
effect approach, comparison in argument, definitions and descriptive argument are
some of the named method of arguing to make ones position on issues clear and
understandable

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More on Feature Stories and Types
Feature stories, simply put, is an in depth analysis of news and events that have made
the round or the news earlier. Additional details which the conventional news story may
not provide are required. It also looks at the facts and back ground them.
The authorities identify five major kinds of feature story for the media to include
profile, expose, travelogue, do-it-yourself articles and review writing.
Profile: Is used to create awareness and educate the reader about people, organisations,
places and events believed to be of public interest.
Expose: This type of feature story brings out the ills of society often considered as
inimical and a menace to human existence.
Travelogue: Travelogue gives the audience details of trips of places of interest.
Do-it-yourself Articles: Teaches the audience certain skills to improve lives.
Review Writing: Attempt at analyzing other peoples work, such as book review, the
art, music etc.
Feature story requires extensive research by the writer to make any head way, covering
published works, press releases, and contact with individuals, observing and taking
note. Arm yourself with good reference materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedia,
etc.

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 REFERENCES
Dayo Duyile(1987) Makers of the Nigerian Press, Lagos: a Gong publication.
Henry Odukomaiya (1990) Text of Lecture delivered; Newspaper typography and
layout.
Neil Wenborn (1982) Word Power- A Test Yourself Guide: Corgi Books, London.
Padre Mike Umoh (2014) Basics of Human Communication: CMD – Center for Media
Development, Lagos Lecture
George Egbodor (2014) Practical Guide to Writing News – Lectures, Lagos, Nigeria.
George Egbodor (2014) Photographs That Tell Stories-Lagos Lectures.
Mike Echi (1987) The Journalist: Breaching Ethical Codes – Published in The Republic
Newspaper.
Ajose Fadeyi (2014) Interview Techniques –Lagos Lectures.
Adidi Uyo (2002) Development of Broadcast Content in Nigeria (NBC) Workshop
Paper – Keynote Address, Lagos.
ICL (1990) The Language of News, Lagos – Lecture.
Dayo Duyile (1990) Ethics: Reporters And Their Sources –, Lagos Lecture
Dayo Duyile (1990) Ethics: Plagiarism And Copyright – An Ethical Issue – Lagos
Lecture.
Bayo Oguntuashe (2009) Mind Your Language, Modern English Usage-published in
the Daily Sun Newspaper

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 ABOUT EMINEM COMMUNICATIONS
Eminem Communications is a Lagos based media Services Company registered under
the Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) Nigeria, to provide media services including
but not limited to training of broadcast media personnel and beginners; books and
journal editing for individuals and corporate organizations.
Aside publishing your work on and off-line, we partner with relevant local and
international organizations in rendering the following services to prospective clients:
 Book and journal editing
 Building capacity for media people
 Video editing and production
 News and documentary production for individuals, groups and corporate bodies
 Scripting and reporting for the media
 Creating and developing content for the broadcast media
 Communication skill and the art of public speaking and much more.

We also offer on and offline training for prospective broadcast journalists.

Contact us @ Jorebet Plaza (ground floor), #15 Charity Road, New Oko-Oba, Agege ,
Lagos State, Nigeria.
Tel; +2348066938408, +2348023588897, +2349036849118
Email: eminemcommunications@gmail.com
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