1

Table of Contents

o Egypt Grand Challenge(s)

o Problem to be Solved
o Research
o Other Solutions Already Tried
o Design Requirements
o Selection of Solution
o Selection Prototype
• Constructing and Testing a Prototype
o Materials and Methods
o Test Plan
o Data Collection
• Evaluation, Reflection, Recommendations
o Discussion
o Recommendations
o Learning Outcomes

2
 Egypt Grand Challenges
1. Improve the use of alternative energies
• Egypt is among the most energy using economies in the Middle East and North
Africa region as well as in the world.
• The Egyptian energy usage is almost twice as high as in some neighboring
countries like Morocco and Tunisia and four times as high as industrialized
countries like Japan and Germany.
What is the problem?
• Figure (1) shows that about 53% of
Egypt's electricity is fueled by
natural gas, with the remainder
being fueled by oil and renewable
energy; mostly hydroelectricity.
• Oil is mostly used in the
transportation sector, while natural
gas is used in the power sector and
transportation sector in the form of
compressed natural gas (CNG) in
vehicles.
• While Egypt produces its own oil
FIGURE 2
and gas, the country is a net FIGURE 1
importer of both products
because the country’s
consumption of oil has been
increasing by approximately 3
percent per year over the past
decade due to economic and
population growth. Figure (2)
• Less than 2% of Egypt’s current
energy comes from wind and FIGURE 2
solar generation

FIGURE 2

3
• Approximately only 11.2% of Egypt's energy comes from hydro-power due to
the high dam built in 1960.

How to solve the problem?

• Building codes regulating the overall energy use per unit of residential or
office floor space
• Energy audits to identify available energy saving potential
• construction of energy efficient buildings and purchase of energy efficient
equipment and materials
• Information on best practices in building design and construction.

2. Recycling garbage and waste for economic and environmental

purposes

In 2002, international waste

management companies
started operations in Egypt,
particularly Cairo, Alexandria
and Giza governorates, and
the Zabbaleen were sidelined.
However, after ten years of
participation in solid waste
management in Cairo, their
performance has been dismal.
In fact, in 2009 Egyptian
FIGURE 3 government acknowledged
that solid waste management
has deteriorated alarmingly after the entry of foreign companies.
The waste management situation in Greater Cairo has assumed critical proportions
because of high population, increased waste generation and lack of waste
collection infrastructure and disposal facilities. Garbage accumulation on streets,
along highways and in waterways is a common sight. As a result of the bad
performance of multinational private sector companies in SWM in Egypt during the

4
last decade, the level of street cleanliness deteriorated and the pollution resulting
from open-burning of trash increased significantly.
Moreover, the clean workers suffered loss of livelihood after the entry of foreign
solid waste management companies due to restricted access to their main asset.
The mass slaughtering of pigs in 2009, after fears of swine flu epidemic, has led to
accumulation of organic wastes in many parts of the city.
The waste management situation in Cairo is at a serious juncture and concerted
efforts are required to improve waste collection and disposal services across the
city. The involvement of Zabbaleen is essential to the success of any waste
management plan and the Egyptian government must involve all stake-holders is
putting together a sustainable waste management for Cairo.

• Solid waste is one of the residuals generated by economic activities.

• The recycling of solid wastes is a major ecological goal in Egypt. Human
activities create waste, and it is the way these wastes are handled, stored,
collected and disposed of, which can pose risks to the environment and to
public health.
Where intense human activities concentrate, such as in urban centers, appropriate
and safe solid waste management are of utmost importance to allow healthy living
conditions for the population
10 million tonnes of municipal solid waste arise annually in Egypt, of which 60%
arises in urban areas. Industry generates 3-5 million tonnes/annum of solid waste
of which around 50,000 tonnes are classified as being hazardous. As the
population grows and affluence increases the quantity of solid waste also is
increasing. This is a logical relationship and is in accord with experience
internationally. In any country the amount of solid waste generated varies with the
standard of living of its people. For Egypt it is estimated that the rate of waste
generation ranges from 0.03kg per capita per day in truly rural areas to 0.8kg per
capita per day in Cairo, but it can be as high as 1.5kg per capita per day for hotels
and tourist resorts. This range is low but is typical of many developing countries.
The amount of waste generated by different sources (e.g. households and
commercial establishments) is necessary to define the number and capacity of
waste storage and collection facilities required. 10 million tonnes of municipal solid
waste arise annually in Egypt, of which 60% arises in urban areas. Industry

5
generates 3-5 million tonnes/annum of solid waste of which around 50,000 tonnes
are classified as being hazardous. As the population grows and affluence increases
the quantity of solid waste also is increasing. This is a logical relationship and is in
accord with experience internationally. In any country the amount of solid waste
generated varies with the standard of living of its people. For Egypt it is estimated
that the rate of waste generation ranges from 0.03kg per capita per day in truly
rural areas to 0.8kg per capita per day in Cairo, but it can be as high as 1.5kg per
capita per day for hotels and tourist resorts. This range is low but is typical of many
developing countries. The amount of waste generated by different sources (e.g.
households and commercial establishments) is necessary to define the number
and capacity of waste storage and collection facilities required.

3. Deal with urban congestion and its consequences

The current population
of Egypt is 94,581,210 as of
Monday, February 27, 2017,
based on the latest United
Nations estimates.
One of the important issues in
the future is to organize the
population over a larger area.
Approximately 95% of the
FIGURE 4
population is concentrated in
the Nile Valley and Delta, which represent less than 4% of the total land area.
The Great Cairo Metropolitan Area has more than one-fifth of the Egyptian
population.
Cairo increasingly resembles a huge car park. In a city designed to carry half of its
current population, urban planning has become a critical concern for a variety of
reasons

6
Why addressing this problem: -
Because rising urban congestion is an inescapable problem in all large and growing
metropolitan areas across the world.
It affects Egypt as it is a serious problem in Egypt with large effects on the quality
of life and the economy. In addition to the time wasted standing still in traffic, time
that could be put to more productive uses.

4. Work to eradicate public health issues/disease

Nowadays Egypt faces a challenge of having many health issues which affects the
people, public health is
concerned with protecting the
health of entire populations.
There are many factors affecting
the Egyptians’ health: -
1-overpopulation: There are
about 16 million people living In
Egypt’s slum areas. The
availability of utilities, health and
social services are severely FIGURE 5
limited in the slum areas.
2- Poverty: Health care seriously lagging in capacities not only quantitatively but
also in quality due to the poverty
3-Air Pollution: Air pollution in Egypt, especially in Cairo and Alexandria, has been
of concern for a number of years. Which affects the Health badly.
4- Egypt is a low health care spender compared to countries image ()
5- Education

7
6- Nutrition and food security: A
further issue related to nutrition and
food security has been the spread of
a highly pathogenic avian influenza
which moved across Asia and into the
Middle East in early 2006.
7- Drinking-water: sometimes supply
water less than a few hours per week;
the water quality in a number of
systems also needs improvement.
Water pollution causes many
diseases such as; virus C

8- Tobacco use: figure (1)

Top 10 causes of death in the next FIGURE 6
figure.
Ignoring the public health issues and
diseases can destroy a whole country
and decrease the population and the
industrial economy.

Solutions: -
1- Supporting programs for elimination
of some tropical and communicable
diseases.
2- Fostering healthy lifestyles by
enhancing positive dimensions of
health promoting environments
3- Raising awareness of health issues
for young people among the general
public and special groups.
FIGURE 7

8
4- Monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends.
5- Strengthening health sector cooperation and partnerships

5. Increase the industrial and agricultural bases of Egypt

The world’s population is increasing. Today’s population of around 8 billion is
expected to increase to about 9 billion. By this time, another one billion tons of
cereals and 200 million extra tons of livestock products will need to be produced
every year. The imperative for such agricultural growth is strongest in developing
countries, where the challenge is not just to produce food but to ensure that
families have access that will bring them
food security. Today almost 1 billion people
are undernourished, even if agricultural
production doubles by 2050, one from
every twenty people still risks being
undernourished which means 370 million
hungry people all over the world, most of
them will be in Africa and Asia. Such
growth would imply agriculture remaining
an engine of growth, vital to economic
development, environmental services and FIGURE 8
central to rural poverty reduction. .
Agriculture currently uses 11 percent of the world’s land surface for crop
production, and for 70 percent of water brought from aquifers, streams and lakes.
Only a few areas of Egypt have been grown and this area is near the Delta and the
river Nile. Even if the food is not enough there is still the problem of the lacking of
jobs. This causes unemployment
and poverty.

Solution
The policies, practices and
technologies needed to boost
production and strengthen the
security of food have been
discussed from all governments. FIGURE 9

9
Institutional mechanisms, the development of trade and markets and the financial
facilities needed to raise productivity in a sustainable way have been negotiated at
the international level. At national level, measures to raise output and strengthen
food security are being put in place, including investment in pro-poor, market-
friendly policies and the services needed to improve productivity and even after all
this yet the challenge remains. We should increase the agricultural land to have
enough food and build more industrial areas to decrease the unemployment and
the poverty.

6. Address and reduce pollution fouling our air, water and soil
One of the biggest environmental issues in
Egypt is pollution. Egyptians are faced with
excessive garbage, sewage, unclean
streets, polluted air, undrinkable water,
and noise pollution. The first pollution is
water pollution. Water pollution
considerably affects people’s ability to
obtain and use water, as well as maintain
healthy living standards. . Egypt is one of
the developing countries which are likely to
be a drain on the Earth’s dwindling
FIGURE 8
resources and contribute to environmental
degradation and has been listed among the ten countries that are threatened by
lack of water by 2025 due to the rapidly increasing population. Air pollution
decreases health and causes many other issues, such as physiological disorders,
skin cancer, eye cataracts, respiratory ailments, heat-related illnesses, and even
deaths, which ultimately weaken the public health infrastructure. In the first I will
talk about water pollution in Egypt.
Water pollution: water in Egypt is reuse of sewage water, rain, floods, desalination,
and reuse of agricultural water, grand water in delta and valley and share of Nile.
Water pollution occurs when water is contaminated with chemicals and foreign
substances that are harmful to humans, plants and animals. Water pollutants
include chemical contamination from waste sites, chemical wastes from industrial

10
discharges, heavy metals such as mercury and lead, sewage waste, food processing
waste, fertilizers and pesticides sources of. The government in Egypt must interest
about this pollution because Egyptians can't live without fresh water. Industrial
cause water pollution in many ways such as factories throws its wastes which leads
to spreading disease to the Egyptians such as kidney failure, cancer, lever
inflammation and bilharzia. At recent days we found the River Nile exposed too
much pollution because of direct and indirect exchange from factories and sewage
from towns and villages. Amount of pollutions that thrown in the Nile 4.5 million
tons of pollution formed of 50 thousand tons very harmful materials and 35000
tons from factories and 270 tons from of organic contaminates.

Air pollution: Air pollution is a problem because it can cause damage to animals,
trees, plants, crops and water sources in the environment. Pollution in the air
causes problems for aviation because it reduces visibility, while also being
responsible for damaging buildings and other structures. Pollutants in the air can
end up in natural water supplies that humans use for drinking, which can result in
water that is toxic and unhealthy for humans to consume. Most air pollution
caused by human activities is the result, whether directly or indirectly, of burning
fuels for generating electricity. Some of the main causes of pollution include
industrial emissions, poor disposal of wastes, mining, deforestation, use of fossil
fuels and agricultural activities. All of these pollutions lead to many diseases such
as cancer, pneumonia and many dangerous diseases. If the government want to
nurse the infected with diseases from air pollution will pay 10000 pound for a
person this is very expensive. And harmful gases like CO2 in urban and industries
areas.

Soil pollution: There are many causes of soil pollution in Egypt:

Industrial waste on the soil resulting from mining, using chemical fertilizers
enormously, leaking of petroleum during transport chemical materials and
Admixture air pollutants with the rain which lead to the acid rain. All of these
reasons lead to make soil invalid to use, severe pollution of the soil, making ground
water invalid to drink and the effects of human health.

7. Improve uses of arid areas

11
One of the most problems which Egypt faces it is arid areas. Arid areas don't have
any ingredients for agricultural because there isn't water, soil for agricultural and
no rain fall. These areas expose to sand encroachment, aerobic storms, soil salinity
and bad weather. These areas are empty from pollution because there has no
water for drinking or agricultural, transporting, services, interests of governmental
and safety. Egypt is an arid country, which covers an area of about 1,000,000 km2
of which only 5% is occupied by its population. About 99%from people in Egypt live
in the Nile Valley and Delta. People in Egypt live in these areas because of many
reasons: The Nile Valley and Delta cover an area of 35,000 Km², mostly in the Delta
and have fertile soils, formed of deposits carried down by the River Nile. The Nile
Delta is associated with the northern lakes (Maryut, Idku, Burullus, and Manzala)
.In the Nile Valley, the cultivated area mostly consists of a narrow strip of land
surrounded by desert on both sides. But there are many areas which people in
Egypt don't live in it because of many reasons like: Sinai Peninsula which is located
in the northeastern portion of Egypt, and occupies a very small portion of the
extremely SW part of Asian continent. The total area of Sinai is 61,000 km2; the
southern part of it is formed of a complex of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
The Eastern Desert covers an area of
about 223,000 km ².It is bordered by
the Nile Valley on the West and by the
Suez Canal, the Gulf of Suez and the
Red Sea on the East. The backbone of
this desert is a series of mountain
chains (Red Sea Mountains), running
parallel to the Red Sea and separated
from it by a narrow coastal plain. FIGURE 9

8. Manage and increase the sources of clean water

12
Deeper structural problems have become apparent in the natural resource base.
Water scarcity is growing. Pollution of water
courses and bodies, and degradation of
water related eco-systems are rising. In
many larger rivers only, 5 percent of former
water volumes remain in-stream. There are
many resources of water resources like
oceans, seas, lakes and river but even
though of this many resources the water is
not enough for all people. 70 percent of
earth surface is water but only 2.5 of the FIGURE 10
water is sweet and can be used by human
and most of it is frozen in glaciers and ice caps.
causes
The factors affecting the decreasing of water resources are
population growth, movement of large numbers of people
from the countryside to towns and cities, demands for greater
food security and higher living standards and pollution from
factories, cities, and farmlands.

Solutions
We can use many resources like collecting rain water
in dams and even using this water to produce FIGURE 11
electricity, use underground water, desalination of
water but most countries cannot afford to do it because it cost much money.
When managing water resources, more attention should be paid to increasing
existing natural resources and reducing demand and losses. Diverting surface
water into the ground can help reduce losses from evaporation, compensate for
variations in flow, and improve quality. Transferring water between river basins
can also help alleviate shortages

13
9. Deal with urban congestion and its consequences
One of the biggest challenges that face
Egypt is population growth, from 1994 to
2014, the population grew by 46%, from
60 million to nearly 88 million. For the
human development ranks report Egypt is
110th among 185 countries. The report
shows that only about half of the
population in Egypt is ages 25.
Reasons of the growth of population:
FIGURE 12
1. High illiteracy rate: Many habits
spread in Egypt because of high illiteracy rate like: giving birth to 7 or 8 children
2. Low rate of contribution to the work of the female: The females get married
and be busy with giving birth to children so they don’t have high contribution.
Results of the growth of population:
1. The human development ranks report shows that the older ones than 25 was
employed in 2012, and among those who were employed, 14% were still living
below the international poverty level of less than 2$ per day.
2. The inability of the state to educate all the children:
Because of the population growth and huge number of children, the education
system in Egypt can’t absorbs all these numbers of children.
Ways to solve the problem of population growth:
1. Make people aware of the bad habits of giving birth for 7 or 8 children
2. Egypt face the problem by adequate housing, sanitation, health care, education
and jobs.

10. Improve the scientific and technological environment for all

The world around us show how they depend on the new technological, we must
improve our disposition to not destroy the society. The modern technological

14
depend on how the science improve and the applications very quickly make every
day is different.
Egypt at the time of the 1952 revolution was much further advanced industrially
than any other Arab country.
Now, Egypt lacks a good industrial base. We export raw materials outside Egypt
then reimport it with prices many times more expensive. Difficulties in transporting
raw materials from ports or manufactured products to distribution centers,
movement of workers to and from factories.
Status of technological environment of technology:
1. Establishment of technological and research institute
2. Positive technical policy
3. High growth rate of information technology
4. Incentive for promoting technology

11. Reduce and adapt to the effect of climatic change

Climate change is a great challenge that faces Egypt now as it affects many fields
like; tourism, agricultural bases, arid areas, health, and many others
Causes: -
In Egypt it is majorly because of the scarce of the Nile river water and It is caused
by the rise of the Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere mannerly.
Because of Egypt’s almost complete reliance on the Nile for freshwater it is
essential for any analysis of climate change and Egypt to consider the possibility of
climatically-induced changes in Nile flows
The greenhouse gases emission is increased in Egypt due to the increasing usage
fossil fuels Figure shows the emissions of greenhouse gases in Egypt through the
past 20 years.
The Gases trap the heat in the atmosphere which can have a range of effects
Egypt’s Nile delta with its coastal front on the Mediterranean is considered
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In addition to expected rise in sea-
15
level, shoreline erosion, stresses on fisheries and saltwater intrusion in
groundwater create major challenges.
We can solve the climate change by:
1. Limit our usage of the fossil fuels and start to use Alternative energy, increase
the green area, because plants absorb the CO2
2. Stopping CFCs products carbon footprint and help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions

What will happen if this problem is not solved?

• Health, some vector-borne diseases just like malaria can be more common
due to climate change

• Food: Because the heat affects the ecosystems which can change the
productivity of the food

• Water areas: it Causes Rising sea

levels, droughts

• Biodiversity: it Has a Negative

impact on the coral reef

• Coastal areas: the risk of Flooding

especially on the north coast.

FIGURE 13

16
Problem to be solved:
Water Challenges:
The main challenge facing Egyptian national development is water resources.
Water is the main factor, which determines the type, size and location of any
economic activity

• Egypt currently relies on the Nile for 95 - 97% of its water needs, and global
news is that the river is under threat, protecting this supply has long been
regarded as a matter of national security
• In Egypt, about 85% of the water resources are consumed in the agriculture
sector, so water management techniques must occur in order to fix the
challenges that face the water sources in Egypt like, lack of clean sources, bad
consumption distribution, and the increase of water supply to face the
population growth.
• There are still many people, especially in rural areas, that lack a proper water
supply. Low consumption rates in many areas are also related to the lack of a
sewer system.
• Water management is more than getting the water there now; we want to be
sure an appropriate quality and quantity of flow can be sustained
• Water resources management refers to the conception, planning, design,
construction, and operation of facilities to control and use water.
• In conclusion, Egypt faces various challenges to its water resources.

1- population growth and the increase of water demands:

• The populations of Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia have grown steadily since 1960.
Egypt’s population has increased by 41 percent since the early 1990s. Recent
reports future projections say that the population will grow from its current
total of 92 million to 110 million by the year 2025. The rapid population increase
multiplies the stress on Egypt’s water supply due to more water requirements
for domestic consumption and increased use of irrigation water to meet higher
food demands.
• The increased demand for food will require more irrigation water. The demand
for food could be met by increasing imports.
• Growth of population creates a related water demand for public water supply
and industrial activities, and also for irrigation water for increased agricultural
production.

17
• The continued growth of societies places great pressure on water supply and
this has resulted in a rapid deterioration of the quality of the water resources,
in particular, in the Nile Delta. This low water quality threatens public health,
reduces its value for economic activities and damages the natural ecology of
the water systems.
• the growing and competing demands of water users in different economic
sectors lead to inefficient allocation and lower economic growth; human
suffering; and local, national, and international conflicts

2- Water Scarcity and Rapid Climate change:

• With climate conditions expected to get drier and heat waves expected to
become more frequent in the MENA region, Egypt cannot afford to neglect the
importance of water conservation anymore and must act immediately to
augment its natural water reserves.
• The prolonged 1979-1987 drought forced Egypt to reduce its water use despite
the inter-annual storage in Lake Nasser behind the High Aswan Dam, which
clearly shows the vulnerability of Egypt to changes in river flows that climate
change may produce. A climate change prediction model identified water
resources as one of the three most vulnerable sectors to climate change in
Egypt; the others being coastal zones and agricultural resources.

18
• Egypt is a very arid country, where the average annual rainfall seldom exceeds
200 mm along the northern coast. The rainfall declines very rapidly from the
TABLE 1

coastline to the inland areas, and becomes almost nil south of Cairo. This
meager rainfall occurs in the winter in the form of scattered showers, and
cannot be depended upon for extensive agricultural production
• Any International river like the Nile is a common resource shared by the basin
countries. For water used in river basins, both positive and negative
externalities usually exert an effect in only one direction, downstream (table 1).
An upstream country affects the volume or quality of a downstream country's
water by diverting or polluting it, but the downstream country cannot do the
same, because it has no access to the water until it has left the upstream
country
• In speaking of the Nile Basin, Egypt is a downstream country while Ethiopia,
Sudan and South Sudan are upstream to Egypt

19
 • A big challenge is tackling the issue of Ethiopia building a dam and hydroelectric
plant upstream that may cut into Egypt’s share of the Nile. In the Blue Nile
watershed, which is a main source of water for the Nile River.
• Construction of the Renaissance Dam started in December 2010, and has the
capacity to store 74 to 79 billion cubic meters of water and generate 6,000
megawatts of electricity for Ethiopia a year.
• This dam would decrease the amount of water it receives (55.5 billion cubic
meters) from the Nile River
• . Egypt is concerned that during dry months, not enough water will be released
from the GERD thus decreasing the water received downstream
• United Nations is already warning that Egypt could run out of water by the year
2025.

3- Water Pollution
Pollution
The pollution of river Nile is an issue that has been regularly underestimated.
With so many people relying on the Nile for drinking, agricultural, and municipal
use, the quality of that water should be of pivotal importance. The reality is that
water of Nile is being polluted by municipal and industrial waste, with many
recorded incidents of leakage of wastewater, the dumping of dead animal
carcasses, and the release of chemical and hazardous industrial waste into the
river.

• Industrial waste has led to the presence of metals in the water which pose a
significant risk not only on human health, but also on animal health and
agricultural production. Fish die in FIGURE 16
large numbers from
poisoning because of the high
levels of ammonia and lead.
Agricultural production quality and
quantity has been affected by
using untreated water for
irrigation as the bacteria and the
metals in the water affect the
growth of the plant produce,
especially in the Nile Delta where
pollution is highest.
20
 • The supply of high-quality water available at low cost as a result of increased
pollution, as is already the case in Alexandria, Egypt.
• At recent days we found the River Nile exposed too much pollution because of
direct and indirect exchange from factories and sewage from towns and
villages. Amount of pollutions that thrown in the Nile 4.5 million tons of
pollution formed of 50 thousand tons very harmful materials and 35000 tons
from factories and 270 tons from of organic contaminates.

Irrigation

The crop type can make a major difference as

the amount of water demand can really vary
between different crop types, so the technique
followed is to grow plants which requires less
water like sugar beet instead of Sugar cane.
There’s Water loss in irrigation agricultural
systems through inefficient irrigation techniques
Because the irrigation techniques are basic such
as flooding irrigation that leads to about 80% of
the water loss.

FIGURE 17

21
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.
Research
Because our project concern on water problems in Egypt focusing on quantity,
quality, systems, we have researched the following topics: -

1-Problem
A-Sources and uses:
The Nile water system:
• Water is released from
Lake Nasser on the basis of
downstream demands.
Downstream of High Aswan
Dam (HAD), water is
diverted by pumping
stations along the river and
FIGURE 18 by canals at the river
barrages. Nile water that is
used in the Nile Valley and Delta for various purposes, partly recharges the
groundwater, from where it is drained by the drainage system or pumped
for municipal and industrial (M&I) use and irrigation. In the Nile Delta and
Fayoum much drainage water is pumped and reused for irrigation. In
addition, some of the M&I effluent flows are reused, after treatment or
mixing with Nile water.
• With regard to the water balance, the Nile system can be considered as
almost closed, with negligible in- or outflow from or to the deeper aquifers
and surrounding desert areas. Therefore, all water in the system
(groundwater in the Valley and Delta, drainage water from agriculture, and
M&I effluents) originates from water released at Aswan. (e.g. Jonglei 1 and 2
and Machar Marshes projects and others).

22
 • The Nile aquifer system has an estimated total storage capacity of about 500
BCM (200 BCM in the Valley and 300 BCM in the Delta). Only a small fraction
of this storage can actually be used due to constraints in pumping heights,
Reuse of water:
• Drainage water from Cairo and other cities flows to the river water and
mixes with it, as a result, it is available for usage as an upstream source.
• In Fayoum and Nile Delta, the drainage water is either used by farmers or
pumped to irrigation canals through big stations for reuse for irrigation.
• In 1997 it was estimated that the official use of reuse water in Nile Delta and
Fayoum about 3.5BCM/year.
• It was estimated that in 2017 the total water reuse would reach
7.4BCM/year
• Also, the reuse of treated wastewater from the New Industrial Cities in the
desert, and the Canal Cities will be considered in the future.
Groundwater in the desert areas
• The contribution of deep groundwater to the total water supply in Egypt is
very moderate. However, groundwater is the only source of water for
people living in the desert areas.
Rainfall and flash floods in wadis.
• In places where the population density is relatively low, groundwater
potential limited and where there is no access to Nile water, Rain and Runoff
harvesting is practiced to collect water.
• In these areas rainfall has for centuries been the principal water resource
and consequently.
• The total effective rainfall used for drinking water and agriculture is about
1.3 BCM/year.
Desalination of sea water or brackish water
• In coastal areas seawater is mostly available than any other resources.

23
 • It is mostly used in many tourist areas along Red Sea coast and Sinai
Peninsula.

• Although it is not commonly used or applied in Egypt, it is expected that

desalination plants for drinking water and industrial use will be developed as
the demands grow.
• Brackish Water is sometimes a preferred source for desalination rather than
seawater if it is nearby.
• Total amount of desalinated water in Egypt is about 50 MCM per year

Water usage and distribution:

Agriculture
• The agricultural sector is the largest user, and consumer, of water in Egypt,
with its share exceeding 80% of the total gross demand for water.
• In case the actual consumption of water is water supply minus the amount
of water returned to the system, the share of agricultural demands is even
higher than 95%.
• The area of cultivated land increased from 5.8 Mfeddan in 1980 to about 8
Mfeddan in 1997. Related to the expansion of agricultural land the
consumptive use of water in agriculture has been steadily increasing from an
estimated 29.4 BCM/yr in 1980 to 38.5 BCM/yr during the same period.
• Due to the increasing of cultivated land the consumption of reused and
abstraction of ground water increased and decreasing of the fresh water
flow to the sea. The amount of used water in irrigation in 1997 was 57.8
BCM/yr.
• The future increase in overall irrigation supply will depend on changes in the
priorities for the municipal and industrial sectors, the development of new

24
 groundwater resources, and measures to reduce the outflow from the Nile
system. Any water becoming additionally available will primarily be used to
irrigate new development areas and not to increase the supply to existing
lands. Based on water inflow of 55.5 BCM/year, it is expected that by the
year 2017 agricultural lands will cover about 11 Mfeddan, and 63.6 BCM of
water will be used for agriculture. The total agricultural water consumption
in 2017 is estimated at 38.7 BCM.
Domestic water
• In the year 2000, public water supply systems covered almost 100% of the
population in urban areas and 38% of the population in rural areas.
• Drinking water production in 2000 was 5.31 BCM of which an estimated
volume of 0.62 BCM was used for industrial purposes.
• The high-water use in the urban areas seems related to wastage induced by
the weakness of metering systems, low water charges, society unawareness
of water scarcity and leakage from the water supply network.
Industrial Water
• During the last decades the demands of water in the industrial sector have
been dramatically increasing.
• Excluding cooling water for power plants, the total industrial water use in
the year 2000 was estimated at 2.2 bcm
• Water used for industry was approximately 53% abstracted from the Nile
and irrigation canals, 28% from the public network and 19% from
groundwater.
• Water consumptive use in industry is about 0.75 BCM.
Navigation
The river Nile and part of the irrigation network are used for navigation. The
present policy is that there is no exclusive release for navigation. There is,

25
however, a guaranteed minimum release from the HAD, which is also required for
some drinking water intakes along the Nile.
Hydropower.
• Hydropower is producing about 24% of the national electricity demand.
• Water has not been released from the High Aswan Dam exclusively for the
generation of hydropower since 1990.
• Hydropower generation, depends fully on releases for irrigation, supply and
the small release for navigation.
• This means that the generated hydropower varies strongly during the
seasons.
Ecology and fisheries
• Living organisms in waterways and lakes require water of a certain quality as
habitats.
• It is essential for keeping ecology in balance to accomplish the conditions of:
the preservation of water levels, velocities, depth profiles, and natural bank
conditions.
• With respect to water quality, natural conditions should be preserved or
restored as much as possible in the Nile River, the irrigation canals, and the
Coastal Lakes.
Recreation and health
• Part of the population is using surface water for hygiene purposes (e.g.
washing and bathing) and recreation (e.g. swimming and boating) as well as
for drinking water.
• The direct contact with open water bodies near settlements also influences
the health of the population. These uses therefore also require good water
quality.

26
Water Resources Management in Egypt
Egypt is faced with three major challenges in the management of its water
resources.
The first and most important challenge is that posed by Egypt’s population growth.
the growth of population creates a related water demand for public water supply
and industrial activities, and also for irrigation water for increased agricultural
production.

The second challenge is environmental. The increase in population and industrial

and agricultural activities has not been accompanied by an adequate growth in
fully operating municipal or industrial sewage treatment systems, and this has
resulted in a rapid deterioration of the quality of the water resources, in particular,
in the Nile Delta. This low water quality threatens public health, reduces its value
for economic activities and damages the natural ecology of the water systems.
The third challenge is institutional: it has become clear that the first two challenges
can only be solved if the institutional setting of water management is improved.
This includes aspects of co-operation, decentralization and privatization. Major
elements in this respect are a participatory approach in planning, development
and management and the application of the principles of cost-recovery and
polluter pays.
The growing population and related socio-economic activities require an increasing
amount of water. The Nile River is an abundant and constant source of water
which cannot be easily augmented in the face of a similar growth in populations
and economic activity in the upper riparian countries. Over many years, potential
demand has exceeded the available supply, and the deficit has been borne by the
agricultural sector, which has been unable to produce enough food not only for
the increasing population, but also the increasing per capita demands that are now
over 3,300 kilocalories per person per day. This deficit has been made up though
the import of food and the country now imports some 45% of its calorie
27
requirements. The growth of the economy has more than matched this growth,
and the cost of food imports is a declining proportion of the Gross National
Product (GDP). Nevertheless, the spike in food prices in 2008, when wheat prices
(the bulk of Egypt’s food imports) doubled from $200 per ton to $400 per ton
before returning to the original figure, showed that excessive dependency on
imports can make the country vulnerable to such events.

B-Water development
WATER SUPPLY and WATER DEMAND are the VERTICAL DOMAINS, or fields of
action, consisting in the development of technological and non-technological
solutions to reduce water vulnerability and the impact of water scarcity in
agriculture by increasing the amount of available irrigation-quality water (SUPPLY)
and reducing the amount of water consumed in agriculture (DEMAND).

ADAPTATION and INTEGRATION are the HORIZONTAL DOMAINS, or transversal

actions, through which the project valorizes the “vertical” interventions, by
ensuring that their outcomes will be technically and culturally suitable for the
environmental and socio-economic context of the target countries (ADAPTATION).
Furthermore, the outcomes are amplified and maximized through the integration
of the technological solutions with economic and regulatory instruments within
each vertical domain and through the combined application of the two vertical
domain solutions (INTEGRATION). Through a comprehensive set of research and
innovation actions,
2-Solution:
A-Irrigation Systems:
Irrigation: is the application of water to soil or land, it’s used to assist growing plants.
Traditional Method:
In this method, irrigation is done manually. Here, a farmer pulls out water from
wells or canals by himself or using cattle and carries to farming fields. This method
can vary in different regions. The main advantage of this method is that it is cheap
but efficiency is poor because the even distribution of water is not always possible.
Also, chances of water loss while carrying is high. Some examples of traditional

28
system are pulley system, lever system, chain pump and dhekli. Among these, the
pump system is most common and used widely.

Irrigation in the past was more focused on subsistence dependent on intensive

labor to irrigate – often – a relatively small land

Traditional Methods includes: -

• Surface irrigation
• Traditional Rain harvesting

Modern Method:
The modern method compensates disadvantages of traditional methods and thus
helps in the proper way of water usage. The modern method involves two systems:
Sprinkler system and Drip system. A sprinkler system as its name suggests sprinkles
water over the crop and helps in an even distribution of water. This method is
much advisable in areas facing water scarcity. Here a pump is connected to pipes
which generate a pressure and water is sprinkled through nozzles of pipes. In Drip
system, water supply is done drop by drop exactly at roots using a hose or pipe.
This method can also be used in regions where water availability is less.
Modern Irrigation is now about selling products mainly or the satisfaction of
populations’ demands, so the land is relatively big, the irrigation system is machine
or labor dependent and is not affected by climate change.
Irrigation should be optimum because even over-irrigation can spoil the crop
productivity. Excess water leads to water logging, hinder germination, increased
salt concentration and uprooting because roots can’t withstand standing water.
Thus, the proper method is to be used for best cultivation.
Modern Methods contain:
• Spray irrigation system
• Dripping irrigation system
• Micro-irrigation
• Solar irrigation

29
Surface irrigation is the application of
water by gravity flow to the surface of
the field. It consists of a broad class of
irrigation methods in which water is
distributed over the soil surface by
gravity flow. The irrigation water is
introduced into level or graded furrows
or basins, using siphons, gated pipe, or
turnout structures, and is allowed to
advance across the field. Surface FIGURE 19 SURFACE IRRIGATION

irrigation is best suited to flat land

slopes, and medium to fine textured
soil types which promote the lateral
spread of water down the furrow row
or across the basin.
Either the entire field is flooded (basin
irrigation) or the water is fed into small
channels (furrows) or strips of land
(borders).
FIGURE 20 BASIN IRRIGATION
a-Basin Irrigation:
The basin irrigation depends on basins
which are flat areas of land, surrounded
by bunds which prevent the water from
flowing to the adjacent fields. Basin
irrigation is commonly used for rice
Suitable soils
Which soils are suitable for basin
irrigation depends on the crop grown. A
distinction has to be made between
FIGURE 21 FURROW IRRIGATION
rice and non-rice or other crops.

30
Loamy soils are preferred for basin
irrigation so that waterlogging
(permanent saturation of the soil) can
be avoided. Coarse sands are not
recommended for basin irrigation as,
due to the high infiltration rate,
percolation losses can be high.
Also soils which form a hard crust when
dry (capping) are not suitable.
B-Furrow Irrigation:
The furrow irrigation systems depends
on furrows are small channels, which
carry water down the land slope
between the crop rows. Water
infiltrates into the soil as it moves along
FIGURE 22 FURROW IRRIGATION USING SIPHONS
the slope. The crop is usually grown on
the ridges between the furrows .

In summary, the following crops can be

Irrigated by furrow irrigation:

- row crops such as maize, sunflower,

sugarcane, soybean;
- crops that would be damaged by
inundation, such as tomatoes, FIGURE 23 BORDER IRRIGATION SYSTEM; BORDERS ARE
vegetables, potatoes, beans; STRIPS SEPARATED BY EARTH BUNDS.
- fruit trees such as citrus, grape
- broadcast crops such as wheat.

c-Borders Irrigation
disadvantages of surface irrigation:
1-Loss of water
2-Soil erosion

31
3-can cause loss of minerals
4-the Uncontrolled irrigation can lead a
flood to the crops
5-The recession and advancement of
water can be at a very slow or a very
fast rate; that can have undesirable
consequences like water loss and the
unsaturation of the soil.
6- some problems can occur like the
water quality loss, Lack of water
management, over irrigation and
erosion
FIGURE 24
These problems can be met by: -
1-profitable conservation
2-replacing the surface irrigation with
sprinkle or drip irrigation
3-Using PAMS if surface irrigation is
required.

32
 Sprinkler irrigation is a more modern way
of irrigating, but it also requires
machinery. in which Water is pumped
through a pipe system and then sprayed
onto the crops through rotating sprinkler
heads
The spray and sprinkling devices can be:-
1- Permanently set in place (solid set)
2- Temporarily set and then moved after a
FIGURE 25 given amount of water has been applied
Sprinkler irrigation
3- They can be mounted on booms and
pipelines that continuously travel across
the land surface (wheel roll, linear move,
center pivot).
Sprinklers are mostly installed on
permanent risers.
The sprinklers works based on the
pressure provided by pumps and nozzles ,
as a result , the waters are sprayed in a
rainfall-like system
FIGURE 26
a Sprinkler that rotates is called a rotor
Suitable soil:
Shallow lands and best suited to coarse
sandy terrain.
Disadvantages of sprinkler irrigation: -
1- They are expensive, average cost for
a sprinkler irrigation system on a
large scale is 2,000 Dollars

FIGURE 27

33
 2- Many sprinklers have to be installed
because a single one doesn’t cover
much area.
3- when operating under high
temperatures, water can evaporate
at a fast rate reducing the
effectiveness of the irrigation.
4- Although sprinkler irrigation can help
FIGURE 28
farmers to use water resources more
efficiently, this technology relies on a
clean source of water and therefore
may not be suited to areas where
rainfall is becoming less predictable

34
Drip/trickle irrigation systems are
methods of microirrigation where
water is applied through emitters to
the soil surface transporting water,
drop by drop or as small streams. The
discharge rate of the emitters is low so
this irrigation method can be used on
all soil types.
Drip irrigation is based on the constant
application of a specific and focused
quantity of water to soil crops.
The system should maintain adequate
levels of soil moisture in the rooting
areas, fostering the best use of
available nutrients and a suitable
environment for healthy plant roots
systems. Managing the exact moisture
requirement for each plant, the system
significantly reduces water wastage and
promotes efficient use. Compared to
surface irrigation, which can provide 60
per cent water-use efficiency and
sprinklers systems which can provide
75 per cent efficiency, drip irrigation
can provide as much as 90 per cent
water-use efficiency.
Suitable Soil:
Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils.
On clay soils water must be applied
slowly to avoid surface water ponding
and runoff. On sandy soils higher
emitter discharge rates will be needed

35
to ensure adequate lateral wetting of FIGURE 29
the soil. DRIP/TRICKLE IRRIGATION

Drip irrigation disadvantages: -

• Initial cost can be more than
overhead systems.
• The sun can affect the tubes used
for drip irrigation,
• Drip irrigation might be
unsatisfactory if herbicides or top-
dressed fertilizers need sprinkler
irrigation for activation.
• Most drip systems are designed for
high efficiency, meaning little or no FIGURE 30, BEST SOIL FOR PLANT GROWTH SHOULDN’T
EXCEED 25% WATER COMPOSITION [SOURCE: NC STATE
leaching fraction. Without UNIVERSITY]
sufficient leaching, salts applied
with the irrigation water may build
up in the root zone, usually at the
edge of the wetting pattern

Subsurface irrigation consists of methods

whereby irrigation water is applied below
the soil surface. When the water table is
well below the surface, drip or trickle
irrigation emission devices can be buried
below the soil surface (usually within the
plant root zone).

FIGURE 31

Subsurface irrigation

36
Common Irrigation Methods in Egypt and Alike countries: -
Chain pump: A chain pump consists of two large wheels, connected by an endless
chain. The bottom wheel is half immersed in the water source. As the wheel is
turned, the connected buckets dip into the pool and pick up water. The chain then
lifts them to the upper wheel, where the water from the buckets is transferred to
the pool. The chain then carries the empty buckets back down to be refilled and
the process continues.
Moat or pulley-system: It is a manual irrigation method. By this method water is
directly taken out of wells with the help of pulley and is used to irrigate fields.
Rahat: In this method water is drawn out of wells by animals. Animals like cow,
buffalo, oxen etc. are connected to wheel. Animals move and rotate the wheel
lead to draw the water from the well.
Dhekli: In this system a rope and bucket connected to pole to obtain water from
well. They connect rope and bucket on one end of a heavy stick and a heavy
counter weight at the other end.
Filtration Methods
Filtration is the process of removing suspended solids from water by passing the
water through a permeable fabric or porous bed of materials.
Groundwater is naturally filtered as it flows through porous layers of soil. However,
surface water and groundwater under the influence of surface water is subject to
contamination from many sources.
Some contaminants pose a threat to human health, and filtration is one of the
oldest and simplest methods of removing them.
Filtration methods include slow and rapid sand filtration, diatomaceous earth
filtration, direct filtration, packaged filtration, membrane filtration, and cartridge
filtration
• Because the groundwater passes through porous layers of soil into aquifers
it is naturally filtrated. On the other hand, surface water is directly subjected
to several pollutants like; human, animal and industrial contamination. The
surface water is, as a result, can cause disease or illness in humans. So, they
must be filtered by a constructed treatment system.

37
 • Almost all municipal water sources undergo a disinfection process using
chlorine or chloramine to kill bacteria and parasites.

• Other contaminants commonly found in tap water include lead, copper,

sulfate, nitrates, pesticides, herbicides, arsenic, industrial solvents and
trihalomethanes, a chemical known to cause colon and bladder cancer in
large concentrations. Contrary to popular belief, municipal water treatment
facilities were not designed to take out contaminants such as synthetic
organic chemicals and toxic heavy metals like lead.

Filtration processes
• Flocculation: The chemically treated water is sent into a basin where the
suspended particles can collide and form heavier particles called floc.

• Sedimentation: The velocity of water is decreased so that suspended

material (including flocculated particles) can settle out of the water stream
by gravity. Once settled, the particles combine to form a sludge that is later
removed from the clarified supernatant (the liquid removed from settled
sludge) water
Conventional filtration processes are normally preceded by
• Coagulation
• Flocculation
• sedimentation.
Direct filtration processes are preceded by only:
• coagulation
• flocculation
Filtration processes may include one or more pretreatment procedures such as:
38
 • Chemical feed and rapid mix:
Where chemicals may be added to the water to improve the treatment that
will occur later. These may include pH adjusters and coagulants.
A variety of devices, such as baffles, and static mixers can be used to mix the
water and distribute the chemicals evenly.

Making the Right Choice:

Understanding what is in the water and what will remain in the water is essential
for selecting the best filtration method. It also has a significant importance in
healthier lifestyles and efficient water reuse solutions.

39
Sustainable filters:
1. Silver impregnated ceramic filter
• The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has tested and praised the
ceramic filter as “a valid tool to decrease the contamination level of water
consumed by households in rural areas”
• The ceramic filter has been 99.9% successful at removing bacteria under
laboratory testing conditions.
• Although it is simple it has impressive testing results.

Manufacturing process:
• The process of creating a ceramic filter begins by uniformly mixing
exact proportions of clay and finely ground burnout materials.
• The choice of burnout material depends on the materials in the area
of production. The most ideal burnout material is sawdust produced
by the processing of hardwoods.
• Once the burnout material and clay are mixed, they can be formed
into the desired filter shape. The most common shapes are the pot or
candle.
• There is no specific shape requirement for the filter, however it is
necessary that the clay is uniform and does not contain air bubbles or
other imperfections.
• once the shape is formed it is fired in a flattop updraft kiln. The filters
are usually fired at cone O12 (~1600 F) After the pot is fired,
• the burnout materials dissipate and the clay hardens

40
 FIGURE 32
How it works? [Figure]
The ceramic filter is usually soaked for 24 hours in water to enhance the
curing process. Once cured and completely dried, the filter is tested to
ensure the proper flow rate.
• A flow rate of 1.5-2 liters per hour is required. Less or more flow rate is
not acceptable and will result in the filter not working properly.
• Once a filter passes the flow rate test it is then painted on the inside
with colloidal silver.
• Colloidal silver is a common disinfectant, Passing the current through
the silver creates the silver “colloid” with one less electron. silver binds
to the cell membrane of bacteria. As a result, abnormalities will occur.
These abnormalities result in cell lysis and death.
• Adding the silvers antibacterial properties to the filter ensures the
99.9% removal of most common types of water borne bacteria. This
added effect is positive

41
Advantages
1- The silver impregnated ceramic filter can be made almost anywhere in the
world.
2- The only requirements to make the filter are that clay, sawdust, and colloidal
silver are available along with the ability to fire a kiln.
3- With the addition of colloidal silver, ceramic filters are 99.9% effective at
removing bacteria.
4- The ceramic filter is also point-of-use and can be distributed to remote
communities, making it one of the most effective and culturally acceptable
sustainable filters on the market.
Disadvantages
1- The fuel consumption and pollution of the involved with the production of
the ceramic filter.
2- It does not sufficiently filter out viruses, harmful chemicals, or hard metals.
3- the efficiency of the filter is reduced to removing only 60-70% of bacteria
when actually used by rural families. This is a direct result of improper use
and/or cleaning of the filter.
4- ingestion of too much silver can cause severe health risks related to silver
poisoning.
Recommendations
• To address and reduce the fuel consumption in manufacturing by
replacing the fuel burnt with renewable energy sources to fire kilns
when producing this filter.
• Another solution is fuel briquetting.
Using the briquettes instead of wood or coal decreases deforestation
and makes this filter more sustainable. However, the kiln will still
produce smoke.
2.Sediment filter with iron oxide
• Sediment filters are quite common and have been around for
centuries.
• A sediment filter takes advantage of multiple layers of sediment to
naturally filter contaminants from water.
42
 Manufacturing process:
• The top sediment layer consists of larger sized rocks, followed by
smaller rocks, then sand and very finely ground sediment

How it works?
• Contaminants are trapped in the tiny pores between the sediment
and clean water exits the bottom of the filter.
• By traveling through layers of sediment on the earth’s surface.
And just as a deeper well will yield cleaner water, a larger sediment
filter will produce purer water.
FIGURE 33

• The application of iron nails throughout a sediment filter makes it very

effective at removing substances such as arsenic and efficient in treating hard
water.
• When iron nails are added, iron oxide (rust) is eventually formed.
the creation of iron oxide is 4Fe + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3, and the ionic half
equation is Fe (s) = Fe2+ (aq) + 2e-.
• Because this is an oxidizing process, the iron losing electrons makes it more
attractive to other hard metals.
Harmful hard metals such as arsenic bond to the negatively charged
iron, and the water exiting the system is free of hard metals.
Advantages
1- it uses natural filtration and readily available materials.
2- removing both hard metals and bacteria

43
 Disadvantages
1- Low degree of scientific control.
2- Sediment can form pockets or large pores.
3- The use of higher capacity sediment filters reduces the scientific error, but
the increased size also makes manufacturing much more difficult.
4- A commonly encountered problem with this process is evenly distributing
the nails.
5- If a community is centralized, distribution is usually not difficult, but if a
community is spread out it is more difficult to distribute water from a
centralized location
Recommendations
The sediment filter removes hard metals and bacteria using somewhat primitive
technology. With the advancement of nanotechnology, it is possible that the same
scientific principles used in the sediment filter could be applied to many different
applications and with greater efficiency.
3. Plastic mesh micro-filters
• The plastic-mesh micro-filter is currently used in many industrial filter
applications including the production of carbonated beverages or other liquid
food products.
Manufacturing process:
• They can be produced from many common polymers. Pore sizes as small as
0.5 microns can be consistently produced using tiny needles or lasers to
perforate hundreds of individual layers of this fabric like material. Unlike the
ceramic filter, which also has ~1-micron pores, the plastic mesh micro-filter
has flow rates up to 10 times faster (15-50 liters/hour). and has a relatively
lower degree of scientific error.
How it works?
• The plastic mesh micro-filter is particularly applicable to communities dealing
with natural disaster. These communities do not have time to set up a
ceramic filter making operation or build a sediment filter. The filters are
extremely lightweight and much cheaper than shipping in bottles of purified
water.

44
 • These filters would help save money and empower individuals to obtain their
own water without relying on the next shipment to arrive in relief situations.
• The final development concerning the plastic mesh micro-filter is the surge
in use of bioplastics. Bioplastics are created from agricultural crops instead of
from petroleum. These biodegradable plastics are more sustainable, and
have potential to fit in the filter market. The only problem with bioplastics is
that they decompose over time, which causes pores to enlarge and water to
become contaminated
Advantages
• The plastic mesh micro filter is cheap, recyclable, and the pore sizes are
easily controlled.
• Having a such a controlled product creates higher reliability and allows for
99.9% elimination of contaminants larger than the manufactured pore size.
• The filter is a recyclable solution that can be mass produced and the
positive global effect would outweigh the negative aspects concerning the
products sustainability.
Disadvantages
• The plastic mesh micro-filter is currently not sustainable, nor can it be
manufactured in most unindustrialized nations.
• It is also important to keep in mind that much of this data is based on
current research or industrial applications, and flow rates will change
drastically when they are not used in combination with a pumping system
• The problems with the filter are that it requires advanced processing
techniques, uses petroleum based plastic material, and is not very
sustainable.
Recommendations
• If the filter can be made more recyclable and easier to manufacture, it will
be much more suitable as a sustainable technology.
• Being able to locally produce such a filter would have extremely positive
results.

45
 • It is recommended that the mesh filter be used only in emergency
situations.

• If the decomposition of bioplastics can be reduced in filtering applications,

this will make the plastic mesh micro-filter a much more sustainable option.
4. Activated carbon filter
• Activated carbon filter media is relatively common, and is found in Brita or
PUR filters. The activation of carbon occurs when charcoal or matter rich in
carbon is treated with oxygen.
Manufacturing process:
• As water is forced through an activated carbon filter certain compounds
adhere to the gaps. Eventually the gaps become full and the filter will need to
be replaced.
• Substances that adhere to the gaps include chlorine, organic arsenic.
How it works?
• According to a search it was found that an activation can be achieved by
passing water vapor (C +H2O CO+H2), air (C +0.5O2 CO) or carbon dioxide-
bearing gases (C +CO2 2CO) through a carbon substance at 700-900˚C.
• This opens up the pores between carbon atoms that are highly attractive to
many organic and some inorganic compounds.

Advantages
• The activated carbon filter makes water taste good and eliminates chlorine
and various organic compounds.
Disadvantages
• This filter does not filter out nearly enough contaminants, and cannot be
considered as primary filter.
• AC [activated carbon] filtration should only be used on water that has been
tested and found to be free of bacteria or effectively treated for pathogenic
bacteria

46
5. Solar Pasteurizer
• The solar pasteurizer is technically not a filter. The solar pasteurizer is a
device proven to eliminate bacteria from water.
• The pasteurizer is a combination of reflective materials that focus sunlight,
a dark container that absorbs sunlight, and insulating materials to prevent
heat loss.
Manufacturing process:
• There are many ways to construct a solar pasteurizer such as conical shape
and box shape but no matter how it is constructed it is essential that there
is must be tight seals and appropriate materials selected to work with.
How it works?
• The device is placed in the sunlight until the water reached 65˚C. At this
temperature bacteria will die, and the water will be purified.
• Users of solar pasteurizers will need a thermometer or wax indicator to
determine when water is ready for consumptions. When a wax indicator
reaches 65˚C it shrinks, becomes unbalanced, and flips over in the water.
• This signals the completion of the pasteurization process.
• The wax filter re-expands when it cools and can be used over indefinitely.
Advantages
• Once constructed a solar pasteurizer requires nothing more than a sunny
day in order to eliminate bacteria.
• The wax indicator is preferred over a thermometer because it is cheaper,
more sustainable, and does not contain mercury.
Disadvantages
• If there is no sunlight, it is impossible to heat the water to 65˚C.
• The solar pasteurizer also does not remove chemicals, hard metals, or very
many viruses.

47
 TABLE 2

As a conclusion the most efficient filters must contain:

• Bacteria Removal
• Hard Metal Removal
• Virus Removal
• Chemical Removal

Soil sensors types:

With all the different types of Soil Moisture Sensors and measurement techniques
and the different technologies that they employ, choosing the right one can be a
confusing and time-consuming process.

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Sensors

Soil Moisture Sensors that use the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) function in a
somewhat similar way to FDR probes, but the mechanics behind the measurement
48
system are different. TDR sensors propagate a pulse down a line into the soil, which
is terminated at the end by a probe with wave guides. TDR systems measure the
determine the water content of the soil by measuring how long it takes the pulse to
come back.
TDR soil moisture measurement devices require a device to generate the electronic
pulse and need to be carefully calibrated in order to precisely measure the amount
of time it takes for the pulse to propagate down the line and back again. They are
also sensitive to the saline content of salt and relatively expensive compared to
some measurement methods. However, TDR devices do respond quickly to
varying soil moisture.
Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR) Sensors
There are many soil moisture probes on the market today that use the Frequency
Domain Reflectometry method (FDR) of soil measurement. This method of
measurement also uses an oscillator to propagate an electromagnetic signal through
a metal tine or other wave guide, but with this method, the difference between the
output wave and the return wave frequency is measured to determine soil moisture.
Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR) probes are considered accurate but must
be calibrated for the type of soil they will be buried in. They offer a faster response
time compared to Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) probes and can be connected
to a standard data logger to collect readings.
Coaxial Impedance Dielectric Reflectometry Sensors
Soil Misture Probes that use the Coaxial Impedance Dielectric
Reflectometry method of soil moisture measurement employ an oscillator to
generate an electromagnetic signal that is propagated through the unit (usually by
metal tines or other wave guide) and into the soil.
Part of this signal will be reflected back to the unit by the soil, and the sensor will
measure the amplitude of this reflected signal and the incident signal in volts . The
ratio of these raw voltages is used in a mathematical numerical solution
to Maxwell’s equations to first calculate the impedance, then
both real and imaginary dielectric permittivities which in turn is used to accurately
estimate soil water content.
The Stevens Hydra Probe is the only commercially available sensor to use the Coaxial
Impedance Dielectric Reflectometry methodalong with complex computations in

49
soil measurement, resulting in the Hydra Probe’s high measurement accuracy. The
soil measurement computations are performed by a microcontroller inside the
Hydra Probe, making it easy to use as the probe can output results in standard
engineering units.
Gypsum Blocks
Gypsum blocks Soil Moisture probes use two electrodes placed into a small block of
gypsum to measure soil water tension. Wires connected to the electrodes are
connected to either a portable hand-held reader or a data logger. The amount of
water in the soil is determined by the electrical resistance between the two
electrodes within the gypsum block. More water present in the soil will reduce the
resistance, while less water will increase it.
While gypsum blocks can be relatively inexpensive and easy to install compared to
other types of soil sensors, they have to be replaced periodically as the gypsum
disintegrates. Gypsum blocks are also more sensitive to having readings throwing
off by soil with high salinity (salt content).
Neutron Probes
Neutron probes are another way to measure soil moisture content. A probe
inserted in the ground emits low-level radiation in the form of neutrons. These
collide with the hydrogen atoms contained in water, which is detected by the probe.
The more water content in the soil, the more neutrons are scattered back at the
device.
Neutron Soil Moisture probes are very accurate measurement devices when used
properly but are expensive compared to most other measurement methods and
generally have to be registered with the federal government due to radioactive
elements used to emit the neutrons.
Gravimetric Probes
Gravimetric soil moisture measurement involves taking a sample of the soil from the
site, weighing the sample, drying it in an oven for 24 hours and then re-weighing
it to determine how much water was lost.
This soil measurement technique is inexpensive and easy to execute, but the long
wait time from sample to result and the process cannot be automated. It is also
difficult to obtain data from moderate soil depths as digging a new sample each time
is necessary.

50
When using a soil moisture sensor, it’s important to know what type of soil you’re
dealing with in order to ensure the most accurate results possible. The following
video will help you to understand what type of soil you have.

Solutions Already tried:

1. Sewage Wastewater Treatment Plant
Untreated or undertreated sewage is a major source of water pollution. So
nationwide measurement should be taken to build new sewage treatment
plants and upgrade the existing ones to meet the acceptable sewage-
effluent disposal limit. Sewage effluent disposal outlets to nearby creek and
water bodies that do not have sufficient self-cleansing capacity need to be
replaced. Either stringent treatment technologies need to be adopted or a
longer effluent disposal structure need to be rebuilt to find a larger suitable
water body, Wastewater treatment plants, also called sewage treatment
plants or water pollution control plants, remove most pollutants from
wastewater before it is released to local waterways. At the plants, physical
and biological processes closely duplicate how wetlands, rivers, streams and
lakes naturally purify water. Treatment at these plants is quick, taking only
about seven hours to remove most of the pollutants from the wastewater.
We will show an example of this system in Egypt,

2. Cairo's Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater Treatment Process :
Every day, wastewater goes down toilets and drains in homes, schools,
businesses and factories and then flows into Egypt sewer system. Runoff
from rain, street and sidewalk washing, and other outdoor activities flows
into catch basins in the streets and from there into the sewers. In some
Cairo City neighborhoods, runoff from the streets is carried by separate
storm sewers directly to local streams, rivers and bays. In most areas of the
City, sanitary and industrial wastewater, rainwater and street runoff are
collected in the same sewers and then conveyed together to the City's
treatment plants. This is known as a combined sewer system. Sometimes,
during heavy rains or snow, combined sewers fill to capacity and are unable
to carry the combined sanitary and storm sewage to the plants. When this
51
 occurs the mix of excess storm water and untreated sewage flows directly
into the City's waterways. This is called combined sewer overflow (CSO).
Approximately 70 percent of the City sewers are combined.
Advantages:
1. Capable of removing 97% of suspended solids
2. Biological nitrification without adding chemicals
3. Oxidation and nitration achieved
4. Biological phosphorous removal
5. Solids and liquids separation
6. Removes organics
7. Cost effective
8. Easily maintained mechanical work
9. Self-sustaining system
Disadvantages:
1. Cleaning is a hassle
2. Most plants need at least three tanks FIGURE 34

4. Temperature changes affect the tank

greatly

2. Harvesting Fog:
This is one water harvesting technique that is not new to mankind. In the Andes for
example, the Inca Empire generated water from harvesting fog from the cloud
forests in the Andes by building fog fences above the rain line. The Inca’s then
condensed the fog into usable water. The practice is still alive and well in Chile and
has received a technology boost from the Mechanical Engineering Department of
MIT. There are now modern fog fences which collect water for agricultural and
drinking water use.
Advantages:
Level of investment is very low in this technology, as the method is highly
inexpensive in terms of installation, operation and maintenance. It is also

52
environmentally friendly, having no significant impact on the environmental
resources.

Disadvantages:
The method is not suitable for large-scale applications
The method also calls for a specific combination of climatic and topographical
conditions for best results
The availability of installation sites for fog harvesting is somewhat limited
Harvesting structures are massive and hence may be visually invasive at times.
3.The Jonglei Phase I was to have been the first, crucial step in the development of
upper Nile projects.
Advantages:
The project would have increased the mean flow at Aswan by an estimated 3.8
billion cubic meters, to be shared equally by Egypt and Sudan. Construction
began in 1978, but was halted in 1983 because of civil war in southern Sudan. It
is difficult to foresee when, if ever, the Jonglei Canal might be complete.
4. Usaid

USAID invested more than $3.5 billion to help bring potable water and sanitation
services to over 25 million Egyptians to improve Egyptian health and environment

a- 1980s
USAID initially targeted construction and rehabilitation of wastewater systems in
Cairo, Alexandria, and the three Suez Canal Cities.

In Cairo, USAID funded a $727 million project from 1984-2006 to improve

wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal on the West Bank of Cairo.

A high level of saline and contaminated groundwater, due to leaking sewers and
the regional influence of irrigation practices on the water table, threatened the
structural integrity of several buildings and historic momunents in this area.

After lowering the groundwater table to safe levels, USAID installed new and
improved sewerage services that benefit hundreds of thousands of citizens in

53
some of the poorest and most densely populated areas of central Cairo – and
allowed commerce to grow.

USAID funded the installation of an entire piped sewage collection network in

Alexandria that eliminated untreated sewage from Alexandria’s streets and
Mediterranean Sea beaches. As a result, infant mortality rates and waterborne
diseases dropped by 80 percent. Built in the late 1980s, the construction and
rehabilitation of seven pump stations and the two major wastewater treatment
plants in Alexandria anticipated projected population growth until 2010 – these
plants continue to function, but increased population has put a strain on these
facilities.

1990s
In the early 1990s, USAID focused on smaller cities in the Delta, South Sinai, and
Upper Egypt. Construction of over 30 water treatment and wastewater facilities in
Fayoum, Beni Suef, and Minya governorates were constructed to benefit more
than three million people. However, given the downward trend in fertility rates at
the time, the systems did not anticipate such rapid population growth – there are
now nearly 11 million people living in those three governorates.

USAID shifted focus in the late 1990s from water construction activities to
institutional and policy reforms, with cost recovery efforts as the centerpiece. In
2004, USAID helped the Government of Egypt establish the Holding Company for
Water and Wastewater (HCWW), a national umbrella organization to standardize
and govern local water utilitity companies, as well as the Egyptian Water
Regulatory Authority. USAID also launched a program to strengthen the policy,
legal, and regulatory framework for water distribution and access. By 2011, eleven
of HCWW’s 24 subsidiaries have been able to achieve cost recovery for operations
and maintenance and the others have made great strides toward sustainability and
self-sufficiency – as well as improving operating efficiencies, billing, and collection
systems. Recently, in a major breakthrough supported by USAID, Egypt’s Cabinet
approved a tariff structure for the water sector that will allow HCWW to achieve
operations and maintenance cost recovery in less than five years, and full cost
recovery and sustainability in ten.

54
2000s
With reforms in place, USAID is focusing again on increasing access to clean water
and sanitation services in underserved rural areas. These residents suffer from
unreliable and sometimes low-quality potable water service and lack of
wastewater connections and treatment. Water pollution in canals and drains still
represents the greatest threat to public health in these villages, as wastewater is
discharged without treatment to agricultural drains and canals and carries the risk
of waterborne disease. Further, population growth has led to an expansion of
settlements over the heavily polluted, unsanitary waterways, putting villagers
further at risk.

USAID efforts will improve access to services for 650,000 residents in these areas –
services that are essential to the health of the residents and the economy of Upper
Egypt. Not only do better water and wastewater services and facilities contribute
to improvements in tourism, trade, and investment, but they also create
thousands of job opportunities for day laborers to construct facilities. For instance,
in the Baheeg community in Assiut Governorate, USAID worked directly with the
local municipal water and wastewater holding company to construct a $2.6 million
slow sand filter treatment plant with the capacity to supply 10,000 households
(50,000 persons) with potable water. An additional $150,000 was used to fund the
installation of a distribution pipeline to tie the Baheeg community to the plant
using local unskilled labor and provided 1,700-person days of local employment.

Source[USAID]

Advantages:

1-the USAID projects regarded different aspects of water development

2-They covered different places all over the country and wasn’t concentrated on
Cairo and Alexandria only like most of development projects

55
3-they are long-term projects
were designed to function for a
long time.

5. Cloud seeding in Egypt

Egypt may use cloud seeding (a

technique that involves infusing
cloud with chemicals to
increase water FIGURE 35

condensation) to provide a new source of water

List of Pros of Cloud Seeding

a. It creates rain.
One big benefit of cloud seeding is being able to create rain in regions
that are most affected by droughts, lessening the impact of the harsh
climate. By using the technique, farms can yield more crops due to
the fact that farmers will be able to grow plants in areas that might
not have supported them in the past. This means cloud seeding can
get rid of famine in the future.
b. It makes all areas more hospitable.
There are dry regions of the world that are not habitable or even
unsuitable for a visit due to drought. However, cloud seeding can
allow for increased rainfall in these areas, making them more
hospitable.
c. It could regulate the weather.
Many of the best areas to grow crops face severe weather, which can
bring about damage to the produce.
d. It would allow for economic improvement.
If farmers can grow and sell more crops, then the overall economy of
a region would be greatly improved.
e. It can provide relief to those drought-stricken areas.
Cloud seeding promotes the formation of raindrop, which is essential
for drought-stricken regions or places that are suffering from water
scarcity.

56
 f. It can reduce crop damage because of precipitation.
This technology has been effectively used to suppress undesirable
forms of precipitation

List of disadvantages
a. It uses potentially harmful chemicals.

b. It is not really proven to be effective.

c. It may affect the weather in a negative way.

d. It can pose a negative risk for living organisms.

e. It requires huge amounts of investments.

f. It can lead to flooding and undesirable weather problems.

6. Nanotechnology in filtration:

According to the World Health Organisation, 1.6 million people die each year from
diarrhoeal diseases attributable to lack of safe drinking water as well as basic
sanitation. Researchers in India have come up with a solution to this perennial
problem with a water purification system using nanotechnology.

advantages:

• The technology removes microbes, bacteria and other matter from water
using composite nanoparticles, which emit silver ions that destroy
contaminants. "Our work can start saving lives
• For just $2.50 a year you can deliver safe water for a family.
• It demonstrates the principle of low-cost water purification.
• Lower discharge volumes, lower retentate concentrations than RO for low
value salts;
• Reduction salt content and dissolved matter content (TDS) in brackish water;
• Reduction in heavy metals and nitrates
• Reduction in color, tannins and turbidity;
• Softens hard water when specific softening membranes are used;

57
 • “chemical-free”, e.g. needs no salt or chemicals during operation;
• pH of water after Nano-filtration is normally non-aggressive;
• Disinfection.

Disadvantages:

1) sensitivity to free chlorine

2) more expensive than reverse osmosis filters
3) High energy consumption

7. Membrane chemistry:

• Filtration Membranes, through which water passes to be filtered and

purified, are integral to modern water treatment processing. The pores of
membranes used in ultrafiltration can be just 10 or 20 nanometers
• Recent breakthroughs have been credited with forcing down the cost of
desalinated water from $1 per cubic meter to between $0.80 and $0.50 over
five years. New ceramic membranes are helping to make treatment more
affordable.

Advantages:

a. Membrane filtration can be an alluring alternative for little frameworks

because of its little size and computerized operation.

b. Layer forms are progressively utilized for expulsion of microbes and different
microorganisms, particulate material, and characteristic natural material,
which can bestow shading, tastes, and scents to water.

Disadvantages:

• Fouling of the layers is the significant issue forestalling boundless use

of this innovation.

8. Smart monitoring:
In developing countries alone, it is estimated that 45m cubic meters are lost every
day in distribution networks. Leaks are not only costly for companies, but increase

58
pressure on stretched water resources and raise the likelihood of pollutants
infiltrating supplies.

Advantages:

a) enable organizations to guarantee the integrity of their water to supply

systems. Electronic instruments, for example, pressure and acoustic sensors,
associated remotely continuously in the process of smart monitoring.
b) New monitoring technologies monitoring systems will allow companies to
detect and pinpoint leaks much quicker.

Disadvantages:

• Sometimes inaccuracy and lack of self-sustainability

9.Intelligent irrigation:
Approximately 70% of the world's freshwater is used by the agricultural industry.
Applying a more intelligent approach to water management by deploying precision
irrigation systems and computer algorithms and modelling is already beginning to
bring benefits to farmers in developed countries.

Advantages:

One of the most obvious advantages is the time savings afforded by an automatic
sprinkler or drip irrigation system.

can be positioned so that water is more effectively targeted where it is needed.

Disadvantages:

These systems can be quite costly depending on the size of the property.

59
Sources APA:
Responding to rapid population growth in Egypt, retrieved feb.13th ,2017 from
http://www.prb.org/Publications/Reports/2014/egypt-rapid-population-growth.aspx

Abdel-Shafy, H., & Aly, R. (2002). Water issue in Egypt: Resources, pollution and protection endeavors.
Navigation, 49(3.1), 4-6. Retrieved march 25th 2017 from
http://www.omfi.hu/cejoem/Volume8/Vol8No1/CE02_1-01.html

Mengistu, A. (2006). Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia View Article PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar. Retrieved March 27th 2017 from
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/counprof/egypt/egypt.html

C. (2015, August 19). 12 Important Pros and Cons of Cloud Seeding. Retrieved November 11, 2017, from
https://connectusfund.org/12-important-pros-and-cons-of-cloud-seeding

U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis. (n.d.). Retrieved
November 10, 2017, from https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=EGY

Noaman, M. N. (2017). Country Profile. Irrigated Agriculture in Egypt,1-8. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30216-

4_1

A. (n.d.). Water Challenges of Egypt IWRM. Retrieved December 20, 2017, from
http://www.nwrpeg.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=63%3Awater-
challenges-of-egypt-iwrm&catid=34%3Anews&Itemid=55

Perlman, U. H. (n.d.). Irrigation techniques. Retrieved December 2, 2017, from

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/irmethods.html

Soil Moisture Sensor: Types and technology. (2016, March 29). Retrieved December 9, 2017, from
https://www.auroras.eu/soil-moisture-sensor-types-and-technology/

Explain the traditional methods such as Chain Pump,Moat,Ra hat,Dhekli. Explain the traditional methods
such as Chain Pump,Moat,Ra hat,Dhekli. if(window.location.pathname.indexOf("/ask-
question/answer")>0){ $(".innerpage_hide_title_anchor").remove();
$(".innerpage_hide_title_span").show(); $(".innerpage_hide").remove(); $(".innerpage_hide1").show();
console.log(1); }else{ $(".innerpage_hide_title_span").remove(); $(".innerpage_hide1").remove();
console.log(2); }. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2017, from https://www.nextgurukul.in/nganswers/ask-
question/answer/Explain-the-traditional-methods-such-as-Chain-PumpMoatRa-hatDhekli/Crop-
Production-and-Management/7617.htm

Irrigation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2017, from

http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/irrigation

Northeast Region Certified Crop Adviser (NRCCA) Study Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2017,
from https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soil/CA3/CA0324.php

Water and Sanitation | Egypt. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2017, from

https://www.usaid.gov/egypt/water-and-sanitation

60
GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON (GAC) FACT SHEET(Rep.). (2016). Retrieved December 1, 2017, from
Water quality association website:
https://www.wqa.org/Portals/0/Technical/Technical%20Fact%20Sheets/2016_GAC.pdf

ANALYSIS-Egypt spat fuels water tension in Nile Basin. (2010, April 27). Retrieved November 06, 2017,
from https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE62R09C

El-Sadek, A. Water Resour Manage (2010) 24: 2437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9560-9

http://www.nwrpeg.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=63:water-challenges-of-
egyptiwrm&catid=34:news&Itemid=55

Drinking water treatment plant residuals management technical reports (Rep.). (2011, September).
Retrieved December 3, 2017, from United states environmental protection agency website:
https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/drinkingwater/EPA_water_treatment_manual_%20filtration1.pdf

Design Requirements:
The effective solution for these problems must contain some characteristics:
1. Efficiency, as it should demonstrate a proven water saving technique
That at least saves 50% of the water usage.
2. Capable of producing neutral, usable water for drinking or irrigation
So that it won’t harm the soil
3. Solids and liquids separation, because some solids associated with water can be
toxic for plant and can carry viruses, bacteria and rust from pipes.
4. Cost effective
5. Self-sustaining system
6. environmentally friendly, having no significant impact on the environmental
resources.
7. suitable for large-scale applications
8. suitable for various climatic and topographical conditions, so that it becomes a
general solution and not restricted on some conditions only.
9. Solves various problems such as; the sources scarcity, water leakage problem
by using technological devices and scientific hypothesis
10.Can reduce crop damage, by controlling the amount of water entering the plant
11.Doesn’t Use potentially harmful chemicals for treatment , transportation or
other.

61
 Selection of solution

In Order to accomplish our goal to make a successful solution concerning the

water problems in Egypt, we have worked on some features that make our
solution efficient when compared to other solutions.
Our solution is a process that decreases the usage of water in many fields and
solve the problem in the largest consumption of water field which is agriculture.
We based our solution on the research and the prior solutions ‘advantages and
disadvantages, our solution is a process including Domestic water management,
Decentralized Reverse osmosis filtration, Water storage, smart irrigation ( SDI –
Subsurface drip irrigation ) but regarding each’s disadvantages, developing them
and enhancing their efficiency.
Our solutions have some characteristics that already meet the challenge's design
requirements such as:
1: irrigation method high efficiency as it decreases the amount of water entering a
plant and as a result it reduces crop damage.
2: the system is simple to manufacture and can be applied to small and large
applications
3: the system can be manipulated to be self-sustaining
4: the system can reduce the crop damage as it won't give the plant water more
than it's need
5: it can be suitable for various climatic and topographical condition

62
Our solution consists of 5 phases:

1-Indoors water conservation:

Pipes: Using of Pressure-reducing valves or PRVs due to its

advantages that it can be used to control the pressure in
the Incoming main or the distribution system. They can
result in reduction of problems happening due to high
pressure, such as; excessive water consumption and
exacerbate leakage.
The valve can be preset or adjustable. PRVs can typically
accept delivery pressures of up to 25bar (2 500 kPa) and
deliver a pressure of 1.5 - 6bar (150 - FIGURE 36
600 kPa) under variable flow
conditions

Taps:
Using Nozzle sprays/Jets to increase
FIGURE 37
the flow rate using Bernoulli’s law Q
(Flow rate) =A (cross sectional area) *v (velocity)
We will manage domestic water by supporting the water taps with nozzle jets in
order to increase the velocity of the water and as a result, the water flow rate so
that it would be more efficient in cleaning and will also serve in the next phases.

2-Waste water treatment:

Membrane Filtration: We will Treat the water Using Membrane filtration, due to
its advantages that it is suitable for small systems because of its small size and
automated operation. Membrane processes are increasingly employed for removal
of bacteria and other microorganisms, and natural organic material. Paper and
other fibrous filter media retain waterborne particles, including microbes, by
straining them out based on size exclusion, sediment them within the depth of the
filter matrix or by adsorbing them to the filter medium surface.

They have only one disadvantage, the accumulation of contaminates on the

membranes.
63
To solve this problem our solution will have adsorbent pipe that will be connected
to the membranes to adsorb particles continuously

Reverse osmosis:
Reverse osmosis works by using a
high-pressure pump to increase the
pressure on the salt side of the RO
and force the water across the
semi-permeable RO membrane,
leaving almost all (around 95% to
FIGURE 38
99%)of dissolved salts behind in
the reject stream.
The amount of pressure required depends on the salt concentration on the feed
water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more pressure required to
overcome the osmotic pressure.

The Reverse Osmosis Filter membrane consists mainly of three layers that catch
contaminants:
1-Polyamide: it is proved that it is resistant to acids of high pH like nitric, sulfuric
and carbolic acids
2-Polysulfone like the polyamide but with narrower pores that blocks several
materials.
3-Polyester: acid-resistance and excellent resistance against elevated temperature
up to 302℉.

Reverse osmosis is among one of the best membrane filters’ methods as it is not
expensive nor hard to manufacture comparative to other membranes like
nanotechnology membranes, and it is efficient in separating water and solids.

GAC:
In our solution the granular activated carbon (GAC) works as second filtration
phase.

64
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and most state-based
departments of health consider adsorption by granular activated carbon (GAC) to
be the best available technology for the removal of many organic materials as:
1-it removes and retains the negatively charged viruses and bacteria
effectively by electrostatic adsorption.
2-it can be used for de-chlorination. And the removal of Disinfection
byproducts (DBPs) associated with chlorine and alternative disinfectants too
much chlorine in the soil can cause scorched or burned appearance. Leaf
tissue may appear bleached, instead FIGURE 39
of scorched. Leaves may be smaller
than usual. They may yellow and
drop early. Chlorine toxicity can
result from air pollution, in the form
of chlorine gas, or from excess
chloride in the soil.
3-Algal toxins, such as microcystin-
LR and anatoxin-A
4-Bacteria, viruses and parasites such
as cryptosporidium and giardia
5-Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC)
6-Pharmaceuticals and personal EQUATION 1
care products (PPCP)
7-Taste and odor-causing compounds (T&O) 8-Organic materials from
decaying plants and other naturally occurring matter (NOM) which serve as
the precursors for DBPs

So, in our solution it will be only two filtration phases, coagulation (by RO
Membranes) and disinfection (by GAC) considering that mostly the domestic waste
water has a pre-filtration like a rapid mixing.

3-Storage:
After the water is treated it is stored in a tank left underground; so, it won’t be
affected with the heat energy and will have less evaporation rate.

65
4-Soil Moisture Sensor: The moisture sensor detects the amount of water
occurring in the soil, connecting a soil moisture sensor to a simple irrigation system
will convert it into a "smart" irrigation controller that prevents irrigation cycles
when the soil is already wet.

In case the tank is empty we have enhanced the smart application of sensor with
LED lamps to notify the farmers when the plants need water.
So if he observe the emptiness of the tank he can refill it.

5-SDI
(Subsurface drip irrigation) Subsurface drip irrigation is suitable for our
requirements as it reduces the consumption of water as it is suitable for various
soil types
a- Drip/trickle irrigation systems are methods of micro irrigation where water is
applied through emitters to the soil surface transporting water, drop by
drop or as small streams. The discharge rate of the emitters is low. The
system should maintain adequate levels of soil moisture in the rooting areas,
fostering the best use of available nutrients and a suitable environment for
healthy plant roots systems. Managing the exact moisture requirement for
each plant, the system significantly reduces water wastage and promotes
efficient use. Compared to surface irrigation, which can provide 60 per cent
water-use efficiency and sprinklers systems which can provide 75 per cent
efficiency, drip irrigation can provide as much as 90 per cent water-use
efficiency.
b- Subsurface drip irrigation is a low-pressure, high efficiency irrigation system
that uses buried drip tubes or drip tape to meet crop water needs.
Subsurface water and improves yields by eliminating surface water
evaporation and reducing the incidence of weeds and disease.

FIGURE 40

66
Selection of prototype:
The design requirements we chose to test the prototype are
• Solids and liquids separation
• Doesn’t Use potentially harmful chemicals
• Cost effective
• Solves various problems such as; the sources scarcity, water leakage
problem by using technological devices and scientific hypothesis
• environmentally friendly, having no significant impact on the
environmental resources

To be easy to manufacture we have replaced some characteristics in the solution

with other handy solutions that will also accomplish the same target.
For example, we replaced the RO membranes with ordinary wax membranes, that
will as well remove particles and color from water.
We used bottles and trunks to simulate pipes and channels, as they both can serve
water.

the prototype achieves our design

requirements as
1: solid liquid separation as we put gauze to
separate solids from the liquid
2: Doesn’t Use potentially harmful chemicals
as we use filter for treatment which doesn't
use chemicals
3: Doesn’t cause ecological disruption as the
system doesn't affect the soil, water and air
4: Solves various problems such as; the
sources scarcity, water leakage problem by
using technological devices and scientific
hypothesis [Figure41] as we use a pump
connected to an Arduino to control the
FIGURE 41
movement of water

67
5: environmentally friendly, having no significant impact on the environmental
resources because we made sure not to use chemicals so that we won’t pollute the
soil or water and we want to use alternative energy as source of energy for the
pump and Arduino

Materials [TABLE 3&4] and methods

System Construction:
1-We brought the Arduino UNO board, soil moisture sensor, pump, LEDs and relay
and connected them to each other using the breadboard and jumpers. We
connected a resistance to the circuit so that neither the lamp nor the pump is
damaged due to increase of current intensity.
2-After making sure that the connections are correct we wrote the code for the
moisture sensor to create our auto-watering system, so that the pump works when
the soil needs water and the LED lamps work in contrast. (and vice versa).
Then we uploaded the code on the Arduino board.
3-We Made a filter using the bottle, the filter phase, and the charcoal.
4- To store the water we made an acrylic box in the fab lab and connected it to the
pump and the filter using soaker hose which we inserted the drippers in.
TABLE 3

Material Cost
Acrylic Box -
Arduino UNO 140L.E
Soil Moisture Sensor 90L.E
Jumpers 7L. E
Breadboard 24L.E
LEDs 8L. E
Relay Module 20L.E
Resistors -
Water Pump 75L. E
Filter Phase 10L. E
Empty bottles -
Hoses and Soaker Hoses 2L. E
Soil Sample -
68
 Drippers -
Charcoal -
Total 376L.E

School
Lampa troniks
Future Electronics
Lampa Troniks
Lampa troniks
Lampa Troniks
Lampa troniks
School Fab lab
Pet shop
ElHayah filters
Home
Fac. of Agriculture
School
Fac. Of Agriculture

TABLE 4
Safety Precautions:
1- Making sure that the wires are covered so they won’t discharge electricity
2- Using the cutter and other tools carefully so that nobody would cut his
hands or get hurt somehow.
3- Having a medic kit with the group in case someone had an injury, bruise, cut,
or burn by accident during our work.
4- In the efficiency test, making sure that we are holding the beaker properly
so that it won’t break and cut our hands.

69
 5- In the pH test, using pH scale carefully so that it won’t get Source
damaged
6- Making sure that there is no pores or gaps between the acrylic
sides so that it won’t leak any water

Test Plan:
From the previous discussed requirements and characteristics that a successful
solution should obtain we have chosen specific requirements to test in our
prototype which are:
1. Efficiency, as it should demonstrate a proven water saving technique
That at least saves 50% of the water.
2. Capable of producing neutral, usable water for drinking or irrigation
3. Self-sustaining system
4. suitable for various climatic and topographical conditions

Test methods

Efficiency Test:
1. To test the efficiency, we used two 500ml beakers.
2. We filled the first one with 200ml of water and poured it through the filter to
observe the water loss. We did it thrice to avoid the error in measurement.

The Ability to produce Neutralized Water:

To make sure that our system doesn’t affect the acidity of the water we test
the pH of the water
1. We tested the pH of the water by passing water by our system and measuring
the pH before and after passing by the filter
2. We used a pH Scale and two beakers to do this test

Sustainability:
To make sure that it is a self-sustaining system we have to be sure that it requires
less manual use to be activated
70
 In order to test it we:
1. Put the water in the filter
2. Connect the device to electricity outlet
3. Put the soil moisture sensor in soil
4. Observe for a period of time

Suitability for various topographical and climatic conditions:

1. Using various soil types to make sure that our management process is
universal and isn’t restricted on a specific soil type
2. Observing and Data collection

Amount of water(in) Amount of water(out) Efficiency percentage

First trial 200ml 185ml 92.5%

Second trial 220ml 200ml 90.9%

Third trial 210ml 202.25 96.3%

Average 93.2%

Data Collection:
Efficiency test:
We have repeated the test thrice to make sure it is accurate and reliable and we have got a
result of an average 93.2% application efficieny as our device is capable of producing water of
high quality and quantity with losses of about 7% which is really efficient
Table 5

71
 TABLE 6

TABLE7

Before the filter After the filter

First trial 7.59ph 7.60ph

Second trial 7.69ph 7.70ph

Third trial 7.65ph 7.66ph

Average 7.64ph 7.65ph

Average Increase in pH 0.01PH+

pH test: [Table 7]
we had to make sure that the acidity is not affected by the treatment nor the
storage process so we had tested the pH of the water before and after passing by
our device and we have founded that there’s a possible increase of 0.01Ph to
water.
Sustainability:

72
To test the sustainability, we poured water into our system and we kept it and
observed for a time to see if it has a self-sustainable system or not.
Using dry soil in first case, we observed that automatically the water was flowing
from the tank to the soil and after short time it has stopped pumping water.
In the second case we used wet water in the same previous conditions and found
that the water in the tank wasn’t pumped into the soil until 10 hours passed and
the water was pumped automatically ; as the plant have absorbed the water.
In conclusion, pump will not work nor pump the water unless the soil needs water.

Conclusions:
From the search and the tests’ results we observed that our solution have
obtained the successful solution design requirements we have detected as:
1. The solution has high efficiency as the filter has efficiency of 93.2%.
2. The pH of the water before and after treatments have a negligible change (from
the test it was 0.01) which means that the water remains valid for agriculture as
agriculture water pH level should range between 6 and 8.
3. Concluded form sustainability test, the system is self-sustaining it doesn’t need
any interference if people.
4. The drip irrigation method uses small amount of water compared to other ways
and systems and is considered an efficient management application.
using subsurface technique enhance the technique efficiency and overcomes the
drip irrigation disadvantages like; being not suitable for some types of soil, and
having water not reaching the root of some thick plants.
5. The filter have demonstrated a high efficiency and produced neutral usable
water without using or producing hazardous chemicals or any other substances
affecting the productivity of the plants or the balance of the ecosystem.
6. This solution can be used as a small scale like in the prototype made and still
work efficiently.

73
7. it can be used in other fields besides agriculture like industrial field.
8. The solution saves time and energy of the farmer or worker in the farms or
industries.

Recommendations:
1. We recommend using solar cell as a source of electricity for the Arduino and for
the water pump.
2. That the tank will be underground to prevent the evaporation.
3. To use modern drippers to decrease the amount of water used.
4. That the materials of the pipes and tanks should have low cohesion with the
liquids; such as PVC pipes.
5. Modify the plants to GMO (genetic modified organisms) to increase the number
of crops and decrease the amount of used water.
6. To apply the system on fertilizers besides water.
7. Improve the soil moisture sensor to increase its range and accuracy.

Learning transfer:

Chemistry l.o1 We knew different we understood the

types of water and properties of
outline the different types of
purification of the water and how to
water supply treat the water and
according to it we
chose the most
efficient and most
reliable filter to us.
l.o2 Demonstrate we took colligative
understanding that properties cohesion
water from different and adhesion and
natural sources determined the
contains different material of the tank
varieties of dissolved and pipes according
substances, discuss to it which has low

74
 the environmental cohesion so that the
sources and effects water will not be
of the dissolved stuck to the surface
substances and the of the materials
properties of water because if it has high
cohesion it would
decrease the
efficiency.
Computer science l.o1 C+ language and used it to make and
programming insert the data to the
Arduino.
Earth science l.o1 The unusual we took about the
properties of water water cycle, its
contribute to its phases, types and
pathways through properties. This
earth's systems. helped us to know
the type of water we
are going to use in
our solution and
which phase does
the wasting of water
happens.
l.o2 factors which affect we learnt about the
water reservoirs and different types of
associated costs reservoirs and chose
the best and most
reliable type for us to
work with.
l.o3 human and natural we learnt the wasting
factors that control of water how it
water resources and happens and in
options for water which field. We
conservation. learnt about how to
conserve and
manage the usage of
water.
l.o4 Movement of we learnt about the
pollutants into water filtration processes
reservoirs and and its types and
existing water chose the type to
treatment methods work on.
to create innovative
methods to supply
fresh water to areas
of Egypt.
physics l.o3 Concepts of electric we learnt about the
potential energy and circuits and how to

75
 voltage to analyze calculate volts,
the flow of current amperes and ohms.
through conductors We knew how to
and resistors connect the circuits
series and parallel
and we knew the
advantages and
disadvantages of
each type of
connections.
l.o4 Construct and we learnt about
analyze DC circuits different types of
with simple resistive materials used in the
elements circuit. We knew that
when we increase
the cross-sectional
area of the wire and
decrease the length
of the wire the
resistance decreases
and vice versa. It also
helped us to know
that when we
increase the
resistance and
connect it in series
with lamps the light
intensity will
increase.

76