A written Report in Geology for Civil Engineers

Submitted by:
Hedweck Caballes
Jucyl Barlovinto
Kyla Prieto
Ednalyn Lofranco
Wendy lyn Pasquera
Christien Vallecer
Joanne Zaspa
Jemar Pandamon
Wenmarie Quijano
Sherwin Pantoja
Rubyn Lucenio

Submitted to:
Engr. Michelle Daarol

February 5, 2020
 Geology and its branches

Geology is a relatively recent subject. In addition to its core branches,

advances in geology in allied fields have led to specialized sciences like
geophysics, geochemistry, seismology, oceanography and remote sensing.

Geology is the study of the earth (geo means earth, and ology means study

of). This is a very simple definition for something so complex. Geology involves
studying the materials that make up the earth, the features and structures found on
Earth as well as the processes that act upon them. Geology also deals with the
study of the history of all life that's ever lived on or is living on the earth now.
Studying how life and our planet have changed over time is an important part of
geology.

Historical geology is the study of the history of the earth. Historical

geologists focus on what's happened to Earth since its formation. They also study
the changes in life throughout time. In historical geology, you essentially get to
travel back in time to the formation of the earth and move forward through time,
witnessing the changes in Earth itself and the life on it
 
As we mentioned, there are many varieties of geology. There is so much to
know about our home planet that most geologists become specialists in one area.
These specialties are known as branches of geology, and have specific titles. For
example, a mineralogist studies mineral while a seismologist monitors earthquake to
help protect people and property from harm.

Main and Allied branches of geology:

 The vast subject of geology has been subjected into the following branches:
 

Main Branches                                                    Allied Branches

 
Physical geology                                                       Engineering mining
geology Mineralogy                                                   Petrology geology
geology                                                                     Stratigraphy
Geophysics
Geohydrology                                                              
Geochemistry Paleontology
Economic geology
 
Physical geology:
 
 This is also variously described as dynamic geology, geomorphology etc. It
deals with:
 
i)       Different physical features of the earth, such as mountains, plateaus,
valleys, rivers.lakes glaciers and volcanoes in terms of their origin and
development.
 
ii)   The different changes occurring on the earth surface like marine
transgression, marine regression, formation or disappearance of rivers, springs
and lakes.
 
iii) Geological work of wind, glaciers, rivers, oceans, and groundwater and their
role
in constantly moulding the earth surface features
iv) Natural phenomena like landslides, earthquakes and weathering.
 
Mineralogy:
 
This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic units with different
rocks and ores of the earth are made up of.
 
Details of mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association,
properties uses etc. of minerals form the subject matter of mineralogy. For example:
sometimes quartzite and marble resemble one another in shine, colour and
appearance while marble disintegrates and decomposes in a shorter period because
of its mineral composition and properties.

 Petrology:
 
Petrology deals with the study of rocks. The earth’s crust also called lithosphere is
made up of different types of rocks. Hence petrology deals with the mode of
formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and types of rocks. This is the
most important branch of geology from the civil engineering point of view.
Structural geology:
 
The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo various deformations,
dislocations and disturbances under the influence of tectonic forces. The result is the
occurrence of different geological structures like folds, fault, joints and
unconformities in rocks. The details of mode of formation, causes, types,
classification, importance etc of these geological structures from the subject matter
of structural geology.
 
Stratigraphy:
 
The climatic and geological changes including tectonic events in the
geological past can also be known from these investigations. This kind of study of
the earth's history through the sedimentary rock is called historical geology. It is also
called stratigraphy (Strata = a set of sedimentary rocks, graph description).
 
Economic geology:
 
Minerals can be grouped as general rock forming minerals and economic
minerals. Some of the economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica, asbestos,
gypsum, magnesite, diamond and gems. The details of their mode of formation,
occurrence, classification. Association, varieties, concentration, properties, uses
from the subject matter of economic geology. Further based on application of
geological knowledge in other fields there is many other allied branches collectively
called earth science.
 
Some of them described here are:
 
Engineering geology Mining geology
 
Geophysics Geohydrology Geochemistry
 
Engineering geology:
 
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil
engineering, for execution of safe, stable and economic constructions like dams,
bridges and tunnels.
 
 
Mining geology:
 
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of mining. A
mining engineer is interested in the mode and extent of occurrence of ores, their
association, properties etc. It is also necessary to know other physical parameters
like depth direction inclination thickness and reserve of the bodies for efficient
utilization. Such details of mineral exploration, estimation and exploration are dealt
within mining geology.
Geophysics:
 
The study of physical properties like density and magnetism of the earth or
its parts. To know its interior form the subject matter of geophysics. There are
different types of geophysical investigations-based ion the physical property utilized
gravity methods, seismic methods, magnetic methods. Engineering geophysics is a
 branch of exploration geophysics, which aims at solving civil engineering problems
by interpreting subsurface geology of the area concerned. Electrical resistivity
methods and seismic refraction methods are commonly used in solving civil
engineering problems.
 
Geohydrology:
 
This may also be called hydrogeology. It deals with occurrence, movement
and nature of groundwater in an area. It has applied importance because ground
water has many advantages over surface water. In general geological and
geophysical studies are together taken up for groundwater investigations.
 
Geochemistry:
 
This branch is relatively more recent and deals with the occurrence, distribution,
abundance, mobility etc, of different elements in the earth crust. It is not important
from the civil engineering point of view.
Earth’s Structure and Composition

Earth, as we know it, our home. It is the third planet from distant and the
biggest star on solar system. Earth is smaller than the planetary giants: Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune but larger than the other three rocky planets: Mars,
Mercury, and Venus. As we scale up and down, we will find that earth has a
diameter of roughly 13,000 kilometers and is approximately round by appearance.
This special place we call earth is a multi-structural system composed of various
section. These are the crust, mantle, and core.

The Crust
The crust is the land which we walk and consist of all rock soil and everything
you see above the earth surface. It is brittle in nature because during an earthquake
it is the crust that breaks easily causing a fault. Also the materials available in crust
has low density. It makes up less than 1% of the earth. And there are two types of
crust: Oceanic and Continental.

 Oceanic Crust. It is very dense and composed of Basalt. Underlies the ocean
basin and has a mean thickness of 5 kilometers.
 Continental Crust. The thick part of earth’s crust and three times thicker than
the oceanic crust and is around 30 kilometers. It is less dense and made of
granite.

The Mantle
The second layer of the earth is called mantle. It is located right from the end
of the crust and before the outer core. It is around 1,800 miles thick and made of
thick, solid rocky substances and amounts to about 85% of the total mass earth. It
consists of molten rock than can flows and move. Mantle is divide into two regions:
the upper and lower sections.

 Upper Mantle. The upper mantle begins just beneath the crust and ends at
the lower mantle. The thickness of the upper mantle is between 200 and 250
miles. The upper portion of the mantle called asthenosphere means weak.
Due to its weakness the magma fins way to the surface during volcanic
eruption. The temperature of this area is near the melting point so the molten
rock erupted by some volcanoes originates in this region of the mantle.
 Lower Mantle. The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere and it is
in solid state. This layer is also responsible for all of earth’s volcanic and
seismic activity because 2,900 kilometer thickness is pretty spacious area for
the formation of such natural catastrophe.
The Core
The third and final layer of the earth which is located beneath the mantle is
the core. it is made up heavy material mostly constituted by Nickel and Iron. It is also
called NIFE layer where Ni is the symbol of nickel and Fe is the symbol for iron. The
core is comprising of the inner and outer core.

 Outer Core. It's really a liquid. Core has an approximately 2,300 kilometer in
thickness It's extremely hot and under a lot of pressure. Especially important
is the idea that the outer core creates the Earth's magnetic field. It's a huge
magnet in the center of the planet.
 Inner Core. The inner core is under even more pressure. The temperature
ranges from 5,000-7,000 degrees Celsius. Even though it's just as hot as the
outer core, there is such high pressure that it stays solid. It has a thickness of
1,200 kilometer.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

The Continental Drift Theory

A theory founded by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist. This theory

explains how continents shift position over millions of years and once composed of a
single supercontinent called Pangea (a greek term which means “entire earth” or “all
of the earth”). Over millions of years, Earth’s land has moved and changed to form
minor supercontinents (Gondwana and Laurasia) into multiple continents (North
America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antartica).

Wegener couldn’t explain how and why the continents move apart. He came
up with 4 evidences to support his hypothesis.

1. Apparent fit of the continents- He noticed that the coastlines of several

continents looked like they fit together similar to puzzle pieces.
example: coastlines of Africa and South America

2. Fossil correlation- Identical fossils has been found in the rocks on either side
of the ocean.
examples:
mesosaurus- Fossils of an ancient reptile that only live in shallow fresh water
were found in the eastern coast of South America and Western coast of Africa

Glossopteris- Fossils of a family of seed ferns were found in Africa, South

America, India, and Antarctica

3. Rocks and Mountain correlation- Identical rocks and mountain structures have
been found on either side of the ocean
example:
Mountain ranges at the north eastern United States and the mountain ranges
on the northern Europe. Both made up of the same type of rock and the same
age of rock.

4. Paleoclimate data/ Past climate data- Coal has been found in cold regions
and glacial evidence has been found in warm regions
examples:
glacier- glacial strations (scratches formed when glaciers move over the
rocks) were found on the bedrocks of the tropical rain forest of South America
and Africa.

Bituminous coal- He studied the geologic literature and recognized that upper
Paleozoic (Carboniferous and Permian) strata in northwestern Europe strata
 contained extensive coals that could only have formed in a hot wet climate
like the present equatorial region.

Plate Tectonics Theory

Theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the
movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's surface. It is
responsible on how the continents was formed and reformed. The driving
mechanism of the earth’s mantle is called the convection current. The intense heat in
the core causes molten rock in the mantle layer to move. It moves in a pattern called
convection cell that forms when warm material rises, cools, and eventually sinks
down. As the cooled material sinks down, it is warmed and rises again.

The Earth is composed of multiple layers, which can be defined either by

composition (chemical layer) or by mechanical properties. The crust, mantle, and
core are defined by differences in composition. The lithosphere, asthenosphere,
mesosphere, and outer and inner cores are defined by differences in mechanical
properties.

There are three main types of plate boundaries. The convergent boundary,
divergent boundary, and transform boundary or also known as the conservative
boundary.

1. Convergent boundary-When two plates are moving towards each other.

1. Continental-continental -  If the two plates that meet at

a convergent plate boundary both consist of continental crust, they
will be pressed together and push upwards to create mountains.

2. Oceanic-oceanic - collisions between two oceanic plates, the

cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less
dense oceanic lithosphere

3. Oceanic-continental – When oceanic crust converges with

continental crust, the denser oceanic plate plunges beneath the
continental plate. This process is called subduction, occurs at the
oceanic trenches.

2. Divergent boundary- When two plates are moving away from one another. In
the middle of the oceans, it cause seafloor spreading. New crust is formed at
 divergent boundaries on the ocean floor where the lithosphere is thin. Magma
from the upper mantle presses against the plate, pushing it upward, then
flows off in opposite directions at the plate. 

3. Transform boundary- When two plates slide past each other. As the plates try
to move, they rub against each other resulting in the building up of pressure. If
the plates were stuck at a long period of time, the pressure will continue to
build at the fault line until eventually it releases resulting in an earthquake
References:

Kelly, M. (2011). Junior picture dictionary. Shenzen, China: Miles Kelly

Publishing Ltd.

Acledan et al. (2016). Earth and life science for senior high school. Malabon
City, Philippines: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Waltham, T. (2009). Foundation of engineering geology.New York, USA: E &

FN Spon.

Luyendyk, B. (2020). Geology: Oceanic crust. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/oceanic-crust.

Taylor, S. (2018). What forms in divergent boundaries. Retrieved from

https://sciencing.com/landforms-plate-boundaries-8383324.html.

From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics. (n.d). Retrieved from

http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/devel_pl_tect.htm.

Earthquakes 101. (2016). Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/amnh/earthquakes-and-
volcanoes/earthquakes/a/earthquakes-101.

References
http://www.geography4kids.com/files/earth_composition.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/the-composition-and-
structure-of-earth/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGqHSvs9qpE

References
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-the-branches-of-geology/
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Branches-Of-Geology_3763/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-geology-definition-history-facts-topics.html
 Geomorphic Processes(Earth’s Processes)

Geomorphic Processes

-The physical and chemical interactions between the Earth's surface and the
natural forces acting upon it to produce landforms. The processes are determined by
such natural environmental variables as geology, climate, vegetation and baselevel,
to say nothing of human interference. The nature of the process and the rate at
which it operates will be influenced by a change in any of these variables.

-Physical processes which create and modify landforms on the surface of the
earth.

-Endogenous (Endogenic) vs.Exogenous (Exogenic) Processes.

Endogenous Processes

-causes the displacement of rock.

An irreversable change in the shape & size of a rock body. The result of the
endogneous process occurs inside the earth's interior. This activity refers to sudden
release of energy or stress in the earth's crust or upper mantle accumulated along
geologic faults or volcanic activity. The fractures in the crust along which appreciable
displacement has taken place.

1. Igneous Processes

-A process in which rocks are worn away by mechanical action (associated with
water, wind, ice or gravity). Extrusive. Produced by volcanic activity.
Extrusive igneous rocks. Rocks which have been produced by the solidification of
hot magma at the Earth's surface, eg lavas, volcanic glass and volcanic ashes.

A. Volcanism

-volcanic eruptions

-Volcanism, also spelled vulcanism, any of various processes and

phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of molten rock, pyroclastic
fragments, or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles.
Although volcanism is best known on Earth, there is evidence that it has been
important in the development of the other terrestrial planets—Mercury, Venus
 and Mars—as well as some natural satellites such as Earth’s Moon and Jupiter’s
Moon.

B. Plutonism

-Igneous intrusions

-Plutonism is the process by which magma rises through the crust and

crystallizes as an intrusive igneous rock beneath the Earth’s surface. Pluton is a
generic word for any igneous intrusive rock body. Exactly what causes melting is
complicated and variable.

2. Tectonic Processes(diastrophism)

-Plate tectonics is responsible for most geographical and geological features of

Earth, in particular, those that are associated with natural hazards such as volcanoes
and seismic zones. First, we classify the three main relative movements that rule
plate tectonics.

A. Folding

-Fold, in geology, undulation or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth’s crust.

Stratified rocks were originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat
horizontal sheets, but in a number of places the strata are no longer horizontal but
have been warped. Sometimes the warping is so gentle that the inclination of the
strata is barely perceptible, or the warping may be so pronounced that the strata of
the two flanks may be essentially parallel or lie nearly flat (as in the case of a
recumbent fold). Folds vary widely in size; some are several kilometres or even
hundreds of kilometres across, and others measure just a few centimetres or less.
The tops of large folds are commonly eroded away on Earth’s surface, exposing the
cross sections of the inclined strata (see also erosion).

B. Faulting

-Fault, in geology, a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s
crust, where compressional or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the
rocks on the opposite sides of the fracture. Faults range in length from a few
centimetres to many hundreds of kilometres, and displacement likewise may range
from less than a centimetre to several hundred kilometres along the fracture surface
(the fault plane). 

C. Lateral Faulting

-These cracks will run through rock and soil and anything else that gets in the
way. If you have ever felt an earthquake, you know what it feels like for the earth to
move along one of these fractures. When the earth moves parallel to the fracture, we
call it a strike-slip fault. Another way to think of this is as a side-to-side motion.

Earthquakes are the evidence of present-day tectonic activity.

Exogenous Processes

-Also called Gradational Processes, they comprise degradation and aggradation

– they modify relief

-exogenous refers to all the processes that are produced at the surface of the

Earth (and other planets). Weathering, erosion, transportation, and sedimentation
are the main exogenous processes. The result of these processes is the formation of
sediments and sedimentary rocks.

-a continuum of processes – Weathering, Mass Wasting, Erosion 

Transportation, Deposition.

-these processes are carried through by Geomorphic Agents: gravity, flowing

water (rivers), moving ice (glaciers), waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind,
plants, organisms, animals and humans.

1. Degradation Processes(Denudation Processes)

a. Weathering ,

b. Mass Wasting and

c. Erosion and Transportation

 2. Aggradation Processes

a. Deposition – fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal

Degradation Processes

-In geology, degradation refers to the lowering of a fluvial surface, such as

a stream bed or floodplain, through erosinal processes. Degradation is the opposite
of aggradation. Degradation is characteristic of channel networks in which
either bedrock erosion is taking place, or in systems that are sediment-starved and
are therefore entraining more material than they are depositing. When a stream
degrades, it leaves behind a fluvial terrace.

1. Erosion and Transportation

- Various Geomorphic Agents, associated Processes, and resulting Erosional

Features

-Erosion is the process by which soil and rock particles are worn away and
moved elsewhere by gravity, or by a moving transport agent – wind, water or ice.

-Transportation refers to the processes by which the sediment is moved along

– for example, pebbles rolled along a river-bed or sea shore, sand grains whipped up
by the wind, salts carried in solution.

Types:

A. Flowing water - Fluvial Morphology

-Fluvial Morphology is the study of the form and function of streams and the
interaction between streams and the landscape around them. 'Fluvial' refers to the
processes associated with running waters, 'geo' refers to earth and 'morphology'
refers to channel shape.

Examples:

Humid regions:

Perennial streams and entrenched

channels, rapids, waterfalls, plunge

 pools, potholes, meandering streams,

bank erosion, oxbow lakes, etc.

B. Wind – Eolian Landscapes

-Eolian Landscapes, the dry regions of the Earth are the most exposed to
wind action, which blows in a regular way and with a speed that can range from
few kilometres an hour to 200 kilometres an hour in case of a hurricane or a
typhoon. Compared to water, the wind transports lighter fragments: sands and
silts are transported by wind that exceeds 30-40 kilometres an hour. Trees,
bushes and grass create obstacles to the wind. Also the presence of water
makes soil particles heavy and hinders their transport.

Examples:

deflation hollows, ventifacts, yardang, etc

C. Tides and Waves – Coastal Morphology

-Coastal Morphology, is the study of the morphological development and

evolution of the coast as it acts under the influence of winds, waves, currents,
and sea-level changes.

Examples:

-Sea cliffs, sea caves, sea arches, sea stacks, wave-cut beaches, etc.

D. Moving Ice – Glacial Morphology

-Glacial Morphology, is the scientific study of the processes, landscapes,

and landforms produced by ice sheets, valley glaciers, and other ice masses on
the surface of the Earth. These processes include understanding how ice
masses move, and how glacial ice erodes, transports, and deposits sediment.
Landscapes and landforms that developed as a result of glaciation are the
dominant focus of this field since they carry distinctive features and forms
related specifically to glacial processes.

Examples:

-glacial troughs (U-shaped valleys), hanging valleys, glacial lakes.

 2. Deposition

-Various geomorphic agents, associated processes and resulting

Depositional Features.

-Deposition is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are
added to a landform or land mass. Previously eroded sediment will be
transported by wind, ice, water which loses its kinetic energy in fluid and thus
deposited.Geologic deposition includes Beach sand, lake mud, sand dunes,
glacial moraines, river deltas, gravel bars, and coal deposits.

Types of deposition:

a. Fluvial – Humid regions: Braided streams, sand bars,

floodplains (alluvium deposits), natural levees,
distributaries, deltas

Arid regions: Alluvial fans, bajadas,

piedmont, alluvial plains, playas,
playa lakes, Salinas (salt flats)

b. Eolian – Sand dunes (Barchans, Parabolic, Transverse,

Longitudinal, Star), and sand sheets.

c. Coastal – Sea beaches and coral reefs.

d. Glacial – Alpine: Glacial drifts, tills, moraines (lateral, medial,

end, terminal, recessional, and
ground)

Continental: Till plains, outwash plains, drumlins,

eskers, kames, erratic.
 WORK OF RIVER AND WIND
By: Wenmarie Tan Quijano

RIVER
As rivers flow from highland to lowland they perform three important jobs, they
ERODE, they TRANSPORT the material that they eroded and then they DEPOSIT it.
Small rivers flow down steep slopes and erode river beds vertically downwards.
Larger rivers flow down gentle slopes and erode banks laterally. Larger rivers
reaching the end of their journey flow over flat plains and deposit the material that
they had eroded upstream.
A river may erode in 4 ways (1) Abrasion it is when the load carried by a river
will grind against its bed and sides. This process slowly wears the bed and sides
away. (2) Attrition it is when thrown against the sides and bed of rivers, the load
gets broken into smaller pieces. (3) Hydraulic Action is the work of turbulence in
the water, running water causes friction in the joints of rocks in a stream channel
then joints may be enlarged and then loosen fragments of rocks get swept away. (4)
Solution or Corrosion it is when the certain minerals in rocks like limestone can be
dissolved in water then rocks are then be eroded. The erosional landforms of the
river are very wide they are; river valleys, canyons, gorges, waterfalls, potholes,
ravines, gullies and rills.
Once the surface material is detached from the channel, it can be transported
by water very easily. Transportation is the movement of earth material by running
water. As particle size increases, so too does the velocity needed to transport it. The
material transported through the stream is called as its stream load. Transportation
involves the 5 processes; (1) Traction: it refers to the load that is rolled along the
bed of the river. (2) Saltation: it refers the load that is bounced along the bed of the
river. (3) Suspension: it refers to the load that is transported in a rivers' flow
(current). (4) Solution: it refers to the load that is dissolved by a river and then
transported by it. (5) Flotation: refers to the material transported on the surface of a
river. The larger pieces of material tend to be transported along a rivers' bed. As they
get smaller they can they be transported in the current (flow). Only the smallest bits
may be dissolved.

A river deposition is when the river drops its load when the speed or volume
of the river decreases. The load, which it carries, is deposited. There are several
factors that the load deposited first is that the heavier material is deposited first and
the finer material carried further. Second rivers reduced their SPEED when they
enter flat land, a lake or the sea or reach an arid area. Third the VOLUME can be
reduced during a dry season or when the river passes over more porous landscapes
e.g. sand or limestone. Some depositional landforms are; floodplains, alluvial fans
and deltas.
WIND

Air in motion is called wind. Wind is one of the 3 major geological agent of the
earth the 2 was river and glaciers. Wind act as a carrier for transporting particles and
grains so eroded from one place and also for depositing huge quantities of such
windblown material at different places. There are three modes of activities (a)
Erosion (b) Transportation (c) Deposition.

Wind erosion is generally caused by two erosion processes; (a) Deflation is

the process of simply removing the loose sand and dust sized particles from as area,
by fast moving winds. Wind deflation can successfully operate in comparatively dry
regions with little or no rainfall and where the mantle is unprotected due to absence
of vegetation. (b) Abrasion is when the wind loaded with such particles attains a
considerable erosive power which helps in eroding the rock surfaces by rubbing and
grinding actions and produce many changes. This type of wind erosion is known as
abrasion.
The total sediment load carried by a wind can be divided into two parts. a)
Bed load (b) Suspended load. The larger and heavier particles such as sands or
gravels, which are moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm of the
earth surface constitute the bed load. Whereas the finer clay or dust particles which
are lifted by the moving winds by a distance of hundreds of meters above the earth’s
surface constitute the suspended load.
The sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian
deposits. There are two types of Aeolian deposits; (a) Sand dunes (b) Loess

REFERENCES

Geography.com (2006). Work of River. Retrieved from

http://www.igeography.ie/work-of-the-river.html

Lutta M. (2007). Physical Geology. Slideshare.net. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/gauravhtandon1/engineering-geology

Brainkart.com. Geological Work of Wind. Retrieved from

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Geological-work-of-wind_3784/
 Works by the Sea

1. Erosion – rocks are worn down and broken into smaller rocks

2. Transportation – rocks and sand are moved from one area to another by waves
and sea currents

3. Deposition – material is deposited (dropped) in some areas, forming beaches

and sand dunes

4.Hydraulic Action – force of moving water

5. Compressed Air – air gets trapped in rock, the pressure of the air can crack rock

6. Abrasion – rocks and stones can be thrown against the coastline, wearing it away

7. Attrition – rocks and stones are worn down themselves

 I. EARTHQUAKES

What is an earthquake?
- An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a
sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
What caused an earthquake and why they occur?
Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along
a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the
ground shake. When two blocks of rock or two plates are rubbing against each other,
they stick a little. They don't just slide smoothly; the rocks catch on each other. The
rocks are still pushing against each other, but not moving. After a while, the rocks
break because of all the pressure that's built up. When the rocks break, the
earthquake occurs. During the earthquake and afterward, the plates or blocks of rock
start moving, and they continue to move until they get stuck again. The spot
underground where the rock breaks is called the focus of the earthquake. The place
right above the focus (on top of the ground) is called the epicenter of the earthquake.
Which area are prone to earthquakes?
• Most earthquakes occur at the circum. Pacific seismic belt known as the (Rim of
Fire). 95% of all the world’s earthquake occur at active plate boundaries. The
Philippines, Japan, California, Alaska and South America are all on the plate
boundaries.
3 types of Fault:
 Normal faults - are the cracks where one block of rock is sliding downward
and away from another block of rock. 
 Reverse faults - are cracks formed where one plate is pushing into another
plate. They also occur where a plate is folding up because it's being
compressed by another plate pushing against it. 
 Strike-slip faults are the cracks between two plates that are sliding past each
other. 

II. SEISMIC WAVES

What is seismic waves?
- Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of
rock within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through
the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
- Energy moving outward from the focus of an earthquake .

Two Types of Seismic Waves:

- Body Waves - Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive
before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a
higher frequency than surface waves.

- Surface Waves (L-waves or long waves) - Travelling only through the crust,
surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves, and are easily
distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after body
waves, it is surface waves that are almost entirely responsible for the damage
and destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength
of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

There are two types of Body waves and Surface waves:

Body Waves:
- P-waves:
 called compressional, or push-pull waves
 Propagate parallel to the direction in which the wave is moving
 Move through solids, liquids
- S-waves:
 Called shear waves
 Propagate the movement perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave is moving

Surface Waves:
- Love Waves:
 It's the fastest surface wave
 moves the ground from side-to-side
 Produce entirely horizontal motion.
- Rayleigh Waves:
 Rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
 it moves the ground up and down
  Side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving.

III. Instrument to detect and record Earthquakes

 Seismometers - instruments that detect seismic waves

 Seismographs - Record intensity, height and amplitude of seismic waves

Two ways to measure Earthquake Size :

- Magnitude: Richter scale
• Measures the energy released by fault movement
• related to the maximum amplitude of the S wave measured from the
seismogram
• Logarithmic-scale; quantitative measure
• For each whole number there is a 31.5 times increase in energyeg. an
increase from 5 to 7 on the Richter scale = an increase in energy of
992 times!!
- Intensity: Mercalli Scale
 Assigns an intensity or rating to measure an earthquake at a particular
location (qualitative)
 I (not felt) to XII (buildings nearly destroyed)
 Measures the destructive effect

Reference :
www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/earthquake-geology/Intensity-and-
magnitude-of-earthquakes
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-
magnitude-and-intensity/
Groundwater – is all water flowing through or stored within the ground in both rocks
and soils. It is derived from infiltration. It is lost by flow to surface springs, and by
seepage out through the sea bed.
Rainfall(precipitation) - is the ultimate source of all fresh water. When it lands on
the ground surface it is dispersed in three ways.
Three ways to dispersed it on the land surface:
Evapotranspiration - Combination of evaporation from water and transpiration
by plants. Both returning water to the atmosphere.
Runoff - Surface water flow into streams and rivers. Increases with low rock
permeability, steep slopes, intense rainfall and urbanization.
Infiltration - Seepage into the ground to become groundwater. Important on
permeable rocks and where runoff is slow.
Permeability of rocks
 Permeability - Is the ability of a rock to transmit water through its
interconnected voids.
4 types of geological formations of groundwater:
1. Aquifer
2. Aquitard
3. Aquiclude
4. Aquifuge

1. Aquifer - It is a saturated formation of the earth. It not only stores the water
but also yields it in adequate quantity. Highly permeable formations. And they
are considered as the main sources of groundwater. Sand and gravel.

Aquifers are classified into two types based on their occurrence which are as
follows:
• Unconfined Aquifer - Is an aquifer which has free water surface. Are
recharged by the infiltration of precipitation from the ground surface.

• Confined Aquifer - Is an aquifer confined between two impermeable beds such

as aquifuge and aquiclude. The water in the confined aquifer will be under
greater pressure which is greater than atmospheric pressure.The recharge of
confined aquifer occurs at a place where it exposes to the ground surface.
 2. Aquitard - Is also a saturated formation. It permits the water through it but
does not yield water in sufficient quantity as much as aquifer does. Sandy clay
is the perfect example of an aquitard.
3. Aquiclude - Is a geological formation which is impermeable to the flow of
water. It contains a large amount of water in it but it does not permit water
porosity. Clay is an example of aquiclude.
4. Aquifuge - Is an impermeable geological formation which is neither porous
nor permeable. Compact rock is an example of aquifuge,

Groundwater Development
1. Spring - is a place where groundwater flows out of the ground.
2. Well - is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging,
driving or drilling to access liquid resources usually water.
3. Qanats - a gently sloping underground channel or tunnel constructed to
lead water from the interior of a hill to a village below.
4. Reservoir - is most commonly, an enlarged natural or artificial lake, pond
or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water.
 GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION

What is Groundwater Investigation?

• Assesses ground conditions prior to starting a construction project.
 to understand hydrolic cycle
 Know the groundwater quality
 Identify the nature, number and types of aquifers
3 STAGES OF GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION
 INITIAL STAGE
 Walkover survey and visual assessment
 Preliminary report and fieldwork plan

 WALKOVER SURVEY CHECK LIST

 Correlate
 Local Exposure
 Land Use
 Interpret
 Breaks of slopes
 Lumpy ground
 Existing Structure
 Landslip
 Groundwater

 TOTAL GEOLOGICAL MODEL

 This concept has been introduced to present the broad picture of
ground conditions
 It develops an overview, which is the normal outcome of a geologist’s
thinking, but is rarely foremost in an engineer’s perception

 3 Types of Model

o Tectonic – that outline the background data;

o Geological – to provide the broad ground picture;
o Geomorphological – with the near-surface details

 MAIN STAGE
 Fieldworks
 Geological mapping
 Geophysical survey
  Trial pits, trenches and boreholes
 Labolatory testing, mainly of soils
 Final report

 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
 Geological field mapping is the process of selecting an area of interest
and identifying all the geological aspects of that area with the purpose
of preparing a detailed geological report and a map to summarize the
report
 It will show the various rock types of the region, the structures,
geological formations, geothermal manifestations, age relationships,
distribution of mineral ore deposits and fossils etc. and all these
features may be super imposed over a topographic map or a base
map.

 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
 are archaeological methods that use ground-based physical sensing
techniques to produce a detail image or map of an area

 Types of Geophysical Survey

o Seismic Survey - involve placing geophones (sensors connected to
wires) in strategic patterns to provide information about the properties of
rocks several kilometers below the earth
o Magnetic Survey - specify variations of the earth's magnetic field due to
the presence of magnetic minerals
o Radiometric Survey - measure gamma rays that are continuously emitted
from the earth via natural decomposition of common radiogenic materials
o Gravity Surveys - use a gravimeter to measure the gravity field to
determine variations in rock density
o Induced Polarity Surveys - induce an electrical field in the ground and
quantify the conductivity and resistivity of the subsurface
o Electrimagnetic Surveys - induce an electrical magnetic field to measure
the 3-D variations in conductivity within the near-surface rock and soil

 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

 the radar signal is an electromagnetic pulse that is directed into the
ground. Subsurface objects cause reflections in the data and the travel
time indicates the depth of the object

 TRIAL PITS AND TRENCHES

 an excavation of ground in order to study or sample the composition
and structure of the subsurface, usually dug during a site investigation,
a soil survey or a geological survey. Trial pits are dug before the
construction. They are dug to determine the geology and the water
table of that site.
 BOREHOLES
  Is a deep vertical hole with small diameter drilled into the ground to
obtain soil samples for soil investigation required for the construction of
suitable foundation for the planned structure

 REVIEW STAGE
 Monitoring during excavation and construction