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Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as angiosperms, Angiospermae,[6][7] or Magnoliophyta,[8] are the most
Contents Flowering plant
Featured content diverse group of land plants, with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000
Temporal range: Early Cretaceous –
Current events known species.[9] Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants. They are distinguished from
present, 130–0 Ma[1]
Random article gymnosperms by characteristics including flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits
Donate to Wikipedia PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K PgN
that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; in
Wikipedia store Possible Early Permian record
other words, a fruiting plant. The term comes from the Greek words angeion ("case" or "casing") and sperma
Interaction ("seed").

Help The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, 245 to 202 million years
About Wikipedia ago (mya), and the first flowering plants are known from ~140 mya. They diversified extensively during the
Community portal Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 100 to
Recent changes
60 mya.
Contact page
Contents [hide]
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1 Description
What links here
1.1 Angiosperm derived characteristics
Related changes
1.2 Vascular anatomy
Upload file
1.3 Reproductive anatomy
Special pages
Permanent link 2 Taxonomy
Page information 2.1 History of classification
Wikidata item 2.2 Modern classification
Diversity of angiosperms
Cite this page 2.3 Evolutionary history
2.3.1 Paleozoic Scientific classification
In other projects
2.3.2 Triassic and Jurassic Kingdom: Plantae
Wikimedia Commons 2.3.3 Cretaceous
Clade: Tracheophytes
Wikispecies 3 Diversity
Clade: Spermatophytes
4 Reproduction
Print/export
4.1 Fertilization and embryogenesis Clade: Angiosperms
Download as PDF
4.2 Fruit and seed Groups (APG IV) [2]
Printable version
4.3 Meiosis
†Nanjinganthus?
Languages 4.4 Apomixis
5 Uses Basal angiosperms
Afrikaans
6 See also
አማርኛ Amborellales
‫ا ﻟ ﻌ ﺮﺑ ﻴ ﺔ‬ 7 Notes
Nymphaeales
Aragonés 8 References
Austrobaileyales
অসমীয়া 9 Bibliography
Asturianu 9.1 Articles, books and chapters Core angiosperms
Azərbaycanca 9.2 Websites Clades
বাংলা 10 External links
Bân-lâm-gú magnoliids
Basa Banyumasan monocots
Башҡортса eudicots
Беларуская
Description [edit]
Orders
Беларуская
(тарашкевіца)​ Angiosperm derived characteristics [edit] Chloranthales
भोजपुरी Ceratophyllales
Angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table below. These distinguishing
Български
characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and
Boarisch Synonyms
Bosanski the most commercially important group to humans.[a]
Català Anthophyta Cronquist[3]
Distinctive features of angiosperms Angiospermae Lindl.
Čeština
Cymraeg Feature Description Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. &
Dansk W.Zimm.[4]
Flowers, the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature
Deutsch
distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers provided angiosperms with the Magnolicae Takht.[5]
Dolnoserbski
Eesti Flowering means to have a more species-specific breeding system, and hence a way to evolve more
Ελληνικά organs readily into different species without the risk of crossing back with related species. Faster
Español speciation enabled the Angiosperms to adapt to a wider range of ecological niches. This
Esperanto has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems. [citation needed]
Euskara
Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have
‫ﻓﺎر ﺳ ﯽ‬
Français Stamens with contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to
Gaeilge two pairs of specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also
Gaelg pollen sacs become modified through time to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further
Galego diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.
ГӀалгӀай
한국어
Հայերեն
िह दी
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Ирон The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of
Íslenska
gymnosperm seed plants.[10] The smaller size of the pollen reduces the amount of time
Italiano
Reduced between pollination — the pollen grain reaching the female plant — and fertilization. In
‫ע ב רי ת‬
Jawa male parts, gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms,
ქართული three cells fertilization begins very soon after pollination.[11] The shorter amount of time between
Қазақша pollination and fertilization allows angiosperms to produce seeds earlier after pollination
Kiswahili than gymnosperms, providing angiosperms a distinct evolutionary advantage.
Kreyòl ayisyen
Closed
Kurdî
Кыргызча carpel
Latina enclosing the The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination
Latviešu ovules syndromes and controls. This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining
Lëtzebuergesch (carpel or increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues
Lietuvių
carpels and develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The
Limburgs
accessory resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the
Lingua Franca Nova
Lumbaart parts may process of dispersal.
Magyar become the
Македонски fruit)
മലയാളം
Reduced
მარგალური
female The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол gametophyte, adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant
Nāhuatl seven cells adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more
Nederlands with eight niches.
नेपाली nuclei
日本語
Nordfriisk In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the
Norsk bokmål Endosperm zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing
Norsk nynorsk embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears.
Occitan
Олык марий
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Vascular anatomy [edit]

ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Angiosperm stems are made up of seven layers as shown on the right. The amount and complexity of tissue-
‫ﭘ ﻨ ﺠ ﺎﺑ ﯽ‬
formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged
Plattdüütsch
such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings.
Polski
Português In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith
Română from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active
Runa Simi
formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles
Русский
(interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results
Scots
Sicilianu from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed,
ංහල but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to
Cross-section of a stem of the
Simple English differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is angiosperm flax:
‫ﺳﻨ ﮅ ي‬ marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. 1. pith, 2. protoxylem, 3. xylem, 4.
Slovenčina phloem, 5. sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6.
Slovenščina Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through cortex, 7. epidermis
Српски / srpski the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in
Srpskohrvatski / exceptional cases.
српскохрватски
Sunda
Reproductive anatomy [edit]
Suomi
Svenska Main articles: Flower and Plant reproductive morphology
Tagalog The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide
தமி
the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower
Taqbaylit
is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a
ไทย shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the
Lea faka-Tonga axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-
Türkçe bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence.
Українська
There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the
‫اردو‬
Vepsän kel’ "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to
Tiếng Việt become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll).
West-Vlams
The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels.
Winaray
Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The
吴语
‫ייִ די ש‬ individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where
粵語 A collection of sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and
flowers forming
Žemaitėška functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly
an inflorescence.
中文 colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent,
Edit links
and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the
popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans.[citation needed]

While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants
have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short
carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic
flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. In
other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers.[citation needed]

Taxonomy [edit]

History of classification [edit]

The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek ἀγγεῖον, angeíon (bottle, vessel) and σπέρµα, sperma
(seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of one of his primary divisions
of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his
Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being
here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carl Linnaeus with the same
sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to
its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked
ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae,[12] and applied to them the name Gymnosperms.[citation needed] From that time
onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term
Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other
dicotyledonous plants.

In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the From 1736, an illustration of
correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Linnaean classification

Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole
of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is
the sense in which the term is used today.

In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has
been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not
linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of
subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina,[13] but later split it to
Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of
division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne
system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998,
and the later 2003[14] and 2009[15] revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal
botanical name. A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form An auxanometer, a device
the Subclass Magnoliidae.[16] for measuring increase or rate
of growth in plants
The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by
Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to
accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent
research were published as the APG II system in 2003,[14] the APG III system in 2009,[15][17] and the APG IV system in 2016.

Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups,

Dicotyledoneae or Magnoliopsida
Monocotyledoneae or Liliopsida

which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliaceae) and Liliopsida (at the rank
of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae,
and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon
(plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These
names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have
only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a broad diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy, nor a
reliable character.[citation needed]

Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic).
Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most
belong to a third major clade known as the magnoliids, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of early branching
taxa known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae.[citation needed]

Modern classification [edit]

There are eight groups of living angiosperms:

Basal angiosperms (ANA: Amborella, Nymphaeales, Austrobaileyales)

Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia;
Nymphaeales, about 80 species, [18] water lilies and Hydatellaceae;
Austrobaileyales, about 100 species[18] of woody plants from various parts of the world
Core angiosperms (Mesangiospermae)[16]
Chloranthales, 77 known species[19] of aromatic plants with toothed leaves;
Magnoliids, about 9,000 species,[18] characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually
branching-veined leaves—for example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper;
Monocots, about 70,000 species,[18] characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one
pore, and usually parallel-veined leaves—for example grasses, orchids, and palms;
Ceratophyllum, about 6 species[18] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants; Monocot (left) and dicot
Eudicots, about 175,000 species, [18] characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and seedlings

usually branching-veined leaves—for example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks.

The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the
ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales.[20] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. Among
the remaining five groups (core angiosperms), the relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots)
remains unclear. Zeng and colleagues (Fig. 1) describe four competing schemes.[21] Of these, eudicots and monocots are the largest and most
diversified, with ~ 75% and 20% of angiosperm species, respectively. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the
monocots. [22] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. The 2016 Angiosperm Phylogeny Group revision (APG
IV) retained the overall higher order relationship described in APG III. [15]
 1. Phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III 2. Example of alternative phylogeny (2010)[22]
(2009).[15]
angiosperms      
  Amborella
angiosperms        
  Amborella  
  Nymphaeales
     
Nymphaeales    
    Austrobaileyales
   
   
Austrobaileyales    
    monocots
   
       
magnoliids     Chloranthales
       
   
 
Chloranthales     magnoliids
 
   
    monocots    
    Ceratophyllum
   
    Ceratophyllum  
    eudicots
   
eudicots
 

3. APG IV (2016)[2]

angiosperms  
    Amborellales
    Nymphaeales
   
    basal angiosperms
Austrobaileyales (ANA group)
   
     
      magnoliids
 
Chloranthales
 
   
monocots
   
    Ceratophyllales core angiosperms
   
  eudicots
 

Detailed Cladogram of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV classification. [2]

Angiosperms  
  Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999
 
   
Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
   
Mesangiosperms  
Chloranthales Mart. 1835
   
  Magnoliids    
Canellales Cronquist 1957
       
 
Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
   
Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
 
Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
 
 
  Monocots  
  Monocots  
Acorales Link 1835
     
    Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997
   
     
Dioscoreales Brown 1835
     
 
Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
   
Liliales Perleb 1826
   
   
Asparagales Link 1829
   
Commelinids  
Arecales Bromhead 1840
   
   
Poales Small 1903
   
   
Zingiberales Grisebach 1854
   
 
Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 

   
Ceratophyllales Link 1829
   
Eudicots  
Ranunculales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Proteales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Trochodendrales Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981
   
   
Buxales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996
   
Core eudicots  
Gunnerales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
   
   
Dilleniales de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
Superrosids  
Saxifragales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
Rosids  
Vitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
  Fabids  
Zygophyllales Link 1829
  (eurosids I)  
     
Celastrales Link 1829
     
   
Oxalidales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
 
Malpighiales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
   
Fabales Bromhead 1838
   
   
Rosales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Cucurbitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
 
Fagales Engler 1892
 
Malvids    
Geraniales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
(eurosids II)    
 
Myrtales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
   
Crossosomatales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993
   
   
Picramniales Doweld 2001
   
   
Sapindales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Huerteales Doweld 2001
   
   
Malvales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
 
Brassicales Bromhead 1838
 
Superasterids  
Berberidopsidales Doweld 2001
   
   
Santalales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
   
Caryophyllales
   
Asterids  
   

Cornales Link 1829

   
    
Ericales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
  Lamiids  
Icacinales Van Tieghem 1900
  (euasterids I)  
   
Metteniusales Takhtajan 1997
   
   
Garryales Mart. 1835
   
   
Gentianales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
   
 
Solanales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
 
Boraginales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 
 
Vahliales Doweld 2001
 
 
Lamiales Bromhead 1838
 

Campanulids  
Aquifoliales Senft 1856
(euasterids II)  
   
Escalloniales Mart. 1835
   
 
Asterales Link 1829
 
   
Bruniales Dumortier 1829
   
   
Apiales Nakai 1930
   
   
Paracryphiales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
   
 
Dipsacales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
 

Evolutionary history [edit]

Further information: Evolutionary history of plants § Flowers

Paleozoic [edit]

Fossilized spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years. [23] Early land plants reproduced sexually with
flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright
meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean
green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the
vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how
this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Selaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of
angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed.

The apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that Charles
Darwin called it an " abominable mystery".[24] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered
angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have
been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of
flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic
Sanmiguelia, have been suggested.

The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (male gametophytes) of
Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs.

Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of
gigantopterids.[25][26] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are
not known to have been flowering plants themselves.[citation needed]

Triassic and Jurassic [edit]

Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms in the Triassic
period (245–202 million years ago). Fossil angiosperm-like pollen from the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma) suggests an older date for their origin.[27]
A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on
the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other
gymnosperms.[28][29]

The fossil plant species Nanjinganthus dendrostyla from Early Jurassic China seems to share many
exclusively angiosperm features, such as a thickened receptacle with ovules, and thus might represent a
crown-group or a stem-group angiosperm.[30][31] However, the interpretation of the structures in this fossils
are highly contested.[32][33]

The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole Fluffy flowers of Tetradenia riparia
genome duplication events.[34] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago. Another (misty plume bush)
possible whole genome duplication event at 160 million years ago perhaps created the ancestral line that led
to all modern flowering plants.[35] That event was studied by sequencing the genome of an ancient flowering
plant, Amborella trichopoda,[36] and directly addresses Darwin's "abominable mystery".

One study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type
of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.[37]

Cretaceous [edit]

It has been proposed that the swift rise of angiosperms to dominance was facilitated by a reduction in their
genome size. During the early Cretaceous period, only angiosperms underwent rapid genome downsizing,
while genome sizes of ferns and gymnosperms remained unchanged. Smaller genomes—and smaller nuclei
—allow for faster rates of cell division and smaller cells. Thus, species with smaller genomes can pack more,
smaller cells—in particular veins and stomata—into a given leaf volume. Genome downsizing therefore
facilitated higher rates of leaf gas exchange (transpiration and photosynthesis) and faster rates of growth.
This would have countered some of the negative physiological effects of genome duplications, facilitated
increased uptake of carbon dioxide despite concurrent declines in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and
Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab
allowed the flowering plants to outcompete other land plants. [38]
apple)
The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated
to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),[39] whereas pollen considered to be of angiosperm
origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP, [40] with Montsechia representing the earliest
flower at that time.[41] In 2018, scientists reported that the earliest flowers began about 180 million years ago,
50 million years earlier than thought earlier.[42] Nonetheless, circumstantial chemical evidence has been
found for the existence of angiosperms as early as 250 million years ago (see the above Paleozoic section)

In 2013 flowers encased in amber were found and dated 100 million years before present. The amber had
frozen the act of sexual reproduction in the process of taking place. Microscopic images showed tubes
growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by
Flowers and leaves of Senecio
insects.[43] In August 2017, scientists presented a detailed description and 3D model image of what the first
angulatus (Cape Ivy)
flower possibly looked like, and presented the hypothesis that it may have lived about 140 million years
ago.[44][45] A Bayesian analysis of 52 angiosperm taxa suggested that the crown group of angiosperms
evolved between 178 million years ago and 198 million years ago.[46]

Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics [47][48] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the
Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological
studies[49] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The
orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining
angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.[50]

The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred
in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the
division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the
magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago.[51] It is
generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their
reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly
shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, Two bees on a flower head of
creeping thistle, Cirsium arvense
angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently.

Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering
plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have
required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing
them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical
wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialization in
both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic
plant relationships, are descended from wasps.[52]

Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that
attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). Although many such mutualistic relationships
remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading
(whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.[citation needed]

Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots. [53] The most primitive flowers probably had a variable
number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants,
this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers evolved, some variations
developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant or at least "ovary-
inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be
pollinated in nature. Many modern domesticated flower species were formerly simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed.
Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not
get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[54]

A few paleontologists have also proposed that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the
idea's strongest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on
plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.[55]

By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-
forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 66 million years ago or even later, at the beginning of
the Tertiary.[56] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later. [57] Yet, many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern
families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Flowering plants appeared in Australia about 126
million years ago. This also pushed the age of ancient Australian vertebrates, in what was then a south polar continent, to 126-110 million years
old. [41]

Diversity [edit]

The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. [58][59][60]
This compares to around 12,000 species of moss[61] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,[62] showing that the
flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II [14] (2003)
it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the
minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.[15][63]

The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%),
monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total;
i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The 43 most-diverse of 443 families
of flowering plants by species, [64] in their APG circumscriptions, are

1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species;

2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950;
3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400;
4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150; [65]
5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035; A poster of twelve different species
of flowers of the family Asteraceae
6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175;
7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735;
8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005;
9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625;
10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555;
11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350;
12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225;
13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025;
14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995;
15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870;
16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780;
17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710:
18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600;
19. Bromeliaceae (bromeliad family): 3,540;
Lupinus pilosus
20. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500;
21. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830;
22. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740;
23. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625;
24. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525;
25. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500;
26. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460;
27. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380;
28. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361;
29. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220;
30. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200;
31. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060;
32. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050;
33. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025;
34. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020;
35. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815;
36. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745; Bud of a pink rose
37. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700;
38. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650;
39. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600;
40. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600;
41. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580;
42. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500;
43. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450.

Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae,
and Annonaceae are magnoliid dicots; the rest of the families are eudicots.

Reproduction [edit]

Fertilization and embryogenesis [edit]

Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis

Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovule. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the
stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative
cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two
haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into
the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the
synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released
into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The
second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops
into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The
ovary will now develop into a fruit and the ovule will develop into a seed.

Fruit and seed [edit]

Main articles: Seed and Fruit

As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the

Angiosperm life cycle
embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus
(which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed
coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with type of seed
dispersal system.[66]

Frequently, the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the
formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others.[citation needed]

The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in
The fruit of the Aesculus or horse
chestnut tree dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general,
the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only
slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well
developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit.[citation needed]

Meiosis [edit]

Flowering plants generate gametes using a specialized cell division called meiosis. Meiosis takes place in the ovule (a structure within the ovary that is
located within the pistil at the center of the flower) (see diagram labeled "Angiosperm lifecycle"). A diploid cell (megaspore mother cell) in the ovule
undergoes meiosis (involving two successive cell divisions) to produce four cells (megaspores) with haploid nuclei.[67] It is thought that the basal
chromosome number in angiosperms is n = 7.[68] One of these four cells (megaspore) then undergoes three successive mitotic divisions to produce
an immature embryo sac (megagametophyte) with eight haploid nuclei. Next, these nuclei are segregated into separate cells by cytokinesis to
producing 3 antipodal cells, 2 synergid cells and an egg cell. Two polar nuclei are left in the central cell of the embryo sac.[citation needed]

Pollen is also produced by meiosis in the male anther (microsporangium). During meiosis, a diploid microspore mother cell undergoes two successive
meiotic divisions to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores or male gametes). Each of these microspores, after further mitoses, becomes a pollen grain
(microgametophyte) containing two haploid generative (sperm) cells and a tube nucleus. When a pollen grain makes contact with the female stigma,
the pollen grain forms a pollen tube that grows down the style into the ovary. In the act of fertilization, a male sperm nucleus fuses with the female egg
nucleus to form a diploid zygote that can then develop into an embryo within the newly forming seed. Upon germination of the seed, a new plant can
grow and mature.[citation needed]

The adaptive function of meiosis is currently a matter of debate. A key event during meiosis in a diploid cell is the pairing of homologous
chromosomes and homologous recombination (the exchange of genetic information) between homologous chromosomes. This process promotes the
production of increased genetic diversity among progeny and the recombinational repair of damages in the DNA to be passed on to progeny. To
explain the adaptive function of meiosis in flowering plants, some authors emphasize diversity[69] and others emphasize DNA repair.[70]

Apomixis [edit]

Apomixis (reproduction via asexually formed seeds) is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera. [71] One type of apomixis, gametophytic
apomixis found in a dandelion species[72] involves formation of an unreduced embryo sac due to incomplete meiosis (apomeiosis) and development
of an embryo from the unreduced egg inside the embryo sac, without fertilization (parthenogenesis). [citation needed]

Uses [edit]

Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of
livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (providing grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all
feedstocks (rice, maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of
high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others); the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family
(including pumpkins and melons); the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage
species Brassica oleracea); and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons,
grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.).[citation needed]

In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut ( Cocos
nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region.[73]

Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis,
camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants—namely, coniferous
trees (Pinales), which are non-flowering (gymnosperms)—is timber and paper production.[74]

See also [edit]

List of garden plants

List of plant orders
List of plants by common name
List of systems of plant taxonomy

Notes [edit]

a. ^ The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest.
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Websites [edit]
Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Harmut H.; Stevens, Peter F. (2017). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster – Flowering Plant Systematics" (PDF).
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"Flowering plant" at the Encyclopedia of Life
External links [edit]

Media related to Magnoliophyta at Wikimedia Commons

Data related to Magnoliophyta at Wikispecies
Magnoliophyta at Wikibooks

V· T · E Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato

Domain: Archaea · Bacteria · Eukaryota · (Supergroup: Plant · Hacrobia · Heterokont · Alveolata · Rhizaria · Excavata · Amoebozoa · Opisthokonta (Animal · Fungi

Rhodophyta
Cyanidiophyceae · Porphyridiophyceae · Compsopogonophyceae · Stylonematophyceae · Rhodellophyceae · Bangiophyceae · Florideophyceae
(red algae)

Glaucocystophyta
Glaucocystophyceae (Glaucocystis · Cyanophora · Gloeochaete)
(glaucophytes)

M+C+S Mesostigmatophyceae · Chlorokybophyceae · Spirotaenia

Chlorophyta Mamiellophyceae · Nephrophyceae · Palmophyllales · Prasinophyceae · Pseudoscourfieldiales · Pyramimonadophyceae

(prasinophytes) Scourfieldiales · Pedinophyceae · Chlorodendrophyceae · UTC clade (Ulvophyceae · Trebouxiophyceae · Chlorophyceae

Klebsormidiophyceae
Charophyceae · Coleochaetophyceae · Zygnematophyceae · Mesotaeniaceae

Bryophytes
Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Bryophyta "Moss" · †Horneophyto
(non-vascular)

Lycopodiophyta †Zosterophyllopsida · †Sawdoniales ·

(microphylls) Lycopodiopsida

†Cladoxylopsida
†Stauropteridales
Polypodiopsida
†Zygopteridales
(ferns)
Ophioglossidae ·
Polypodiidae
Streptophyta Phragmo- Embryophyta
†Seed ferns · Gymnosperm
(charophytes, plastophyta (land plants) Tracheophyta
C+S Euphyllophyta (Gnetopsida · Pinopsida
& land plants) (vascular)
Viridiplantae (megaphylls) Cycadopsida · Ginkgoopsid
Spermatophyta
(green algae, Angiosperms or flowering
(seed plants)
& land plants) (Amborellales · Nymphaeale
Austrobaileyales
Monocots · Eudicots
†Trimerophytopsida
Other
†Progymnosperm
Other †Rhyniopsida

† = extinct. See also the list of plant orders.

 V· T · E Botany
History of botany

Plant systematics · Ethnobotany · Paleobotany · Plant anatomy · Plant ecology · Phytogeography (Geobotany · Flora) · Phytochemistry ·
Subdisciplines
Plant pathology · Bryology · Phycology · Floristics · Dendrology · Astrobotany

Plant groups Algae · Archaeplastida · Bryophyte · Non-vascular plants · Vascular plants · Spermatophytes · Pteridophyte · Gymnosperm · Angiosperm

Plant cells Cell wall · Phragmoplast · Plastid · Plasmodesma · Vacuole

Tissues Meristem · Vascular tissue (Vascular bundle) · Ground tissue (Mesophyll) · Cork · Wood · Storage organs

Vegetative Root · Rhizoid · Bulb · Rhizome · Shoot (Stem · Leaf (Petiole · Cataphyll) · Bud · Sessility)

Plant morphology Flower development · Inflorescence (Umbel · Raceme · Bract · Pedicellate) · Flower (Aestivation · Whorl ·
(glossary) Floral symmetry · Floral diagram · Floral formula) · Receptacle · Hypanthium (Floral cup) · Perianth (Tepal · Petal
Reproductive
· Sepal) · Sporophyll · Gynoecium (Ovary (Ovule) · Stigma) · Archegonium · Androecium (Stamen · Staminode ·
(Flower)
Pollen · Tapetum) · Gynandrium · Gametophyte · Sporophyte · Plant embryo · Fruit (Fruit anatomy · Berry ·
Capsule · Seed (Seed dispersal · Endosperm))

Surface structures Epicuticular wax · Plant cuticle · Epidermis · Stoma · Nectary · Trichome · Prickle

Nutrition · Photosynthesis (Chlorophyll) · Plant hormone · Transpiration · Turgor pressure · Bulk flow · Aleurone · Phytomelanin · Sugar ·
Plant physiology · Materials
Sap · Starch · Cellulose

Plant growth and habit Secondary growth · Woody plants · Herbaceous plants · Habit (Vines (Lianas) · Shrubs (Subshrubs) · Trees · Succulent plants)

Reproduction Alternation of generations · Sporangium (Spore · Microsporangia (Microspore) · Megasporangium (Megaspore)) · Pollination (Artificial ·
Evolution · Ecology Pollinators · Pollen tube · Self) · Double fertilization · Germination · Evolutionary development · Evolutionary history (timeline)
History of plant systematics · Herbarium · Biological classification · Botanical nomenclature (Botanical name · Correct name ·
Author citation · International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) ·
Plant taxonomy
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)) · Taxonomic rank · International Association for Plant Taxonomy
(IAPT) · Plant taxonomy systems · Cultivated plant taxonomy (Citrus taxonomy · cultigen (cultivar · Group · grex))

Practice Agronomy · Floriculture · Forestry · Horticulture

Lists · Related topics Botanical terms · Botanists (by author abbreviation) · Botanical expedition

Category · WikiProject

V· T · E Extant life phyla/divisions by domain

Acidobacteria · Actinobacteria · Aquificae · Bacteroidetes · Chlamydiae · Chlorobi · Chloroflexi · Chrysiogenetes · Cyanobacteria · Deferribacteres ·
Bacteria Deinococcus–Thermus · Dictyoglomi · Fibrobacteres · Firmicutes · Fusobacteria · Gemmatimonadetes · Nitrospirae · Planctomycetes · Proteobacteria ·
Spirochaetes · Thermodesulfobacteria · Thermomicrobia · Thermotogae · Verrucomicrobia

Archaea Crenarchaeota · Euryarchaeota · Korarchaeota · Nanoarchaeota · Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms
Heterokontophyta · Haptophyta · Cryptophyta · Ciliophora · Apicomplexa · Dinoflagellata · Euglenozoa · Percolozoa · Metamonada ·
Protista
Radiolaria · Foraminifera · Cercozoa · Rhodophyta · Glaucophyta · Amoebozoa
Fungi Chytridiomycota · Blastocladiomycota · Neocallimastigomycota · Glomeromycota · Zygomycota · Ascomycota · Basidiomycota

Chlorophyta · Charophyta · Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Moss · Lycopodiophyta · Pteridophyta · Cycadophyta · Ginkgophyta ·

Eukaryote Plant
Pinophyta · Gnetophyta · Flowering plant
Sponge · Ctenophora · Placozoa · Cnidaria · Xenacoelomorpha · Chordata · Hemichordata · Echinodermata · Chaetognatha ·
Kinorhyncha · Loricifera · Priapulida · Nematoda · Nematomorpha · Onychophora · Tardigrada · Arthropoda · Flatworm · Gastrotricha ·
Animal
Orthonectida · Dicyemida · Rotifera · Acanthocephala · Gnathostomulida · Micrognathozoa · Cycliophora · Nemertea · Phoronida ·
Bryozoa · Entoprocta · Brachiopoda · Mollusca · Annelida

Incertae sedis Parakaryon

Taxon identifiers Wikidata: Q25314 · Wikispecies: Magnoliopsida · EPPO: 1ANGC · ITIS: 18061 · PPE: angiosperma-parasites

Authority control GND: 4144254-4 · LCCN: sh85005034 · NDL: 00563270

Categories: Angiosperms Plant sexuality Plants Pollination

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