Disha Institute of IT & Management: Organizational Behavior (3.21)

Disha Institute of IT & Management
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (3.21)
What is organizational behavior? Discuss the impact work force diversity on organizational
behavior?
Organizational behavior is field of study that illustrates the impact that individual, groups and
structure have on behavior within organization for his purpose of applying such knowledge
towards improving an organization affective ness i.e. OB is concussed with the study of what
people do in an organization and how that behavior affects the performance of the organization.
Underlying this systematic approach is the belief that behavior is not random. It stems from and is
directed towards some and that individual believes, rightly or wrongly, is in his or her best interest.
Ob is an applied behavioral science that is built on contribution from a number of behavioral

disciplines. The predominant areas are:-
a) Psychology:- The science that sets to explain and sometimes change the behavior of human
being. The contribution includes study of topics like Motivation, personality, Emotions, Job
Satisfaction etc.
b) Sociology:- The study people in relation to them human beings. The contribution includes
study of topics like Group dynamics, work team, communication, power etc.
c) Anthropology:- The study of societies to learn about human being and their activities. The
contribution includes study of topics like organizational culture, organizational
environment, cross-cultural analysis etc.
d) Political science:- The study of individual and groups within a political environment. The
contribution includes the study of topics like conflict, Intra-organizational politics, power
etc.
One of the most important and broad based challenges currently facing organizations is adapting to
people who are different. The term to describe this challenge is work force diversity. While
globalization focuses on differences between people from different countries work force diversity
addresses differences among people within given countries.
Work force means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, which
varies from the so-called norm. It includes women, south Indians, Bengalines, Punjabis, physically
disabled, elderly etc.
Work forces diversity has important implications for management practice. Managers have to shift
their philosophy from treating everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to those
differences in ways that ensure employee retention and greater productivity while at the
sometimes, not (page no 7) discriminating. This shift includes, for instead, providing diversity
training and revamping benefits programs to accommodate the different employees. Work force
diversity if positively managed, can increase creativity and innovation in organizations as well as
improve decision making by providing different perspectives on problems. When work diversity is
not managed properly, there is potential for higher turnover, more difficult communication and
more interpersonal conflicts.

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PERSONALITY
Personality is defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts an interacts with
others. Adult personality is generally considered to be made up of hereditary and environmental
factors, moderated by situational conditional.
Hereditary:- Hereditary refers to those factors that were determined by conception. Physical
stature, facial alteration, gender temperament, energy level and biological rhythms are
characteristics that are either completely or substantially influenced by parents. Evidence
demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear and distress are most likely caused by inherited
genetic characteristics.
If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be

fixed at birth and no amount of experience would alter them. If one is relaxed and easygoing as a
child, for ex. that would be the result of one’s genes, and it would not be possible to change those
characteristics. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity.
Environment:- Among the factors that exact pressures on our personality formation are the
cultures in which we are area raised; our earlier conditioning the norms among our family, friends
and social groups and other influences that we experience. These environmental factors play a
substantial role in shaping our personalities. Cultural establishes the norms attributes and values
that are passed along from generations to the and create consistencies of time ideology that is only
moderate intensely fostered in one culture may only have emphasis in another. It can be concluded
that both heredity and environment are the primary determinations of personality.
Situations:- The third factor, the situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on
personality. An individual’s personality, although generally stable and consistent does change in
different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of
one’s personality. So we shouldn’t look at personality patterns in isolation.
Determinations of personality that are more input than in others in shaping the personality of a
manager include:-
1. Locus of control:- The degree to which people believe they masters of their own fate.
Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them make more successful
manager than those who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces
such as luck or chance.
2. Introvert and Extrovert:- Extrovert i.e. individuals who are gregarious and social are
more successful as managers than Introverts i.e. individuals who are shy, quite and retiring.

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ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture is defined as a system of shared meaning held by member’s that distinguish
has one organization from other organization. Simply stated, a company’s culture comprises the
values, norms and behavior that characterize it and its work environment. It encompasses, among
other things, the way people behave, especially how they work with each other, how they are
accountable, and how they are rewarded. Culture also includes the communication flow within the
organization.
There are seven primary characteristics that, in aggregate, capture the essence of an organization
culture.
1) Innovation and risk taking:- The degrees to which employees are encouraged to be
innovative and take risk.
2) Attention to detail:- The degree to which employees is expected to exhibit precision
analysis and attention to detail.
3) Outcome orientation:- The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes
rather then on the techniques and processes used to achieve those outcomes.
In the organization for mutual benefits and lobbying on the behalf of or against a particular
individual or decision alternative.
Political behavior can be legitimate or illegitimate.
Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics-complaining to your
supervisor, bypassing the chain of command forming coalitions, obstructing organizational
policies or decisions through inaction or excessive adherence to rules and developing contacts
outside the organization through one’s professional activities.
Illegitimate political behavior violates the implied rules of the game. Illegitimate political behavior
includes sabotage whistle blowing and symbolic protests such as wearing unorthodox dress and
group of employees simultaneously calling in sick.
1)Factors contributing to political behavior:-
Factors contributing to political behavior either {I} individual characteristics, derived from the
unique qualities of the people the organization employees or {ii} organization’s culture or internal
environment.
2) Individual Factors:- In terms of traits, employees who are high self-monitors, process an
internal focus of control and have a high need for power are more……………………

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Politics
When employees in organizations convert their power into action, they are described as being
engaged in politics. Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power
effectively.
Political behavior in organizations is defined as activities that are not required as part of
one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence or attempt to influence the distribution of
advantages and disadvantages within the organization.
This definition encompasses 3 key elements:-
a) Political behavior is outside one’s specified job requirements. The behavior requires some
efforts to use one’s political bases.
b) Political behavior tries to influence the goals, criteria or processes used for decision making
when is said that politic is concerned with the distribution of advantages and disadvantages
within the organization.
c) The definition include varied political behaviors such as with holding key information from
decision makers, joining a condition, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information
about organizational activates to the media, exchanging favors with
others……………………………….
POWER AND POLITICS
Power is the ability of individuals or groups to induce or influence the beliefs or actions of other
persons or groups.
A person can have power over the other person only if the first person has
something which other person desires.
Bases of Power:-
Power can be of two types- formal and personal.
Formal Power:-
Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. Formal power can come
from the ability to coerce or reward, from formal authoring or from control of information.
Coercive power:-
The coercive power base is dependent on fees. One reacts to this power out of fear of the negative
results that might occur if one failed to comply. It rests on the application, or the threat of
application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration
through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.

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Q1. Discuss the meaning and scope of organizational behavior what are the contemporary
challenges to organizational behavior.
Ans. Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates that impact that individuals,
groups and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose applying, such
knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness.
OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organizations end how that
behavior affects the performance of an organization.
These are lot of challenges today for managers to use OB concepts. These include:
A) Responding to Globalization:- Globalization affects a manager’s people skills in at least

two ways. First, if a manager is transferred to his employer’s operating division or
subsidiary in another another country. Once there, he has to manage a work force that is
likely to be very different in needs, aspirations, and attends from those he used to work
back home. Second even in his own country a manager is going to find himself working
with bosses, peers, and other employees who were born and raised in different culture what
motivates one person may not motivate another person. Or the manager’s style of
communication may be straight forward and threatening. To work effectively with these
people, the manager will need to understand their culture, how it is shaped, and how to
adapt his management style to their differences.
b) Managing workforce diversity:- One of the most important and broad based challenges
currently facing organizations is adapting people who are different. While globalization focuses on
differences between people from different countries, workforce diversity addresses difference
among people within given countries.
Workforce diversity means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in
terms of gender, race and ethnicity. Employees don’t set aside their cultural values and lifestyle
preferences when the come to work. The challenge for organizations, therefore, is to make them
more accommodating to diverse group of people by addressing their different lifestyle, family
needs and work style.
Workforce diversity has important implications for management practice. Managers have
to shift their philosophy from treating everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to
those differences in ways that ensure employee retention and greater productivity while, at the
same time, not discriminating. This shift includes for instance providing diversity training and
revamping benefits programs to accommodate the different needs of different employees.
Diversity if positively managed can increase creativity and innovation in organizations as well as
improve decision making by providing different perspectives on problems. When diversity is not
managed properly, there communication and more interpersonal conflicts.
Quality management is driven by constant attainment of customer satisfaction through the

continuous improvement of all organizational processes. It has implications for OB because it
requires employees to rethink what they do and become more involved in workplace decisions.
Today’s managers understand that the success of any effort at improving quality
and productivity must include their employees. These employees will not only be a major force in

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carrying out changes but increasingly participate in planning those changes. OB offers important
insights into helping managers work through there changes.
Individual Behavior
Individual Behavior is influenced by factors such as biographical characteristics, ability and

learning. Biographical characters include factors such as employee’s age, gender, length of service
with an organization.
Age:- The relationship between age and job performance is of increasing importance in the
study of organization behavior. The reason for this is a widespread belief that job performance
declines with increasing age. But at the same time, there are some positive qualities that older
workers bring to their jobs, especially experience, strong work ethics and commitment to quality.
But older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as resistant to new technology.
The older worker gets, the less likely he is to quit his job. As workers get older, they have
fewer alternative job opportunities. In addition, older workers are less likely to resize than are
younger workers because their long tenure tends to provide them with higher wage rates, longer
paid vacations and more attractive pension benefits.
The natural conclusion is that the demands of most jobs, even those with heavy
manual labor requirement are not extreme enough for any decline in physical skills attributable to
age to have an impact on productivity, or if there is some decay due to age, it is offset by aging due
to experience.
Gender:- Important differences between men and women that will effect their job performance.
There are no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills,
competitive drive, and socio ability. Psychological studies have fund that women are more willing
to conform to authority and that men are more aggressive and more likely then women to have
expectations of success, but those differences are minor. One issue that seems to differ between
gender, especially when the employee has preschool-age children, is preference for work
schedules. Working mothers are more likely to prefer pail time work, flexible work schedules and
telecommunicating in order to accommodate their family responsibilities.
Marital Status:- Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences,
undergo less turnover and are mere satisfied with their jobs then are their unmarried workers.
Marriage imposes increased responsibilities that may make a steady job more valuable and
important.
Tenure:- If we define seniority as time on a particular job, we can say that the most recent
evidence demonstrates positive relationship a between seniority and job productivity. So tenure,
expressed as work experience, appears to be negatively related to absenteeism. Tenure is also a
potent variable in explaining turnover. The longer a person is in a job, the less likely he or she is to
quit. Consistent with research that suggests that past behavior is the best predictor of future
behavior evidence indicates that tenure on an employee’s previous job is a powerful predictor of
that employee’s future turnover. The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively
related.
Ability

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Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current
assessment of what one can do. An individual’s overall abilities are essentially made up of two sets
of factors. Intellectual and physical abilities.
Types of abilities:-
Intellectual Abilities:- These are those activities that are needed to perform mental activities.
Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are designed to ascertain one’s general intellectual abilities. The
seven most frequently cited dimensions are number aptitude, verbal comprehension, inductive
reasoning, spatial visualization and memory. Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents
to use their intellectual abilities. Generally speaking the more information-processing demand that
exist in a job, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to performance
the job successfully. The most recent evidence suggests that intelligence can be better understood
by breaking it down into four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional and cultural. Cognitive
intelligence encompasses the aptitudes like IQ, number aptitude etc. Social intelligence is person’s
ability to relate effectively to others. Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, understand,
and manage emotions. And cultural intelligence is awareness of cross-cultural differences and the
ability to function successfully in cross cultural functions.
Physical Ability:- Physical ability refers to the capacity to tasks demanding stamina, dexterity,
strength and similar characteristics. To the same degree that intellectual abilities play a larger role
in complex jobs with demanding information. Processing requirements, specific physical abilities
gain importance for successfully doing less-skilled and more standardized jobs. For examples, jobs
in which success demands stamina manual dexterity, leg strength similar talent require
management to identify an employee’s physical capabilities.
LEARNING
Any relatively permanent change in behavior is called learning. Three theories have been offered
explain the process of learning by which we acquire patter us of behavior. These are classical
conditioning operant conditioning and social learning.
a) Classical Conditioning:- deals with the association of one event with another desired
event resulting in desired behavior or learning.
b) Operant Conditioning:- A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads
to a reward or prevents punishment. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by
the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement about by the consequences of the behavior.
Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the like hood that it will be
repeated.
c) Social learning:- People can learn through observation and direct experience. The
influence of this model is central to the social viewpoint. Four processes have been found
to determine the influence that a model will have an individual.

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i) Attention Processes:- People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay
attention to its critical features.
ii) Retention Processes:- A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual
remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.
iii) Motor Reproduction Process:- After a person has a new behavior by observing the
model the watching must be converted to doing. This process then demonstrates that
their individual can perform the modeled activities.
Because learning takes place on the job as well as prior to it managers will be concerted with how
they can teach employees to behave in ways that most benefit the organization and this change
their attitude. When managers attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated
steps, they are “shaping behavior” and this changing their attitude.
There are four ways in which to shape behavior positive reinforcement negative reinforcement,
punishment and extinction.
Following a response with something pleasant is called positive reinforcement Negative response
happens when individuals learn to avoid or escape from unpleasant consequences. Punishment is
causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an unpleasant behavior. Eliminating any
reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called extinction.
VALUES
Values represent basic conviction that a specific mode of conduct or end- state of existence is
personally or society preferable to an opposite mode of conduct. They contain a Judgmental
element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good or desirable. Values have
both context and intensity attributes. The context attribute says that a mode of conduct is
important. The intensity attributes specifics how important it is.
Values are important to the study of organizational behavior they lay the foundation for the
understanding of attributes and motivation and because the influence our perception.
Managers have to become capable of working with people from different cultures. Because value
and attributes differ across cultures, are understanding of these differences should be helpful in
explaining and predicating behavior of employees from different cultures. Nine dimensions on
which cultures differ:-
1) Assertiveness:- The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough,
assertive, confrontational and competitive verses modest and tender.
2) Future Oriented:- The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future
oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in future and laying gratification.
3) Gender Differentiation:- The extend to which society maximizes gender role and
differences.
4) Power Distance:- Degree to which members of society expect power to the
unequally shared.
5) Performance Oriented:- This refers to the degree to which a society encourages and
rewards group’s members for performances improvement an excellent.

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6) Individualism/collectivism:- This is the degree to which individuals are encouraged
by societal institutions to be integrated groups within organizations and society.
ATTITUDES
Attitudes are evaluative statements or Judgment concerning objects, people or events. They reflect
how one feel about something. These are three components of an attitude: cognition, affect and
behavior.
1) Cognitive component of an attitude is opining or belief segment of an attitude. E.g.
discrimination is wrong. Such an opinion is the cognitive component of an attitude.
2) Affective component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude e.g. I
don’t like Mr. X because he discriminates against minorities.
3) Behavioral component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way towards
someone or something.
These three component:- cognitive, affect and behavior- are helpful in understanding the potential
relationship between attitudes and behavior. In contrast to values, attitudes are less stable. E.G.
Advertising message attempt to alter your with feeling related to product/services. That attitude
may lead to desirable response/behavior i.e. the purchase of product or service.
TYPES OF ATTITUDES
A person can have thousand of attitudes. The work related attitudes can positive or negative
evaluation that employees hold about their work environment. Most of the research in
organizational behavior is concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement and
organizational commitment.
Job Satisfaction:- The term job satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitudes towards his
or her job. A person with high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes about the job, while
a person who is dissatisfied with his/ her job holds negative attitudes about the job.
Job Involvement:- Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identified
psychologically with his/her job and considers his/her perceived performance level important to
self work. Employees with high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care
about the kind of work they do.
Organization Commitment:- It is a degree to which an employee identifies with a particular
organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. The research
demonstrates negative relationship between organizational negative relationship between
organizational commitment and both absenteeism and turnover.
ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIP
Attitudes effect behavior and vice-verse. Important attitudes are ones that reflect fundamental
values, self interest or identification with individuals or groups that a person values. Attitudes that
individuals consider important tend to show a strong relationship to behavior. The more specific
the attitude

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and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between the two.
Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur when social pressures to
behave in a certain ways hold exceptional power. The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be
much stronger if an attitude refers to something with which the individual has direct personal
experience.
COGNITIVE DISSINANCE
Dissonance means inconsistency. Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals
will attempt to reduce the dissonance and hence, discomfort. Therefore, individuals will seek a
stable state, in which there is minimum of dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive
between two or more of his/her attitudes or between his/her behavior and attitudes.
No individual can completely avoid dissonance. The desire to reduce dissonance
would be determined by the importance of the dements creating dissonance, the degree of
influence the individual beliefs he/she has over the elements, and rewards that may be involved in
dissonance.
If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct
this imbalance will be low.
The degree of influence that individuals believe that they have over the elements will have
an impact on how they will react to the dissonance. If they perceive the dissonance to be an
uncontrollable result-something over which they have no correct –they are less likely to be
receptive to attitude change. If for ex. the dissonance producing behavior is required as a result of
the boss’s directive the pressure to reduce dissonance would be less then if the behavior was
performed voluntarily. While dissonance exists, if can be rationalized and justified.
Rewards also influence the degree to which individuals are motivated to reduce
dissonance. High rewards accompanying high dissonance. The rewards act to reduce dissonance
by increasing the consistency side of the individual’s balance sheet.
Self Esteem:- People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves. This trait is
called self esteem. Self esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High self esteem
believe that they possess the ability they need to succeed at work individuals with high self-esteem
will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs then people
with low self esteem.
Low self esteem is more susceptible to external influence then is high self esteem. Low self
esteem is dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. As a result they are more
likely to seek approval from others and more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviors of
those they respect than are high self esteems. In managerial positions, low self esteem will tend to
be concerned with pleasing others and therefore are less likely to take unpopular stands than are
high self esteem. High self esteem is more satisfied with their jobs then is low self esteems.
Self Monitoring:- It refers to personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust
his/her behavior to external situational factors.
Individuals high are self monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their
behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave
differently in different situational. High self monitors are capable of presenting striking

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contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low self monitors can’t disguise
themselves in that way. They tend to display their true disposition and attitudes in every situation
hence there is high behavioral consistency between who they are end what is they do. It can be
hypothesized that high self monitors will be more successful in managerial positions in which
individuals are requires to play multiple roles. The high self monitors are capable of putting on
different “facts” for different audience.
EMOTIONS
Emotions are intense feeling that are directed at someone or something.
In contrast to emotions, there is mood that refers to feelings that tend to be less intense than
emotions and that lack emotional stimulus.
Both emotions and mood together form affect which is a generic term which covers a broad range
of feelings that people experience.
Emotions are reactions to an object, not a trait. They are objecting specific. A person shows
his emotions which he is happy about something angry at someone or afraid of something. Moods
on the other hand are not directed to a n object. Emotions can turn into moods when one loses
focus on the contextual object.
Related to emotions is emotional labor which refers to a situation in which an
employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.
Emotional labor creates dilemmas for employees when their job requires them to exhibit emotions
that are incongruous with their actual feelings. Hence there can be felt emotions and displayed
emotion. Felt emotions are individuals actual emotions. In contrast, displayed emotions are those
that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are not innate,
they are learned e.g. We are expected to a ct sad the funerals regardless of whether we consider the
persons death to be a loss, and to pretend to be happy at weddings even if we don’t feel like
celebrating.
EMOTION DIMENSIONS
Varity:- Emotions can either be positive or negative. Positive emotions-like happiness and hope
express a favorable evolution or feeling. Negative emotions like anger or hate express the opposite
emotions can not be neutral. Being neutral is non emotional. Importantly, negative emotions seem
to have a greater effect on individuals. Research has identified six universal emotion:- anger, fear,
sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise.
Intensity:- People give different responses to identifiable emotion provoking stimuli. In some
cases this can be attributed to the individual’s personality. Other times it is result of the job
requirements. People vary in their inherent ability to express intensity. There are some individual
who almost never show their feelings. They rarely get angry. They never show rage. In contrast,
there are some individuals who seem to be on an emotional roller-coaster. When they are happy,
they are ecstatic. Where they are sad, they are deeply depressed. And two people can be in the
same situation- one showing excitement and joy, the remaining calm and collected.
Jobs make different intensity demands in terms of emotions labor. For instance,
judges and air traffic controllers are expected to be calm and controlled, even in stressful

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situations. Conversely the effectiveness of public address announces at sporting events and lowers
can depend on their ability to alter their displayed emotional intensity as the need arises.
Frequency and duration:- Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long durations
is more demanding and requires more exertion by employees. So whether an employee can
successfully meet the emotional demands of a given job depends not only on what emotions need
to be displayed and their intensity, but also on how frequently and for how long the effort has to be
made.
Gender and emotions:- The evidence does confirm differences between men and women when it
comes to emotional reactions and ability to read others, In contrasting the genders, women show
greater emotional expressions than men, they experience emotions more intensely and they display
more frequent expressions of both positive and negative emotions except anger. In contras to men,
women also report more comfort in expressing emotions. Finally women cusses than are men.
Women have more innate ability to read others and present their emotions then do men.
Emotional intelligence:- (EI) refers to an assortment of non cognitive skills, capabilities and
competencies that influence a person’s ability to successes in coping with environmental demands
and pressures. It is a compound of five dimensions.
a) Self awareness:- Being aware of what you are feeling .
b) Self management: - The ability to manage one’s own emotions and impulses.
c) Self motivation:- The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures.
d) Empathy:- The ability to sense how others are feeling.
e) Social skills:- The ability to handle the emotions of others.
Several students suggest that EI may play an important role in job performance.
Top performance recruiters exhibit high levels of EI. The implications from the
initial evidences on EI is that employers should consider it as a factor in selection,
especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction
Given the same objective data, we should expect people may make different
choices when they are angry and stressed out then when they are clam and
collected.
Negative emotions can result in a limited search for new alternatives and
less vigilant use of information. On the other hand, positive emotions can increase
problem solving skills and facilitate the integrations of information.
Motivation:- Motivation theories propose that individuals are motivated to the extend that their
behavior is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The image is that of a rational exchange. The
employees essentially trade efforts for pay, security, promotions, and so forth. But people are not
cold, unfeeling machines. Their perceptions and calculations of situations are filled with emotional
content that significantly influences how much effort they exert. People who are highly motivates
in their jobs, they are emotionally committed. People who are engaged in their work “become
physically cognitively and emotionally immersed in the experience of activity, in the pursuit of a
goal.”

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Leadership:- The ability to lead others is a fundamental quality sought by organizations.
Effective leaders rely on the expression of feelings to help convey their messages. When leader
feel excite, enthusiastic and active, they may be more likely to energies their subordinates and
convey a sense of efficacy competence optimize and enjoyment. Corporate executives know that
emotional content is critical if employees are to buy into their vision of their company’s future and
accept change. By arousing emotions and linking them to an appealing vision, leaders increase the
like hood that managers and employees alike will accept change.
Interpersonal Conflict:- Whenever conflicts arise, emotions also surface. A manager’s success in
trying to resolve conflicts is often largely attributed to his ability to identify the emotional elements
in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties to work through their emotions. And the managers
who ignores the emotional elements in conflicts, focusing singularly on rational and take focused
concerns, is unlikely to be very effective in resolving those conflicts.
b) Reward power:- The opposite of coercive power is reward power. People comply with the
wishes or directives of another because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can
distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards
can either be financial or non-financial.
c) Legitimate Power:- Legitimate power represents the power a person receives as a result of his
or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. It is the formal authority to control and
use organizational resources. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward.
Specifically, it includes acceptance by members in an organization of the authority of a position.
d) Information Power:- Information Power comes from access to and control over
information. People in an organization who have data or knowledge that others need can
make those other dependent on them.
II) Personal Power

Personal power comes from an individual’s unique characteristics. Three bases of personal
power- expertise, the respect and admiration of others and charisma.
a) Expert Power: - Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skills or
knowledge. Expertise has become one of the most power sources of influence as the world
has become one of the most power sources of influence as the world has become more
technologically oriented. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly
dependent on experts to achieve goals.
b) Referent Power:- Referent power is based on identification with a person who has
desirable resources or personal traits. Referent power develops out of admiration of another
and a desire to be like that person. For example, celebrities are paid millions to endorse
products in commercials. They have the power to influence people’s choice of products.
c) Charismatic Power: - Charismatic Power is extent ion of referent power stemming from
an individual’s personality and interpersonal skills. Charismatic people get others to follow
them because they can articulate attractive VISIONS, take personal risks, demonstrate
environmental and follower sensitivity and are willing to engage in behavior that most
others consider unconventional.

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DEPENDENCY
The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B.
When a person possess anything that others require, but alone has a control over it, he
makes others dependent over him and thus, gain power over them. Dependency, then, is
inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. If something is plentiful, possession
of it will not increase anyone’s power. If everyone is intelligent, intelligence gives no special
advantage. Conversely, the more that a person has options, the less power he places in the
hands of others. Hence, most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than give their
business to only one.
Dependency is increased when the resources a person controls is important, scarce
and nonsubstitutable.
Importance
If nobody wants what a person has got, it’s is not going to create dependency. To create
dependency, therefore. The things a person control must be perceived as being important.
Scarcity
If something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase one’s power. A resource needs to be
perceived as scarce to create dependency.
Nonsubstitutability
The more that a resource has no visible substitutes, the more power that control over that
resources provides.
Power Tactics
Power tactics refer to ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.
There are seven tactical dimensions or strategies by which managerial employees influence
others:-
-Reason: - Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas.
-Friendliness: - Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble and being friendly prior to
making a request.
-Coalition: - Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request.
-Bargaining: - Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors.
-Assertiveness: - Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance with
request, repeated reminders, ordering individuals to do what is asked etc.
-Higher Authority: - Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back-up
request.
-Sanctions:- Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments such as preventing or
premising a salary increase threatening to give an unsatisfactory performance evolution or with
holding a promotion. Likely to engage in political behavior.
The high self monitor is more sensitive to social cues, exhibits higher levels of social
conformity and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior then the low self monitor.
Individuals with an internal locus of control, because they believe they can control their
environment, are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in
their favor.

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Individuals with an internal focus of control, because they believe they can control their
environment are more prone to take a productive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in
their favor.
Machiavellian personality which is characterized by the will to manipulate and the desire
for power is comfortable using politics as a means to further his or her self interest.
Individual’s investment in the organization perceived alternatives and expectations of
success will influence the degree to which he/she will pursue illegitimate means of political
action. The more a person has invested in the organization in terms of expectations of
increased future benefits, the more he/she has to lose if forced out and less likely he/she is to
use illegitimate means.
The more alternative job opportunities an individual has due to favorable job market or the
possession of scarce skills or knowledge a prominent reputation or influential contracts outside
the organization the more likely he/she is to risk illegitimate political actions.
Organizational Factors:- Political activity is probably more a function of the organizational

characteristics than of individual difference variables.
When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, reduction in resources has to be made.
Threatened with the loss of resources, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what
they have. But any changes, especially those that imply significant reallocation of resources within
the organization are likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking.
Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political actions in
organizations. The opportunity for promotions or advancement encourages people to comate for
limits resources and to try to positively influence the decision outcome.
The less trust there is within the organization the higher the level of political behavior and the
more likely that the political behavior will be of the illegitimate kind. So high trust should suppress
the level of political behavior in general and inhibit illegitimate action in particular.
Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behavior of the employee is not clear. There are fewer
limits, therefore, to the scope and functions of the employee’s political actions. Because political
activities as those not required as part of one’s formal role the greater the role ambiguity, the more
one can engage in political activities with little change of it being visible.
The more that organizations use subjective criteria in the appraisal emphasize the single outcome
measure, or allow significant time to pass between the time of an action and its appraisal the
greater the like hood then an employee can get away with politicking.
The more then an organization’s culture emphasizes the zero-sum or win-lose approach to reward
allocations, the more employees will be motivate to engage in politicking. In zero-sum approach
any gain that one person or group achieves has come at the expense of another person or group.
Such a practice encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you do.
The more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more likely they are to engage in
politicking when people are strictly accountable for outcomes, this puts great pressures on them to
“Look good”.

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When employees see the people on top engaging in political behavior especially when they do so
successfully and are rewarded for it, a climate is created that supports politicking. Politicking by
top management gives permission to those lower in the organization to play politics by implying
such behavior that is acceptable.
How do people respond to organizational politics
There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are negatively
related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics also tends to increase job anxiety or stress.
This is due to perception that by not engaging in politics, a person may be losing ground to others
who are actively politickers. When politickers becomes too much to handle, it can lead to
employees quitting. Politics lead to self-reported decline in employee performance. Perceived
organizational politics appear to have a demotivating effect on individuals, thus leading to
decreased performance levels.
ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
An organization structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated.
There are six elements that mangers need to address when they design their organization’s
structure. These are :- a) Work specialization. b) Departmentalization. c) Chain of command. d)
Span of control. e) Centralisation & Decentralization. f) Formalisation
A) Work Specialization: - refers to the degree to which tasks in the organization are
subdivided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is that, rather than an
entire job being done by one individual, it is broken down into a number of steps, with each
step being completed by a separate individual.
B) Departmentalisation:- Once the jobs have been divided through work specialization, these
jobs have to be grouped together so that common tasks can be coordinated. The basis by
which jobs are grouped together is called departmentalization.
The activities can be grouped by functions performed. A
Manufacturing manager might organize his plant by separating engineering, accounting,
manufacturing, personnel and supply specialists into common departments. Functional
departmentalization seeks to achieve economics of scale by placing people with common skills and
orientations into common units.
Tasks can also be departmentalized by the type of product the
organization produces. Each major product is placed under the authority of an executive who has
complete global responsibility for that product. The major advantage of this type of grouping is
increased accountability for product performance, since all the activities related to a product are
under the direction of a single manager.
Another way to departmentalize is on the basis of geography
or territory. The sales function, for instance, may have western, southern, eastern region. Each of
these regions is in effect, a department organized around geography. If an organisation’s customers
are scattered over a large geographic area and have similar needs based on their location, then this
form of departmentalization.

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A final category of departmentalization is to use the particular type of
customer. An organization can organize itself around customer groups like corporates, retail,
government etc.
C) Chain of Command is an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the
organization to the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom. It answers questions for
employees such as” To whom do I go if I have a problem?” and ‘ To whom am I responsible?”
The unity of command principle helps preserve the concept of an
unbroken line of authority. It states that a person should have one and only one superior to whom
he or she is directly responsible. If the unity of command is broken, an employee might have to
cope with conflicting demands or priorities from several superiors.
D) Span of control refers to the number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and
effectively direct. Span of control is important because, to a large degree, it determines the
number of levels and managers and organization has all things being equal the wider or
larger the span, the more efficient the organization. Narrow span has three major
drawbacks. First, they are expensive because they add to the levels of management.
Second, they make vertical communication in the organization more complex. The added
levels of hierarchy slow down decision making and tend to isolate upper management.
Third, narrow spans of control encourage overly tight supervision and discourage
autonomy.
E) Centralisation and Decentralisation Centralisation refers to the degree to which
decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. The concept includes
only formal authority that is, the rights inherent to one’s position. Typically, it’s said that if
top management makes the organisation’s key decision with little or no input from lower-
level personnel, then the organization is centralized. In contrast, the actually given the
discretion to make decision, the more decentralisation there is.
An organization characterized by centralization is an

Inherently different structural entity from one that is an inherently different structural entity
from one that is decentralized. In a decentralized organization, action can be taken more
quickly to solve problem, more people provide input into decisions and employees are less
likely to feel alienated from those who make the decisions that effect their work lives.
Consistent with recent management efforts to make organization
more flexible and responsive, there has been a marked trend toward decentralizing decision
making. In large companies, lower-level managers are closer to “the action” and typically have
more detailed knowledge about problems than do top management.
F) Formalisation refers to the degree to which job within the organization are standardized. If
a job is highly formalized then the job incumbent has a minimum amount of discretion
Pageno43………………………………….
Over what is to be done, when it is to be done and how it is to be done. Employees can be
expected always to handle the same input in exactly same way, resulting in a consistent
and uniform output. There are explicitly job description lots of organizational rules, and
dearly defined procedures covering work processes in organizations in which thee is high
formalization. Where formalization is low, job behaviors are relatively non-programmed
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and employees have a great deal of freedom to exercise discretion in their work. Because
an individual’s discretion on the job is inversely related to the amount of behavior in that
job that is preprogrammed by the organization, the greater the standardization and the
less input the employee has into how his or her work is to be done. Standardization not
his/her work is to be done. Standardization not only eliminates the possibility of
employees engaging in alternative behaviors, but it even removes the need for employees
to consider alternatives.
Common organizational Designs:-
There are three common organizational designs- Simple structure, bureaucracy and the
matrix structure.
A) Simple Structure:- Simple structure is characterized by a low degree of
departmentalization, wide span of control, authority centralized in a single
person and little formalization. The simple structure is a “felt ” organization, it
usually has only two or three vertical levels, a lower body of employees and one
individual in whom the decision making authority is centralized. The simple
structure is most widely practiced in small businesses in which the manager and
the owner are one and the same. The strength of the simple structure less in its
simplicity. It’s fast flexible and inexpensive to maintain and accountability is dear.
B) Bureaucracy:- The key concept that underlies all bureaucracy is standardization.
It is a structure with highly routine operating tasks achieved through
specialization very formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into
functional departments, centralized authority, narrow span of control and decision
making the chain of command.
The primary strength of bureaucracy lies in its ability to perform standardized
activities in a highly efficient manner. Putting like specialties together in functional
departments results in economics of scale, minimum duplications of personal and
equipment. Furthermore bureaucracy gives opportunity to less talented and hence
less costly middle and lower level managers. The pervasiveness of rules and
regulations substitutes for managerial discretion. Standardized operations, coupled
with high formalization allow decision making to be centralized. There is little need
therefore for innovative and experienced decision makers below the level of senior
executives.
c) Matrix Structure:- Matrix structure creates dual line of authority and combines
functional and product departmentalization .
The strength of functional departmentalization lies in putting like specialists together,
which minimizes the number necessary while allowing the pooling and sharing of
specialized resources across products. Its major disadvantage is the difficulty of
coordinating the tasks of diverse functional specialists so that their activities are
completed on time and within budget. Product departmentation, on the other hand,
has exactly the opposite benefits and disadvantages. It facilitates coordination among
specialties to achieve on-time completion and meet budgets targets. Further more, it
provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication
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of activities and costs. The matrix attempts to gain the strength of each, while
avoiding their weaknesses.
The most obvious structural characteristics of the matrix is that it breaks the unity
of command concept. Employees in the matrix have two bosses-their functional
department managers and their product managers. Therefore, the matrix has a dual
chain of command.
The strength of the matrix lies in its ability to facilitate coordination when the
organization has a multiplicity of complex and interdependent activities. As an
organization gets larger, its information processing capacity can become overloaded.
In a bureaucracy, complexity results in increased formularization. The direct and
frequent contact between different specialists in the matrix can make for better
communication and more quickly reaches the people who need to take account of it.
There is another advantage to the matrix. It facilitates the efficient allocation of

specialists. When individuals with highly specialized skills are lodged in one
functional department or a product group their talents are monopolized and
underused. The matrix achieves the advantage of economics of scale by providing the
organization with both the best resources and an effective way of ensuring their
efficient development.

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NEW DESIGN OPTIONS

Senior managers in a number of organizations have been working to develop new structural
options that can better help their firms to compete effectively. Two new structures of such type
have come up in recent times:-
a) The Team Structure:- The primary characteristics of the team structure are that it breaks
down departmental barriers and decentralize decision making to the level of the work
teams. Team structures also require employees to be generalists as well as specialists.
More often, primarily among larger organizations, the team structure complements what
is typically a bureaucracy. This allows, the organization to achieve the efficiency of bureaucracy
standardization, while gaining the flexibility that team provides.
b) The Virtual Organization (also sometimes called network or modular organization)
virtual organization is typically a small, core organization that outsources major business
functions. In structural terms, the virtual organization is highly centralized, with little or no
departmentalization.
The core of the organization is a small group of executives whose job is to oversee
directly any activities that are done in house and to coordinate relationships with the other
organization that manufacture, distribute and perform other crucial functions for the virtual
organization. In essence, managers in virtual structures spend most of their time coordinating and
controlling external relations, typically by way of computer network links.
The major advantage to the virtual organization is its flexibility. For instance, it allows
individuals with an innovative idea and little money to successfully compete with bigger
companies. The primary drawback to this structure is that it reduces management’s control over
key parts of its business.
NEGOTIATION
Negotiation is defined as a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and
attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them.
There are two general approaches to negotiation- distributive bargaining and integrative
bargaining.
A) Distributive Bargaining:- Distributive bargaining is defined as negotiations that seeks to
divide up a fixed amount of resources, a win lose situation. Its most identifying feature is
that it operates under zero sum conditions i.e. each party bargains aggressively and treats
the other as an opponent who must be defeated.
The essence of distributive bargaining is that each party has a target point that defines
what he/she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest
outcome that is acceptable the point below which they would break off negotiations rather then
accept a less favorable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each one’s
aspiration range. As long as these is some overlap between the aspiration ranges, their exists a
settlement range in which each one’s aspiration can be met.

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When engaged in distributive bargaining one’s tactics focus on try to get one’s opponent to
agree to one’s specific target point or to get as close to it as possible. Examples of such tactics are
persuading to his/her target point and the advisability of accepting a settlement near yours arguing
that your target is fair, which your opponent’s is not and attempting to get you opponent to feel
emotionally generous toward you and thus accept an outcome close to your target point.
B) Integrative Bargaining :- Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements than create win-
win situation.
In terms of intra-organizational behavior all things being equal integrative bargaining is
preferable to distributive bargaining. Integrative bargaining builds long term relationships and
facilitates working together in the future. It bonds negotiators and allows each to leave the
bargaining table feeling that he/she has achieved a victory. Distributive bargaining on the other
hand, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build animosities and deeper divisions when people have
to work together on an ongoing process.
The Negotiation Process :- Negotiation is made up of five steps:- preparation and planning,
Definition of ground rules, Clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving and
closure and implementation.
a) Preparation and planning:- Before the start of negations one must be aware of conflict
the history leading to the negotiation the people involved and their perception of the
conflict expectations from the negotiations etc.
b) Definition of ground rules:- Once the planning and strategy is development one has to
begin defining the ground rules and procedures with the other party over the negotiation
itself that will do the negotiation. Where will it take place? What time constrains, if any
will apply? To what issues will negotiations be limited? Will there be a specific procedure
to follow in an impasse is reached? During this phase the parties will also exchange their
initial proposals or demands.
c) Clarification and justification:- When initial positions have been exchanged both the
parties will explain amplify, clarify, bolster and justify their original demands. This need
not be confrontational. Rather it is an opportunity for educating and informing each other
on the issues why they are important and how each arrived at their initial demands. This is
the point where one party might want to provide the other party with any documentation
that helps support its position.
d) Bargaining and problem solving :- The essence of the negotiation process is the actual
give and take in trying to hash out an agreement. It is here where concessions will
undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.
e) Closure and Implementation:- The final step in the negotiation process is formalization
the agreement that has been worked out and developing and procedures that are necessary
for implementation and monitoring. For major negotiations – this will require hammering
out the specifics in a formal contract.
Third Party Negotiations:-

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If the group or parties reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through
direct negotiation they may turn to a third party to help them find a solution. The different third
party roles are:-
a) Mediator:- Mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using
reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives and like. Mediators are widely used in
labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. To be effective the mediator
must be perceived as neutral and non-coercive.
b) Arbitrator:- An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement.
Arbitration can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory. The authority of the arbitrator
varies according to the rules set by the negotiators. The big plus of arbitration over
medication is that it always results in a settlement. If one party is left feeling over
whelming defeated, that party is certain to be dissatisfied and unlikely to graciously accept
the…………………………………..
EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment is putting employees in charge of what they do. Decision making is

pushed down to the operating level, where workers are given the freedom to make
choices about schedules and procedures and to solve work related problems.
Employees are allowed full control and their work. An increasing numbers of
organizations are using self managed teams, in which workers operate largely
without bosses. Empowerment is necessary component of a customer responsive
culture because it allows service employees to make on the post decisions to satisfy
customer completely.
In empowering employees managers have to learn how to give up control and
employees have to learn how to take responsibility for their work and make
appropriate decisions.
There are several barriers to empowerment. Some managers are very reluctant to
delegate authority and many sub-ordinates avoid taking on the responsibility and
authority. The causes for such reluctance are based upon certain beliefs and attitudes
which are personal and behavioral in nature.
A. Reluctance of executive.
a. A manager may believe that he can do this work better than his
subordinate. He subordinates are not capable enough. Delegation may take
a lot of time in explaining the responsibility to the subordinate and the
managers may not have the patience to explain supervise and correct any
mistake.
b. Lack of confidence and trust in subordinate: since the manager is
responsible for the action of his subordinates he may not be wiling to take
chances with the subordinates in case the job is not done right.

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c. Sense of in security .: some managers feel very insecure in delegating
authority specially when the subordinate is capable of doing the job. The
manager in such a situation may feel his loss or power and competition
from the subordinates.
B. Reluctance of subordinates.
a. Many subordinates are reluctance to accept authority and make decisions
for fear that they would be criticized or dismissed for making wrong
decisions. This is especially true in situations where subordinates had make
a mistake earlier.
b. The subordinates may not be given sufficient incentives for assuming extra
responsibility which could mean working harder under pressure.
Accordingly I the absence of adequate compensation in the form of higher
salary or promotional opportunities a subordinate may avoid additional
responsibility.
c. The subordinate may lock self confidence in doing the job and may fear the
supervisor will not be available for guidance once the delegation is made
and this makes them feel uncomfortable with additional responsibility.
d. Some subordinates hesitate to accept new and added assignment when
there is lack of necessary information and when the available resources are
nit adequate or proper.
Facilitators of empowerment.
Since empowerment results in several organizational advantage, it becomes
necessary for the management any barriers to effective empowerment.
Arbitrator’s decision. Therefore, the conflict might surface at a later time.

C) CONCILIATOR: A conciliator is a third party who provides an informal
communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. In practice,
conciliator typically acts as more than mere communication conduits. They also
engage in fact finding, interpreting message and persuading disputants to develop
agreements.
D) CONSULTANT: A consultant is a skilled and impartial third party who attempt
to facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis, aided by his or
her knowledge of conflict management. The consultant’s role is not to settle the
issues but, rather, to improve relations between the conflicting parties so that they
can reach a settlement themselves. Instead of putting forward specific solutions,
the consultant tries to help the parties learn to understand and work with each
other.
CHANGE
Change is making things different. It is an intentional goal oriented activity.
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Change can be planned or unplanned. Planned change seeks
to improve the ability of the organization to adapt to the changes in its environment.
Second, it seeks to change employees behavior.
If an organization is to survive, it must respond to change in
its environment. When competitors introduce new products, government enact new laws
or similar environmental changes take place, the organizations need to adapt. Because an
organization’s success or failure is essentially due to things that it employees do or fail to
do, planned change also is concerned with changing the behavior of individuals and
groups within the organization.
CHANGE AGENTS: People who are responsible to bring/introduce change in the
organization. They act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing change
activities. Change agents can be managers or outside consultants who provide advice and
assistance. The outside consultants, because they are from outside, can offer an objective
perspective often unavailable to insiders. Outside consultant, however, are
disadvantaged because they usually have an inadequate understanding of the
organization’s history, culture, operating procedures etc.
FORCES FOR CHANGE

1) Nature of the workforce:- Almost every organization is having to adjust to a
multicultural environment. Human resource policies and practices have to change
in order to attract and keep this more diverse workforce.
2) TECHNOLOGY:- Faster and cheaper computers, new mobile communication
devices etc have forced the companies to take adaptive steps to survive in the
market place.
3) COMPETITION:- Companies no longer face competition from local players but
from international giants,” Change or die” is the rallying cry among today’s
managers. It is neither the strongest who will survive nor the fittest but one who is
receptive to change.
4) WORLD POLITICS:- Companies have to change taking into account the political
changes taking around the world. The opening up of China, breaking up of Soviet
Union, the terrorist attack on World Trade Tower has led to changes in business
practices related to the creation of back up systems, employee security and post-
terrorist attack anxiety.
Resistance to change
Organizations and their members resist change. Resistance to change
hinders adapt ion and progress. Resistance can be overt, implicit, immediate or deferred.
It is easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and immediate. For
instance, a change is proposed and employees quickly respond by voicing complaints,
engaging in a work slowdown, threatening to go on strike that is implicit or deferred.

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Implicit resistance efforts are more subtle-loss of loyalty to the organization, loss of
motivation to work, increased errors to work, increased absenteeism due to “sickness”-
and hence more difficult to recognize.
Resistance may be at individual level or organization level.
INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCE Individual Resistance to change reside in basic human
characteristics. These are:
a) Habit: Human beings are creatures of habits. Life is complex and humans don’t
need to consider the full range of options for the hundreds of decisions they have
to make everyday. To cope with this complexity human beings rely on habit or
pre-programmed responses. But when confronted with change, this tendency to
respond in their accustomed way becomes a source of resistance.
Security people with high need for security are likely to resist change because it threatens their
feeling of safety.
Economic Factors:- Changes in job tasks or established work routines also can arouse
economic fears if people are concerned that they won’t be able to perform the new tasks or
routines to their previous standards especially when pay is closely tied to productivity.
Fear of unknown:- changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for the known. Employees
in an organization hold dislike for uncertainty.
Organizational resistance:- major sources of organizational resistance include.
a) Structural Inertia:- Organizations have built-in- mechanism to produce stability. The

people who are hired into an organization are chosen for fit, they are then trained and
directed to behave in certain ways. When an organization is confronted with change, this
structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.
b) Limited Focus of change: - Organizations are made up of a number of interdependent
subsystems you can’t change one without affecting the others. So limited changes in
subsystem tend to get nullified by the larger system.
c) Group inertia: - Even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may act
as constrains. Any individual union member, for instance may be willing to accept changes
in his job suggested by management. But if union norms dictate resistance any unilateral
change made by management, he is likely to resist.
d) Threat to Established power Relationships:- Any redistribution of decision making
authority can threaten long established power relationships within the organization. The
introduction of participative decision making or self-managed work teams is a kind of
change that is often seen as threatening by supervisors and middle managers.
e) Threat to Established resource allocation:- Groups in the organization that control
sizable resources often see change as a threat. Those who benefit the most from the current
allocation of resources often feel threatened by changes that may affect future allocation.
Overcoming resistance to change

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Several tactics have been suggested by change agents in dealing with resistance to change.
a) Education and Communication:- Resistance can be reduced through communication with
employees to help them see the logic of the change. This tactic basically assumes that the
source of resistance lies in poor communication. If employees receive the full facts and get
any misunderstandings cleared up, resistance will subside.
b) Participation:- It is difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which they
participated. Assuming that participants have the expertise to make a meaningful
contribution, their involvement can reduce resistance obtain commitment and increase the
quality of change decision.
c) Facilitation and support:- Change agents can offer a range of supportive efforts to reduce
resistance. When employee’s fear and anxiety is high, employee counseling or new skills
training may facilitate adjustments.
d) Negotiation:- If the resistance is centered in a few powerful individuals, a specific reward
package can be negotiated that will meet their individual needs.
e) Manipulation and cooptation:- Manipulation refers to covert influence attempts. Twisting
and distorting facts to make them appear more altercative, withholding undesirable
information and creating false rumors to get employees to accept a change are all examples
of manipulation.
Co-optation the other hand is a form of both manipulation and participation. It seeks to
“buy off” the leaders of a resistance group by giving them a key role in the change decision. The
leader’s advice is rough, not to seek a better decision but to get their endorsement.
Coercion:- Coercion is the application of direct threat or force on the resisters. Examples of
coercision include threats of transfer, loss of promotion, negative performance evaluation and poor
letter of recommendation.
Approaches to manage organizational change:-
There are three popular approaches to managing change:- lawin’s classic three step model; action
research and organizational development.
Lawins three step model:- Kurt lawin argued that successful change in organization should
follow three steps.
Unfreezing:- is defined as change efforts to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance
and group conformity.
The status quo can be considered to be an equilibrium state. To move from this equilibrium-to
overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity-unfreezing is
necessary. It can be achieved in any one of three ways-
a) The driving force
Which directs behaviors away from status quo, can be increased (b) The restraing forces,
which hinder movement from the existing equilibrium can be decreased. A third
alternative is to combine the first two approaches.
To deal with resistance,
management could use positive incentives to encourage employees to accept the change.
For instance, increases in pay can be offered to those who accept the transfer.

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Management might also consider unfreezing acceptance of the status quo by removing
restraining forces. Employee’s concerns and apprehensions could be heard and
specifically clarified.
B) REFREEZING: refers to stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving and
restraining forces.
Once the consolidation change has been implemented, if it is to be
successful, the new situation needs to be refrozen so that it can be sustained over time.
Unless this last step is taken, there is a very high chance that the change will be short-
lived and that employees will attempt to revert to the previous equilibrium state.
II ACTION RESEARCH
Action research refers to a change process based on the systematic collection of data and
then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate. Their
importance lies in providing a scientific methodology for managing planned change.
The process of action research consists of five steps: diagnosis,
analysis, feedback, action and evaluation.
Diagnosis is analogous to the physician search to
find specifically what ails a patient. The change agent begins by gathering information
about problems, concerns and needed changes from members of the organization. The
change agent asks question, interviews employees, reviews records and listens to the
concerns of employees.
Diagnosis is followed by analysis. What are the
major problems people face? What patterns do these problems seem to take? The change
agent synthesizes this information into primary concerns, problem areas and possible
actions.
Feedback requires sharing with employees what has been
found from steps one and two. Action research includes extensive involvement of the
change targets. That is, the people who will be involved in any change programmed must
be actively involved in determining what the problem is and participating in creating the
solution.
The employees with the help of the change agent,
develop action plans for bringing about any needed change. Now the action part of action
reaction is set in motion. The employees and the change agent carry out the specific
actions to correct the problem that have been identified.
The final step, consistent with the scientific underpinnings of action research is evaluation
of the action plan’s effectiveness. Using the initial data gathered as a benchmark, any
subsequent changes can be compared and evaluated.
Action research provides at least two specific benefits
for an organization. First, it is the problem focused. The change agent objectively looks
for problems and the type of problem determines the type of the change action. Second,
because action research so heavily involves employees in the process, resistance to
change is reduced.
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III ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (OD) OD is a method aimed at changing
the attitudes, values and beliefs of employees so that employees can improve the
organization. The following briefly identifies the underlying values in most OD efforts.
1) Respect for people:- Individuals are perceived as being responsible, conscientious
and caring. They should be treated with dignity and respect.
2) Trust and support:- The effective and healthy organization is characterized by
trust, authenticity, openness and a supportive climate.
3) Power equalization:- Effective organization deemphasize hierarchal authority and
control.
CONFRONTATION:- Problems shouldn’t be swept under the rug. They should be
openly confronted.
PARTICIPATION:- The more that people who will be affected by a change are
involved in the decisions surrounding that change, the more they will be committed
to implementing those decisions.
OD TECHNIQUES OR INTERVENTIONS
1) Sensitivity Training:- It involves training groups that seek to change behavior
through unstructured group interaction.
Members are brought in a free and open environment in which participants
discuss themselves and their interactive processes, loosely directed by a
professional behavioral scientist. The group is process oriented, which means that
individuals learn through observing and participating rather than being told.
2) Survey Feedback:- It involves the use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies
among member perceptions, discussion follows and remedies are suggested.
3) Team Building:- It involves interaction among team members to increase trust and
openers. Team building can be applied within groups or at
The inter group level, at which activities are interdependent. The activities considered in team
building typically include goal setting, development of interpersonal relations among team
members, role analysis to clarify each member’s role and responsibilities and team process
analysis.
Inter-group development :- A major area of concern in OD is the dysfunctional conflict that
exists between groups. As a result, this has been a subject several change efforts. A popular
method emphasizes problems solving. In this method, each group meets independently to develop
lists of its perceptions of itself, the other group, and how it believes the other group perceives its.
The group then shares their lists, after which similarities and differences are discussed. Differences
are clearly articulated and the groups look for the causes of the disparities.
Appreciative Inquiry:- AI seeks to identify the unique quality and special strengths of an
organization, which can be built on to improve performance. The AI process essentially consists of
four steps. The first step is one of discovery. The idea is to find out what people think are the
strengths of the organization.

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The second step is dreaming. The information from the discovery phase is used to speculate on
possible futures for the organization.
The third step is design. Based on the dream articulation, participants focus in finding a
common vision of how the organization will look and agree on its unique qualities.
The fourth stage seeks to define the organization dusting. In this final step, participants
discuss how the organization is going to fulfill its dream. This typically includes the writing of
action plans and development of implementation strategies.
Emotion
Emotions are intense feeling that are directed at someone or something.

Moods are feeling that tend to be less intense then emotions and which lack a contextual
stimulus.
Emotions and moods together make affect which is defined as broad range of feelings that
people experience.
Emotions are reactions to an object, not a trait. They are objecting specific. A person shows
his emotions when he is “happy about something, angry at someone or afraid of something.”
Moods on the other hand are not directed at an object. Emotions can turn into moods when a
person loses focus on the contextual object. A person might find he just generally dispirited.
He can not attribute this feeling to any single event, he just not his normal upbeat self. This
affect state describes a mood.
Emotional labor:- is defined as a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally

desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. The concept of emotional labor originally
developed in relation to service jobs. Airline flight attendants, for instance are expected to be
cheerful, funeral counselors sad, and doctors emotionally natural.
Emotions can be separated into felt emotions and displayed emotions. Fell emotions
are individuals actual emotions. In contract, displayed emotions are those that are
organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are not innate, they
are learned. Displayed emotions constitute emotional labor.
Emotion Dimensions:-
1) Variety:- Emotions can either be positive or negative. Positive emotions-like happiness
and hope-express a favorable evaluation or feeling. Negative emotions- like anger or hate-
express the opposite. But emotions can not be neutral. Being neutral is non emotional.
Research has identified six universal disgust and surprise.
2) Intensity:- People give different responses to identical emotion-provoking stimuli. In
some cases this can be attributed to the individual’s personality. Other times it is a result of
the job requirements.
People vary in their inherent ability to express intensity. Some individuals almost never
show their feelings. They rarely get angry. In contrast, some individuals seem to be on an
emotional roller coaster. When they are happy, they are ecstatic. When they are sad, they are
deeply depressed.
Frequency and duration:- Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long durations is
more demanding and requires more extraction by employees. So whether an employee can

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successfully meet the emotional demands of a given job depends not only on what emotions
need to be displayed and their intensity, but also on how frequently and for how long the effort
has to be made.
Gender and emotions:- Women are more ”in touch” with their feelings then men-that they
react more emotionally and are better able to read emotions in others.
Emotional Intelligence(EI):- EI refers to an assortment of non cognitive skills, capabilities,
and competencies that influences a person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressures. It is composed of five dimensions.
Self awareness:- Being aware of what you are feeling.
Self Management: The ability to manage one’s own emotions and impulses.
Self Motivation: The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures.
Empathy: The ability to sense how others are feeling.
Social Skills: The ability to handle emotions of others.
Decision Making: Given the same objective data, we should expect that people may make the
different choices when they are angry and stressed out than when they are calm and collected.
Negative emotions can result in limited search for new alternatives and a less vigilant use
of information. On the other hand , positive emotions can increase problem- solving skills and
facilitate the integration of information.
Motivation: People who are highly motivated in their work are , they are emotionally committed,
People who are engaged in their work “ become physically , cognitively and emotionally
immersed in the experience of activity , in the pursuit of goal.
Leadership : Effective leaders almost all rely on the expression of feelings to help convey their
messages. The expression of emotions in speeches are often the critical element that results in
individuals accepting or rejecting a leader’s message . When leaders feel exited, enthusiastic and
active , they may be more likely to engage their subordinates and convey a sense of efficacy,
competence, optimism and enjoyment.
Interpersonal Conflict : Whenever conflicts arise, one can be fairly certain that emotions are also
surfacing. A manager’s success in trying to resolve conflict is often largely attributable to his or
her ability to identify the emotional elements in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties to
work through their emotions . The managers who ignores the emotional elements in the conflicts
focusing singularly on rational and task- focused concerns, is unlikely to be very effective in
resolving those conflicts.
Perception

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Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their seniority impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment.
Attribution theory is used to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge

people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Basically the
theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour we attempt to determine whether
it was internally or three caused. That determination depends largely on three factors: 1)
Distinctiveness 2) Consensus 3) Consistency
Internally caused behaviors are those believed to be under the personal control of the
individual. Externally caused behaviors is seen as resulting from outside causes, that is person is
seen as having been forced into a behavior by the situation.
Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different

situations what is to be determined is whether this behavior is unusual. If it is, the observer is
likely to five the behavior an external attribution. If this action is not unusual, it will probably be
judged as internal.
If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the
behavior shows consensus.
Consistently refers to whether responds the same way over time. The more consistent the
behavior, the more the observes is inclined to attribute it to internal causes.
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can
reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived, or in the contrast of the situation in
which the perception is made.
When an individual looks at the target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that
interpretation is heavily influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual perceiver.
Personal characteristics that affect perception include a person’s attitudes, personality motives.
Interests, past experiences and expectations.
Characteristics of the target being observed can effect what is perceived. Local people are
more likely to be noticed in a group than quite ones. So, too ,are extremely , attractive individuals
because targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background also
influences perception, as does our tendency to group close things and similar things together.
The context in which we see objects or events is also important. The time at which object or
event is seen can influence attention as can location, light or any number of situational factors.
Frequently used shortcuts in judging others
Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests,
background experience and attribute. People perceive aspects of a situation that were specifically

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related to the activities and goals of the unit to which they are attached. A group’s perception of
organizational activities is selectively altered to align with the vested interests they represent.
Halo Effect: Halo effect refers to drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of
single characteristics such as intelligence, sociability or appearance.
Contrast Effect: We don’t evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one person is influenced
by other person we have recently encountered. Contrast effect refers to evaluation of a person’s
characteristics that are affected by comparison with other people recently encountered who rank
higher or lower on the same characteristics.
Projections: Projections refers to attributing one’s own characteristics to other people. People who
engage in projection tend to perceive others according to what they themselves are like rather than
according to what the person being observed is really like.
Stereotyping: Stereotyping refers to judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the
group to which that person belongs.
Specific Applications of Perception in Organizations
Employment Interviews: Interviews generally draw early impressions that become very quickly
entrenched. If negative information is exposed early in the interview, it tends to be more heavily
weighted than if that same information comes out later. Most interviewers’ decisions change very
little after the first four or five minutes of the interview. As a result, information elicited early in
the interview carries greater weight than does information elicited later, and a “good applicant” is
probably characterized more by the absence of unfavorable characterizes than by the presence of
favorable characteristics.
Performance Evaluation: An employee’s performance appraisal is very much dependent on the

perceptual process. Many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures are, by the
defination, judge mental. To the extend the managers use subjective measures in appraising
employee, what the evaluator perceives to be good or bad employee characterizes or behaviors will
significantly influence the outcome of the appraisal.
Group
A group is defined as two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups
are designated work group defined by the organization’s structure. Informal groups are network of
personal and social relations not established or required by the formal organizations but arising
spontaneously as people associate with on another.

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Groups are further sub classified into command, task interest or friendship groups command and
tasks groups are dictated by the formal organizations, while interest and friendship groups are
informal alliances.
The organizational chart determines a command group. It is composed of individuals who report
directly to a given manager.
Task group are also organizationally determined. Represents those working together to complete
the job task. However, as task group’s boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical
superior. It can cross command relationship. All command groups are also task group, but because
tasks groups can cut across the organization, the reverse needs not be true.
Interest groups includes those working together to attain a specific objective with each is
concerned. Employees who band together to have their vacation schedules altered, to support to
peer who has been forced, or to seek improvement in working conditions represents the formations
of unified body to further their common interests.
Friendship groups are formed by those who share on or more common characters.
People join groups for various reasons like:
Security: By joining a group individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel
stronger, have fewer self doubts, and more resistant to threats when they are part of the group.
Status: Inclusions in a group that is viewed as important by others, provides recognition and status
for its members.
Self –esteem – Groups can provide people with feelings of self worth. That is , in additi9on to
conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth
to the group members themselves.
Affiliation: Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interactions that come with
group membership. For many people, these on – the job – interactions are their primary source for
fulfilling their needs for affiliation.
Power: what cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action. There
is power in numbers.
Good achievements: There are a times it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular
tasks- there is need to pool talents, knowledge or power in order to complete a job. In such
instances, management will rely on the use of a formal group.
Group generally pass through a standardizes sequence in three eruditions. Group passes through
five stages in its developmental process.

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The first stage forming is characterizes by as great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose
structure and leadership. Members are “testing the waters” to determine what types of behavior are
acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a
group.
The storming stage is one of intra-group conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but
there is resistance to the constraints that the group composes on the individuality .furthermore,
relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.
The third stage is one in which close relationship develops and the group demonstrates
cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. This forming stage is
complete when the group structure solidifies and the group assimilated a common set of
expectations of what defines correct member behavior.
The fourth stage is performing. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group
energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other to performing the task at hand.
For permanent work groups. Performing is the last stage in their development, however, for
temporary committees, team, and task forces. And similar groups that have a limited task to
perform, there is an adjourning stage. In this stage, the group prepare for its disbandment. High
task performance is no longer the group’s top priority. Instead, attention is directed towards
wrapping up activities. Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking
in the group’s accomplishments. Other may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and
friendship gained the work group’s life.
Group structure: Work groups are not unorganized .They have structure that shapes the
behavior of members and makes it possible to explain and predict a large portion of individual
behavior within the group as well as the performance of the group itself. They include formal
leadership, roles, norms, status, size and the degree of group cohesiveness.
Formal leadership: Almost every group has a formal leader. He or she is typically identified by
titles such as unit or department managers, supervisors etc. This leader can play an important role
in the group success .
Role: Role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position
in a social unit. Different groups impose different role responsibilities on individuals.
Role Perception: As individual‘s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
Role Expectation: How others believe a person should act in a given situation. How a person
believe is determined to a large extend by the role defined in the context in which a person is
acting.
Role Conflict: When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations, the result is role
conflict. It exists when an individual finds compliance with one role requirement may make it

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more difficult to comply with another. At the extreme, it would include situations in which two or
more role expectations are mutually contradictory.
Norms: Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s
members.
Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances.
From an individual’s standpoint, they tell what is expected of a person in certain conditions. When
agreed to and accepted by the group, norms act as a means of influencing the behavior of group
member’s withy a minimum of external controls.
Common Classes of Norms:
a) Performance Norms: Most common classes of norms .Work groups provide their members
with explicit cues on how hard they should they work, how to get job done , their level of output ,
appropriate level of tardiness and the like.
b) Appearance Norms: This includes things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or
organization, when to look busy and when it is acceptable to goal off.
Social Arrangements Norms: These norms come from informal work groups and primarily
regulate social interactions within the group. With whom group members eat lunch, friendships on
and off the job; social games and the like are influenced by these norms.
Allocation of Resources Norms: These norms cover things like pay, assignment of difficult jobs
and allocation of new tools and equipments.
Conformity: It refers to adjusting one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group. As a
member of a group, a person desire acceptance by the group. Because of his desire for acceptance,
person is susceptible to conforming to the group norms. There is considerable evidence that groups
can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attributes and behavior to
conform to the group’s standards.
Status: A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group’s members by others. Status is
an important factor in understanding human behavior because it is a significant motivator and has
major behavioral consequences. When individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe
their status to be and what others perceive it to be.
Composition: Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge. Group is diverse in
terms of personality, gender, age, education, functional specializations and experience. There is an
increased probability that the group will possess the needed characteristics to complete its tasks
effectively. The group may be more conflict laden and less expedient as varied positions are
introduced and assimilated but the evidence generally supports the conclusion that heterogeneous
groups perform more effectively than do those that are homogenous. Essentially diversity

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promotes homogenous. Essentially, diversity promotes conflict which stimulates creativity, which
leads to improved decision making.
Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness refers to degree to which group members are attracted to each other
and are motivated to stay in the group. For instance, some work groups are cohesive because the
members have spent a great deal of time together, or the group small size of facilitates high
interaction or the group has experienced external threats that have brought the member together.
Cohesiveness is important because is has been found to be related to the group’s productivity.
Relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance- related

norms established by the group. If performance related norms are high (for example high output,
quality work , cooperation with individuals outside the group) a cohesive group will be more
productive than will a less cohesive group.
Factors that encourage group cohesiveness
1) Make the group smaller

2) Encourage agreement with group goals
3Increase the time members spend together
4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the
group.
5) Stimulate competition with other groups.
6) Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members.
Group decision making
Strengths of Group Decision Making: Groups generate more complete information and knowledge
.By aggregating the resources of several individuals, groups bring more input into the decision
process. In addition to more input, groups can bring heterogeneity to the decision process. They
offer increased diversity of views. This opens up the opportunity for more approaches and
alternatives to be considered. The evidence indicates that a group will almost outperform even the
beat individuals. So groups generate high quality decisions. Finally, group lead to increased
acceptance of a solution .Many solutions fail after the final choice is made because people don’t
accept the solution. Group members who participated in making a decision is likely to
enthusiastically support the decision and encourage to accept it.
Weakness of Group Decision Making: Group decision making is time consuming. They typically
take more time to reach a solution than would be the case if individuals were making the decision
alone.
There are conformity pressures in groups . The desire by group members to be accepted
and considered an asset to the group can result in squashing any overt disagreement. Group
discussion can be dominated by one or few members. If this dominant coalition is composed of
low and medium ability members, the group’s overall effectiveness will suffer.

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Finally, group decisions suffer from the ambiguous responsibility. In an individual decision,
it’s clear who is accountable for the final outcome. In a group decision’ the responsibility of any
single member is watered down.
Effectiveness and efficiency: In terms of accuracy, group decisions will tend to be more accurate.
However, if decision effectiveness is defined in terms of speed, individual decision making is
superior. Similarly, in terms of acceptance again group decision making is superior.
Group Think: Group think is a phenomenon in which the norms for consensus override the realistic
appraisal of alternative course of an action. It describes situations in which group pressures for
conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority or unpopular view.
Individuals who hold a position that is different from that of the dominant majority are under
pressure to suppress, withhold or modify their true feelings and beliefs. As a member of a group, a
person finds it more pleasant to be in agreement – to be a positive part of the group- than to be a
disruptive force, even if disruptive force is necessary to improve the effectiveness of the group’s
decision.
Symptoms of group think phenomenon
Members apply direct pressure on those who momentarily express doubts about any of the group’s
shared views or those who question the validity of arguments supporting the alternative favored by
the majority.
Members who have doubts or hold the different point of view seek to avoid deviating from what
appears to be group consensus by keeping silent about misgivings and even minimizing to
themselves the importance about their doubts.
There appears to be an illusion of unanimity. If someone doesn’t speak, it’s assumed that he or she
is in a full accord. In other words, abstention becomes viewed as “yes” vote.
Group Shift: A change in decision risk between the group’s decision and the individual decision
that members within the group would make; can be either towards conservatism or greater risks.
The group shift can be viewed as a special case of groupthink .The decision of the group
reflects the dominant decision- making norm that develops during the group’s discussion. Whether
the shift in the group’s decision is towards greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant
pre discussion norm.
Group Decision Making Techniques
The most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting groups. In these
groups, members meet face to face on rely on both verbal and non verbal interaction to
communicate with each other.

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Brain Storming: An ideal generating process that specifically encourage any or all alternatives
while withholding any criticism of those alternatives .Brainstorming , however is merely a process
for generating ideas.
Nominal Group Techniques: A group decision –making method in which individual members meet
face to face to pool their judgment in a systematic but independent fashion. Specifically, a problem
is presented and then the following steps take place:
1) Members meet as a group but before any discussion takes place, each member independently
writes down his or her ideas on the problem.
After this silent period, each member presents an idea to the group. Each member takes his or her
turn presenting a single idea until all ideas have been recorded. No discussion takes place until all
ideas have been presented.
The group now discusses the idea for clarity and evaluates them.
Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The idea with the highest
aggregate ranking determines the final decision.
Electronics Meeting: A meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing for

anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes.
Conflict
Conflict is defined as process that begins when one party perceives than another party has
affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
The parties to it must perceive conflict; whether or not the conflict exists is a perception issue.
If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists.
Conflict can either be functional or dysfunctional. Functional Conflicts supports the goals of
the group and improves its performance. It is constructive in nature. Functional conflict can be
either a task conflict or process conflict. Task conflict is over the context and goals of the work.
Process conflicts are over how work gets done.
Dysfunctional conflicts hinder group performance. It is destructive in nature. It includes

relationship conflict, which is based on interpersonal relationships.
There are various conflicts resolution techniques. These include:

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1) Problem Solving: Face to face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying
the problem and resolving it through open discussion.
2) Super ordinate goals: Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of
each of the conflicting parties.
3) Expansion of resources: When a conflict is caused by the scarcity of a resources- say –money.
Promotion opportunities, office space- expansion of the resource can create win- win solutions.
4) Avoidance: Withdraw from or suppression of, the conflict.
5) Smoothing: Playing down differences while emphasizing common interest between the
conflicting parties.
6) Compromise: Each party to the conflicts gives up something of value.
7) Authoritative Command: Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then
communicates its desires to the parties involved.
Altering the human variables: Using behavioral change technique such as human relations training
to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict.
9_Altering the structural variables: Changing the formal organization structure and interaction
patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordination positions
and the like.
In order to differentiate functional and dysfunctional conflict, it is necessary to look into type of
conflict. Specifically , there are three types: tasks relationship and process
Task conflict : relates to the contents and goals of the work

Relationship Conflict: focuses on interpersonal relationship.
Process conflict relates to how work gets done.
Studies demonstrate that relationship conflicts are almost always dysfunctional. It appears that the
friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes
and decrease mutual understanding which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. On the
other hand, low level of process conflict and low to moderate level of tasks conflicts are
functional.
The conflict process
The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages (1) potential opposition or
incompatibility (2) Cognition and personalization (3) intentions (4) Behavior (5) Outcome.
Potential opposition or incompatibility: The first step in the conflict process is the presence on
conditions that create opportunities for conflict to rise. These cause or create opportunities for

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conflict to rise. These causes or sources of conflict have been condenses into three general
categories(1)Communications (2) Structure (3) Personal Variables.
(1)Communications: Different words connotations, jargon insufficient exchange of information

and noise in communication channel are all antecedent conditions to conflict. Too much
communication as well as too little communication can rely foundation for conflict.
(2)Structure: The term structure is used, in this context to include variables such as size, degree of
specialization in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, members/ goal
compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups.
The size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and the more
specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. Tenure and conflict have been found
to be inversely related,. The potential for conflicts tends to be greatest when group members are
younger and when turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in defining where responsibility for
action lies, the greater the potential for conflict to emerge. Such Jurisdictional ambiguity increases
inter group fighting for control or resources and territory.
(3)Personal Variables: Certain personality types- for example individuals who are highly
authoritarian and dogmatic- lead to potential conflict. Another reason for conflict is difference in
value systems. Value differences are the best explanations of diverse issues such as prejudice
disagreements over one’s contribution to the group and rewards one deserves.
Stage 2) Cognition and personalization: conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or
not conflict exists is a perception issue. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed
that no conflict exists. Because conflict is perceives does not mean that is personalized. For e.g. ”
A may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreements but it may not make A tense or nations
and it may have no effect whatsoever on A’s affection towards B” It is the felt level , when
individuals become emotionally involved that parties experience anxiety , tension or hostility.
Stage2 is the place in the process where the parties decide what the conflict is about and
emotions plays a major role in shaping perception.
Stage3 Intentions: Intentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between
people’s perception and emotions and their overt behavior.
Using two dimensions cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the
other party’s concerns)and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or
her own concerns)- five conflict handling intentions can be identified.
1) Competing: when one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests regardless of the impact
on the other parties to the conflict, he is competing.
2) Collaborating: A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the
concerns of all the parties. In collaborating, the intention o the parties are to solve the problem by
clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view.

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3) Avoiding: a person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or
suppress it. Avoiding included trying to just ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you
disagree.
4) Accommodating: The willingness of one partying a conflict top lace the opponent’s interest
above his or her own.
5) Compromising: A situation in which each party to a conflict is wiling to give up something.
Intentions provide general guidelines for parties in a conflict situation. They define each party’s
purpose. Yet people intention is not fixed. During the course of conflict, they might change
because of reconceptualization or because of an emotional reaction to the behavior of other party.
Stage 4: Behavior: This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage includes the
statements, actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are
usually overt attempt to implement each party’s intentions.
Stage 5 Outcomes: The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in
consequences. These outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in
the group’s performance, or dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance.
Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions simulates creativity and
innovations encourages interest and curiosity among group members provides the medium through
which problems can be aired and tensions released and fosters an environment of self evaluation
and change.
Conflict is dysfunctional when uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to

dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. Among the more
undesirable consequences are a retarding of communication, reductions in group cohesiveness and
subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between members.
4) People orientation: The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the
effect of outcomes on people within the organization.
5) Team orientation: The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than
individuals.
6) Aggressiveness: The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easy
going.
7) Stability: The degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in
contrast to growth.

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Organizational culture is concerned with how employees perceive the characteristics of an
organizational culture, not with whether or not they like them. That is, it’s a descriptive term.
In contrast, job satisfaction seeks to measures affective responses to the work environment. It is
concerned with how employees feel about the organizational‘s expectations, rewards practices and
the like. Although the tow terms, organizational culture and the job satisfaction are overlapping,
organizational culture is descriptive, while job satisfaction is evaluative.
Most large organizations have a dominant culture and numerous set of subcultures.
Dominant cultures: expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organizational
members.
Sub cultures: are mini cultures within an organizational, typically defined by department
designations and geographical separations. Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to
reflect common problems, situations or experience that member face.
Creating and Sustaining Culture

Beginning of Culture: The founders of the organization rationally have a major impact on that
organization’s early culture. An organization’s current customs, traditions and general way of
doing things are largely due to what it has done before and the degree of success it has had with
those endeavors.
Top Management: The actions of top management also have a major impact on the organization’s
culture. Though what they say and how they behave, seniors executives establish norms that filter
down through the organization as to whether risk taking is desirable, how much freedom managers
should give their employers, what is appropriate dress, what actions will pay off in terms of pay
rises, promotions and other rewards and the like.
Selection: The explicit goal of the selection process is to identifying and hires individuals who
have the knowledge, skills and abilities to perform the jobs within the organization successfully.
The final decision is to who is hired will be significantly influenced by the decision maker’s
judgment of how well the candidate will fit into the organization. This results in the hiring of
people who have values essentially consistent with those of the organization or at least good
portion of those values.
WORK TEAMS
Group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have
come together to achieve particular objectives. Work group is a group that interacts
primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each member perform with
in his or her area of responsibility.
Work Team:- Work team is defined as a group whose individual efforts results in a
performance that is greater then the sum of the individual inputs.

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Management looks for positive synergy that will allow their organization to increase
performance. The extensive use of teams create the potential for an organization to
generate greater outputs with increase in inputs.
Four most common types of work teams found in the organization:- 1) Problem solving
teams ii) Self managed work teams iii) Cross functional teams and iv) Virtual teams
1) Problems Solving Teams:- Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same
department who meet for few hours each week to discuss ways of improving
quality, efficiency and the work environment. Rarely, however, are these teams
given the authority to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions.
2) Self Managed work teams:- Are group of employees 10 to 15 who performs
highly related or interdependent jobs and take on many of the responsibilities of
their former supervisors. Typically this includes planning and scheduling of work,
assigning tasks to members, taking action on problems, and working with
suppliers and customers. Fully self-managed work teams even select their own
members and have the members evaluate each others performances. As a result,
supervisory positions take on decreased importance and many even be eliminated.
3) Cross functional teams:- Employees from about the same hierarchical level but
from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task.
4) Virtual teams:- Teams that use computers to tie together physically dispersed
members in order to achieve a common goal.
Three primary factors that differentiate virtual teams from face to face teams are
1) The absence of preverbal and non verbal cues.
2) Limited social context
3) The ability to overcome time and space constrains.
The key components making up effective teams can be subsumed into four general categories:-
1) Work design:- Effective teams need to work together and take collective responsibility to
complete significant tasks. The work design category includes variables lake freedom and
autonomy, the opportunity to use different skills and talents, the ability to complete a whole
and identifiable task or product and working on a task or project that has a substantial
impact on others.
2) Composition:- This category includes variables that related to how teams should be
staffed. It includes the ability and personality of team members, allocating roles and
diversity, size of the team, member’s flexibility and member’s preference for team work.
a) Ability of members:- To perform effectively, a team requires three different types
of skills. First it need people with technical skills, second, people with problem
solving and decision making skills and finally people with good listening, feedback
conflict resolution and other interpersonal skills.
b) Personality:- Personality of members has a significant influence on the individual
employee behavior. This can also be extended to team behavior. Hence, five basic
dimensions i.e. extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness; emotional stability
and openness to experience are relevant for the success of a work team.

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c) Allocating roles and diversity:- Nine potential team roles have been identified.
These are:-
1) Organizer(Provides structure)
2) Producer(Provide direction and follow through)
3) Controller(Examines details and enforce rules)
4) Maintainer(Fights external batter)
5) Advisor(Encourages the search for more information)
6) Linker(Coordinates and integrates)
7) Creator (Initiates creative ideas)
8) Promoter (Champions ideas after they are initiated)
9) Assessor (offers insightful analysis of options)
Successful work teams have people to fill all these roles and have selected people to play in these
roles based on their skills and preferences.
d) Size of teams:- Ideally a team should have seven to nine people. Generally
speaking, the most effective teams have fewer then 10 people.
Minimum four to five members may be necessary to develop diversity of views and skills. When
teams have excess members, cohesiveness and mutual accountability declines, social loafing
increases and more and more people do less, talking more with others.
e) Member flexibility:- Teams made up of flexible individuals have members who
can complete each others tasks. This makes it less reliant on any single member.
f) Member preference:- Not every employee is a team player. When people who
would prefer to work alone are required to team-up, there is a direct threat to the
team’s moral and to individual member satisfaction. Hence when selecting team
members individual preferences should be considered.
iv) Context:- Four contextual factors that appear to be most significantly related to team
performance are the presence of adequate resources; effective leadership, a climate of
trust end a performance and reward system that reflects team contribution.
v) Process:- The final category related to effectiveness is process variables. These include
member commitment to a common purpose, establishment of special team goal, team
efficacy, a managed level of conflict and minimizing social loading.
SHOPING TEAM PLAYERS

1) Section:- Many job candidates do not have team skills. This is especially true for those
socialized around individual contributions. When faced with such candidates, managers
basically have three options-The candidates should undergo training to “make them into
team players”. If this is not possible or don’t work, the other two options are to transfer the
individuals to another unit within the organization without teams or do not hire the
candidate.
2) Training:- Training specialists conduct exercises that allow employees to experience the
satisfaction that team work can provide. They typically offer work shops to help employees
improve their problems- solving, communication, negotiation, conflict management and
coaching skills.

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3) Rewards:- The reward system needs to be reworked to encourage cooperative efforts
rather then competitive ones. Promotion, pay raises and other forms of recognition should
be given to individuals for how effective they are as a collaborative team member. The
individual contributions have to be balanced with selfless contribution to the team. Ex.
New colleagues sharing information with teammates helping to resolve team conflict and
mastering new skills that team needs but in which it is deficient.
STRESS
Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity,
constrains or demand related to what he/she desired and for which the outcome is perceived to be
both uncertain an important. Stress is associated with constrains and demand. The former prevent
one from doing what one desire. The latter refers to the loss of something desired
Two conditions are necessary for potential stress to become actual stress. There must be
uncertainty over the outcome and the outcome must be important. The stress is highest for
individual who perceive that they are uncertain as to whether they will win or loss and lowest for
individuals who think that winning or losing is a certainty. But importance is also critical. If
winning or losing is an unimportant outcome, there is no stress.
Three sets of factor a) environmental b) organizational and c) individual that act as potential actual
of stress. Whether they become actual stress depends on individual differences such as job
experiences and personality when is experienced an individual, its symptoms can surface as
physiological and behavioral outcomes.
a) Environmental factors:- just as environmental uncertainty influences the design
of an organization’s structure, it also changes in the business cycle create economic
uncertainties. When company B is contractive, for ex. People become increasingly
anxious about their job security.
Similarly political instability is a cause of stress. Political crisis like civil
war, riots, hostilities with neighboring countries etc can lead to stress.
Technology uncertainties are a third type of environment factor that can
cause stress. New innovations can make employee skills and experience
obsolete in a very short time, computers, robotics, automation and similar
forms of technology innovations are a threat to many people many cause
them stress.
b) Organizational factors:- Organizational factors that cause stress include task
leadership. Task demands, organizational structure and organizational leadership.
Task demands are factors related to a person’s job. They include the design of
individual’s job, working conditions and physical work layout.
Role demands relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of the particular role
he/she plays in the organization. Role conflicts create expectations that may be herd to
reconcile or satisfy. Role overload is experienced when there employee is expected to
do more then time permits.
Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the
degree of rules and regulation and where decision is made. Excessive rules and lack of
participation in decisions that might be potential sources of stress.

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Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organization’s senior
managers. One chief executive officer’s create a cultural characterized by tension, fear.
Individuals perform better when they have specific and challenging goals and receive
feedback on how well they are progressive towards these goals. The use of goals can
reduce stress as well as provide motivation.
Role stress is detrimental to large extend because employees feel uncertain about goals,
how they will be evaluated and the like. By giving the employees a voice in decisions
that directly affect their job performance, managers can increased employee control and
reduce this role stress. So managers should consider increasing employee involvement
in decision making.
Increasing formal organizational communication with employees reduces uncertainty
by lessening role ambiguity and role conflict. Given the importance that perceptions
play in moderating the stress-response relationship, management can also use effective
communications as a means to shape employee perception.

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Disha Institute of IT & Management: Organizational Behavior (3.21)

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Disha Institute of IT & Management

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (3.21)

Ob is an applied behavioral science that is built on contribution from a number of behavioral