VPMG Doc 7.1

PO Box 1946, Toowong, QLD 4066, Australia ph: +61 (7) 3720 8321
VPmg
User Documentation
P.K. Fullagar
Version 7.1
February 2013
Report FGR01F-4
Frontispiece
By (nT)
gneiss
Interpreted depth to top limestone
Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd VPmg User Documentation Report FGR01F-4 II

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 5
2 SPECIAL FEATURES ............................................................. 7
2.1 Litho-stratigraphic tagging ......................................................... 7
2.2 Accurate representation of surfaces .......................................... 7
2.3 Constraining, modifying, and recovering geological contacts 8
2.4 Fast inversion of homogeneous unit properties ....................... 9
2.5 Apparent susceptibility and density models ............................. 9
2.6 Handling regional effects ............................................................ 9
2.7 Depth-to-basement modelling................................................... 10
2.8 Computing true total magnetic intensity (TMI) ........................ 10
2.9 Handling magnetic remanence ................................................. 10
2.10 Direct modelling and inversion of gravity gradient data ........ 11
2.11 Heterogeneous unit inversion .................................................. 11
2.12 Stochastic inversion .................................................................. 11
2.13 Self-demagnetisation ................................................................. 12
3 VPmg MODELS..................................................................... 13
4 VPmg INVERSION ............................................................... 15
5 CREATING AND EDITING CONTROL & MODEL FILES...... 17
5.1 Creating and Editing Control Files ........................................... 17
5.2 Model File Parameters ............................................................... 19
5.3 Model Limits ............................................................................... 20
5.4 Create Simple Model .................................................................. 21
6 VIEWING MODELS & DATA ................................................. 27
6.1 Input Data ................................................................................... 27
6.2 Observed Data ............................................................................ 28
6.3 Inverted Data .............................................................................. 29
6.4 View Model ................................................................................. 30
6.4.1 General Layout ................................................................................................... 30
6.4.2 Example 1 – Vertical Section ............................................................................ 31
6.4.3 Example 2 – Horizontal Depth Section ............................................................ 32
6.4.4 Example 3 – Depth Stretch applied to a Vertical Section .............................. 33
6.4.5 Example 4 – Spline Layer Interfaces ............................................................... 34
6.4.6 Example 5 – Oblique Vertical Section ............................................................. 35
7 PRINT LAYOUT ..................................................................... 36
7.1 Print Layout Example 1 – Plan View and Processing Caption
36
7.2 Print Layout Example 2 – Profiles and Model View................. 41
7.3 Print Layout – Other Features ................................................... 45
7.3.1 Layout Definition Files (*.vip) ........................................................................... 45
7.3.2 Target Page Size ................................................................................................ 45
7.3.3 Enforce Uniform Scale ...................................................................................... 45
Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd VPmg User Documentation Report FGR01F-4 III
8 FILE FORMATS ..................................................................... 46
8.1 Control File (*.ctl) ....................................................................... 46
8.2 Observed Data Files................................................................... 49
8.3 PAR Files .................................................................................... 49
8.4 “3D” Model Files (and VPmg output files) ............................... 50
9 EXAMPLE VPmg INVERSIONS .......................................... 55
9.1 Homogeneous property inversion of regional model ............. 55
9.2 Basement geometry inversion of regional model ................... 55
9.3 Basement susceptibility inversion of regional model ............ 56
9.4 Heterogeneous unit inversion of local model.......................... 57
10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................... 59
11 USER SUPPORT ............................................................... 59
12 REFERENCES .................................................................... 59
Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd VPmg User Documentation Report FGR01F-4 IV

VPmg – VIEW MODEL & DATA
1 INTRODUCTION
VPmg is a 3D modelling and inversion program developed by Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd for
gravity, gravity gradient, total magnetic intensity (TMI) and magnetic gradient data. It is an
extension and generalisation of the graVP gravity inversion program, originally developed in
collaboration with Pasminco Exploration (Fullagar et al., 2000). VPmg can forward model and
invert any 3D block model geology.
The original impetus for the development of VPmg was the need for a geologically-
constrained potential field inversion program, i.e. one which explicitly honours drill hole
information. In VPmg, the shape and property (density or susceptibility) of each unit can
change during inversion, but its geological (or topological) integrity is preserved. Geological
contacts can be fixed (where pierced by a drill hole), bounded, or free to move during
inversion. Contacts below the reach of drilling can be bounded above; those which occur
within pre-collars can be bounded below. All contacts are bounded above by the ground
surface.
VPmg represents the sub-surface as a set of close-packed vertical rectangular prisms. Prism
tops honour surface topography, and internal contacts divide each prism into cells. The
vertical dimension of the cells is arbitrary. Each geological unit can be either homogeneous or
heterogeneous in density or susceptibility. The same property is assigned to each cell which
belongs to a particular homogeneous unit. Bounds can be imposed on the properties of
individual units. If a unit is heterogeneous, the user can apply either smooth (least squares) or
stochastic inversion. If stochastic inversion is selected, internal variability of the property is
controlled by a statistical distribution. Individual cells can be held fixed if susceptibility or
density has been measured either downhole or on core samples.
Underlying “VPmg basement” is comprised of cells which have no internal contacts, and
which normally extend to great depth. Basement can be uniform or laterally heterogeneous,
i.e. the properties of the basement cells are independent.
Because the prism tops honour surface topography, the effect of terrain is modelled implicitly.
VPmg operates on free-air gravity data.
VPmg offers considerable flexibility during interpretation. The model complexity ranges from
discrete bodies in uniform basement, or conventional terrain models, to complex 3D models.
Regional effects can be handled by constructing a regional model, based on a relatively large
rectangular mesh. The regional model is embedded in a uniform half-space which extends to
infinity. The regional data are usually broadly spaced (and hopefully not aliased). Inversion
can be performed on the regional data, in order to generate an acceptable regional model.
A local model, comprised of smaller prisms, can be embedded in a regional model. The local
model parameters can be adjusted by inversion until the gravity, gravity gradient, TMI or
magnetic gradient data within the local model area are satisfied. It is not necessary to subtract
the regional model response from the data prior to local inversion, i.e. original unaltered data
can be compared with synthetic data representing the combined effect of the regional and
local models.
Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd VPmg User Documentation Report FGR01F-4 5

Four inversion “styles” are offered by VPmg:
• basement properties variable, unit properties and contact elevations fixed;
• homogeneous unit properties variable, contact elevations and basement properties fixed;
• heterogeneous unit properties variable, contact elevations and basement properties fixed;
• contact elevations variable, all densities or susceptibilities fixed.
The main advantages of a “sequential” strategy are enhanced flexibility and control for the
operator, speed (since separate inversion runs involving fewer parameters are faster), and
reduced demands on computer memory. In particular, homogeneous unit property inversion
always involves a very small number of active parameters, even for complex 3D models. Use
of three different inversion styles also circumvents problems which can arise during
simultaneous inversion of different types of parameters. In VPmg there are three parameter
types: unit properties, basement properties, and contact elevations. Each unit density or
susceptibility applies to all the cells within a certain geological formation; a small change in
the density or susceptibility of a homogeneous unit can therefore exert a big influence on the
calculated gravity or magnetic responses over a wide area. In contrast, during
heterogeneous unit inversion, each density or susceptibility applies to a single cell, which may
be deeply buried. Consequently, the influence of an individual cell property is typically weaker
and more localised than that of homogeneous unit properties. Similarly, the sensitivity to
internal contact elevations is highly localised. Elevations, densities, and susceptibilities are, of
course, also dimensionally different. The differences between the roles and dimensions of
parameters can create numerical difficulties during inversion and produce counter-intuitive
results.
The user is able to easily switch from one inversion style to another. Internally, this may
prompt a shift from an under-determined to over-determined inverse problem. The size of the
inversion problem is related to the smaller of NPAR, the number of active parameters, and
ND, the number of data. The inverse problem is solved using a fast steepest descent
algorithm; no matrix inversion is involved.
Property or elevation bound constraints are enforced via truncation of the parameter
perturbation vector.
This documentation manual is comprised of eight main sections. Special technical features of
VPmg are briefly described in Section 2. General introductions to VPmg models and VPmg
inversion are provided in Sections 3 and 4 respectively. Sections 5, 6, and 7 contain
instructions for running VPmg from its user interface, specifcally how to define models, view
models and data, and generate figures. Finally, VPmg file formats are defined in Section 8.
Features under development appear in grey text.
Further VPmg technical details are given in Fullagar et al. (2000, 2004, 2008) and in Fullagar
& Pears (2007).

2 SPECIAL FEATURES
2.1 Litho-stratigraphic tagging

Each cell in a VPmg is explicitly assigned to a geological unit. Therefore the litho-stratigraphic
significance of each cell is captured and carried through inversion. Final models look like
starting models, with sharp contacts separating different geological units. A geological unit
can be broken into many spatially distinct sub-volumes, e.g. fault blocks. Each geological unit
can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. During heterogeneous property inversion, the
properties of the individual cells can be required to honour a statistical distribution.
2.2 Accurate representation of surfaces

Viewed in plan, VPmg models are defined on a regular rectangular mesh. The vertical
dimension of VPmg model cells, however, is arbitrary. A 25 cm ore intersection and a 150 m
intersection of barren granite could each be represented with a single cell. This
parameterisation has a number of advantages over uniform meshes:
1. models are more compact, with the result that model files are generally smaller and
run times shorter;
2. surfaces can be represented more accurately.
Because it can accept digital terrain models as starting models, without any loss of vertical
accuracy, VPmg is well suited for terrain modelling. This is especially important for gravity
gradient and gravity modelling. Often it is desirable to perform terrain modelling on a detailed
grid prior to inverting survey data.
m

2.3 Constraining, modifying, and recovering geological contacts
Because model cells are geologically-tagged, their interfaces carry meaning as geological
contacts. Therefore, it is possible to alter the geometry of geological units as well as their
properties via inversion. Contacts which have been intersected by drill holes can be held
fixed, while interpreted contacts between drill holes can be allowed to vary.
When inclined drill holes pass above or below “free” contacts, artificial interfaces are
introduced to restrict the movement of the free contact during inversion.
After geometry inversion, the revised geological contacts can be recovered, i.e. the VPmg
final model can be represented in terms of surfaces. A Gocad utility has been written to
recover “layered” VPmg models; a utility to restore surfaces from full 3D models is under
development. mmm

2.4 Fast inversion of homogeneous unit properties
VPmg inversion of homogeneous unit properties is fast because the maximum number of
“active” parameters is the number of geological units in the model, even if the model is large
and complex.
Upper and lower bounds can be imposed on the density or susceptibility of each geological
unit. If the upper and lower bounds are identical, the unit in question is treated as fixed and
plays no part in inversion. Thus the user can control the number of active parameters.
There is no restriction on the algebraic sign of density or susceptibility, other than that
imposed by the user via choice of bounds. Therefore complete flexibility is offered in terms of
modelling density or susceptibility contrast.
2.5 Apparent susceptibility and density models

All VPmg models comprise a ‘basement’ unit. The ‘basement’ (or deepest unit) of VPmg
models is comprised of cells with very large vertical extent. The property of each cell is
independent. An apparent density or susceptibility model contains no other units other than
‘basement’. Apparent susceptibility or density distributions can therefore be constructed by
adjusting the cell property values of a basement-only model. Prism tops typically conform to
topography, as usual. Apparent susceptibility or density distributions can be of interest in their
own right, as a form of data high-pass. Apparent susceptibility or density models can also
serve as crude regional models (see section 2.6 below).
2.6 Handling regional effects

There are a number of ways to account for regional effects. The interpreter may wish to
remove a trend surface or to high-pass filter the data in some fashion, in which case VPmg
can be applied to the residual data. Alternatively, the interpreter may elect to model the
regional effect. The VPmg model structure has been designed to expedite regional modelling.
mmmmmmmmmmmmm
VPmg models are infinite in lateral extent, and very large (normally 25km) in vertical extent.
The foundation for VPmg models is an enclosing uniform “half-space” (strictly, a very thick
layer). If desired, a rectangular regional model can be embedded in the enclosing half-space.
The regional model is comprised of relatively large vertical prisms, with lateral dimensions
comparable to the regional data spacing. The interpreter can create a geologically-valid
regional starting model on the basis of mapping and drilling, and adjust it via inversion until an
acceptable fit is achieved to the regional data. Alternatively, the user can fit the regional data
with an apparent density or susceptibility model, which is geologically artificial but numerically
convenient.

Once the regional data has been fitted, VPmg can insert a local model into the regional
model. The local model is comprised of relatively small prisms, reflecting the closer spacing of
the detailed data over the area of prime interest. During inversion of the detailed data, the
effect of the enclosing half-space and the regional model (minus the contribution from the
material excised to make way for the local model) is treated as “background”. The local model
is adjusted until its response combined with the background response reproduces the
measured data to the desired accuracy.
When the local model is incised into the regional model, the deepest unit (denoted ‘VPmg
basement’) of the local model inherits the apparent density or susceptibility of the regional
model. If the regional model is a basement only model (i.e. apparent density or susceptibility)
the model incision is straight forward. If the regional model contains additional units
(overlying the ‘VPmg basement’ unit), incision of the local model is best performed if the
‘VPmg basement’ of the regional model is at the same depth of the ‘VPmg basement’ of the
local model.
2.7 Depth-to-basement modelling

VPmg is well-suited to perform depth-to-basement modelling and inversion, to predict the
shape of a basement contact concealed beneath one or more cover units.
2.8 Computing true total magnetic intensity (TMI)

VPmg computes the individual components of the anomalous magnetic induction in order to
calculate the true TMI, using
TMI = ( B x + Fx ) 2 + ( B y + F y ) 2 + ( B z + Fz ) z ,
where (Bx,By,Bz) denotes the anomalous induction and where (Fx,Fy,Fz) is the ambient
geomagnetic induction. Often the TMI anomaly can be approximated as the scalar component
of B in the direction of F; however, this is not true in the vicinity of intense magnetic sources.
2.9 Handling magnetic remanence
Because model cells are geologically-tagged, VPmg can account for the effects of remanent
magnetisation. Remanent magnetisation properties are fixed, i.e. not adjustable via inversion.

2.10 Direct modelling and inversion of gravity gradient data
VPmg can model and invert gravity gradient data directly; there is no need to compute
differences between forward model runs. Any combination of gravity gradient components
can be modelled and inverted, i.e. gxx, gxy, gxz, gyy, gyz, or gzz. In addition, VPmg supports
modeling and inversion of the GUV and GNE components recorded by Fugro’s Falcon
system, and the along-line (GGA) and cross-line (GGC) components recorded by the Rio
Tinto VK1 system.
2.11 Heterogeneous unit inversion

Geological units can be heterogeneous in density or susceptibility. Homogeneous geological
units can be converted to heterogeneous units. The cells in the heterogeneous units can be
sub-divided, to yield sub-cells with (approximately) equal vertical dimension. The property
values of all cells within heterogeneous units are bounded by the user-specified minimum and
maximum values in the model file.
Inversion of the properties of heterogeneous units produces intra-unit variations of property.
Therefore, VPmg can perform “unconstrained inversions” a la UBC if desired. If conventional
least squares inversion is selected, the density or susceptibility will vary smoothly, as in a
UBC model; if stochastic inversion is applied, the property varies randomly. Heterogeneous
property inversion is often appropriate as a final stage of inversion, after homogeneous
property inversion.
The figure illustrates the result of heterogeneous unit inversion of TMI from a basalt-covered
area; the inversion was focused in the surface layer representing a basalt flow.
2.12 Stochastic inversion

Heterogeneous unit inversion can be performed in two ways, either via conventional “least
squares” inversion or via stochastic inversion. Conventional inversion produces smoothly
varying distributions of density or susceptibility, as in UBC inversion. In stochastic inversion,
the intra-unit variations in property are erratic, controlled by a statistical distribution specified
by the user.

2.13 Self-demagnetisation
A capability to fully account for self-demagnetisation inside, and interaction between, highly
magnetic bodies was developed during 2011. Self-demagnetisation and interaction
necessitate adjustment of the net magnetisation in each model cell. This adjustment facilitates
more rigorous interpretation of magnetic data in high magnetite environments. The self-
demagnetisation algorithm is available as an optional extra VPmg module.

The effects of demagnetisation and interaction are illustrated here for the Hjelt parallel
magnetic cylinders model. The depth to the centre of the cylinders was 600m. The radius of
the cylinders is 300m. At their closest approach, the cylinders were separated by 30m
(0.1*Radius). The magnetic susceptibility of the cylinders was 0.628 SI. Host was assumed
o o
non-magnetic. Inducing magnetic field was 51000 nT, with 75 inclination, and 0 declination.
Agreement between Hjelt’s results (upper panel) and the VPmg v7 profile is very good.
3 VPmg MODELS
The “VP” in VPmg stands for “vertical prism”, reflecting the fact that VPmg models are based
on close-packed vertical rectangular prisms with internal horizontal interfaces. The horizontal
interfaces divide each vertical prism into cells. The cells can have arbitrary vertical dimension,
allowing the mesh to adapt to fit geological surfaces as closely as possible.
Each cell in the model is assigned to a geological unit. Thus VPmg models are “categorical”.
All the cells comprising a particular unit share a common property if the unit is homogeneous.
If a unit is heterogeneous, the properties of all its cells lie between the bounds defined for that
unit.

Basement underlies the geological units. Basement cells have no internal interfaces, and
extend to the base of the model (normally at great depth). The properties of the basement
cells are usually independent, i.e. basement is usually heterogeneous. Uniform basement can
be handled as a special (simplified) local model case. With this one exception, a local-model-
only VPmg run is entirely equivalent to a regional-model-only run.
When a VPmg run involves both a regional model and a local model, only the local model is
“active”, i.e. undergoing change during inversion. The effect of a passive regional model and
its enclosing half-space is computed at the start of a dual-model run, then stored as the
regional or “background” contribution. Thus background responses are due to an Earth with a
rectangular hole cut into it, this being the hole needed to accommodate the local model. The
hole cut in a regional model to accommodate a local model extends to the base of the model,
usually 25km.
Background responses are recorded at the end of the VPmg output file. The output file is itself
a model file which can be used as the starting (local) model file if additional iterations are
required. Background responses are read, not re-calculated, on second and subsequent
VPmg runs. Note that the enclosing half-space property and elevation are defined in the
regional model file when one exists.
When VPmg embeds a local model into a regional model, the local model basement adopts
the regional model basement property distribution if the local basement property distribution is
not already defined. The starting model basement for local inversion is therefore usually
inherited from the regional model. This is to expedite “regional removal”, in those cases where
inversion has already been performed on the regional model to account for longer wavelength
trends in the data.
6
Currently, the maximum number of vertical prisms allowed in any model is 15 x 10 , the
maximum number of cells (or interfaces) in any prism is 350, and the maximum number of
geological units is 99.
Mira Geoscience has developed Gocad utilities to export 3D geological models into VPmg
format, and to import VPmg models into Gocad. Mira utilities are also available to impose drill
hole constraints on boundaries and cells within the VPmg model.

4 VPmg INVERSION
The aim of inversion is to achieve an acceptable degree of fit to the data, subject to geological
and petrophysical constraints on the model. Inversion proceeds iteratively, i.e. by successive
approximation, seeking at each stage parameter changes, ∆p, which can reduce the data
misfits, ∆d.
VPmg solves the perturbation equations using the Method of Steepest Descent. No matrix
inversions are performed. The abandonment of singular value decomposition (SVD) has
delivered a massive increase in inversion speed; forward modeling, not inversion, is now the
rate limiting factor in VPmg.
For the default “least squares” inversion, the objective at each iteration is the smallest
parameter perturbation needed to halve the L2 data misfit. Statistical inversion is an option for
heterogeneous property inversion of either basement or other units. In this case, individual
model cells are subjected to random property perturbations; the perturbation is accepted if it
produces a reduction in misfit and if it is compatible with the expected property distribution
within the geological unit.
Maximum perturbation size is defined in terms of absolute property change, for property
inversion, or in terms of fractional change in depth, for geometry inversion.
Degree of fit is judged according to the magnitude of the chi-squared data norm, L2, and the
L1- data norm, defined by
2 2
1 N
 ∆d n  1 N
 on − c n 
L2 =
N
∑ 
n =1  ε n
 =
N
∑ 
εn

 n =1  
N N
1 π ∆d n 1 π on − cn
L1 =
N 2
∑ n =1 εn
=
N 2
∑ n =1 εn
where N is the number of data, {on} denotes measured data, {cn} denotes calculated model
responses, and where εn is the uncertainty (standard deviation) assigned to the nth data point.
In VPmg the same uncertainty is currently assumed to apply to all the data. If the data
uncertainties are controlled by Normal random variables with zero mean, the both L2 and L1
have expected values of unity. Therefore the model is deemed “acceptable” if L2 ≤ 1 and/or if
L1 ≤ 1.
The L1 and L2 misfits are dimensionless, by virtue of normalization with respect to the
uncertainties, εn. The dimensional RMS misfit is also computed and recorded, where
N N
1 1
RMS =
N
∑ (∆d )
n =1
n
2
=
N
∑ (o
n =1
n − cn ) .
2
RMS is quoted in the data units. For an acceptable model, i.e. when VPmg has converged,
the RMS misfit should be approximately equal to εn.
VPmg can model four types of data: gravity (in mgal), any component of gravity gradient (in
Eotvos), TMI (in nT), and any component of magnetic gradient (in nT/m). Geomagnetic field
parameters are defined in the VPmg control file.
Four styles of inversion are offered, to enhance flexibility and to reduce the size of the
numerical inverse problem :
-1: heterogeneous unit property inversion (statistical or conventional)
0: basement property inversion (statistical or conventional)
1: homogeneous unit property inversion
2: contact elevation (or “geometry”) inversion.
The four styles can be used sequentially.
Inversion is subject to both “hard” and “soft” constraints. Hard upper and lower bounds are
imposed during property inversion. Units with identical upper and lower bounds are inactive,
i.e. play no part in inversion. Interfaces are fixed if pierced by a drill hole. Similarly, the
property of a cell within a heterogeneous can be held fixed; thus density or susceptibility
measurements taken downhole or on drill core can be enforced during property inversion.

Gocad utilities have been written by Mira Geoscience to tag interfaces in VPmg models
according to drill hole trajectories. The utility sets flags to identify pierced interfaces as fixed,
and inserts artificial interfaces to impose limits on movement of interfaces which are close to
drill holes (see Section 2.3). The “radius of influence” of a drill hole is user selectable during
assignment of constraint flags. In addition, movement of free interfaces in the neighbourhood
of a fixed interface is damped during inversion. Similarly, the properties of sub-cells within
heterogeneous units can be fixed during inversion if their properties are known a priori, e.g.
from downhole logging. Changes in the vicinity of fixed cells are damped during
heterogeneous property inversion.
The perturbation vectors are truncated if necessary to honour the bounds imposed on cell
properties and interfacial positions.
VPmg will only accept data points lying within the active model area. There is no software
restriction on the number of data points; ultimately, computer resources govern the size of
inversion problem which VPmg can handle.
Inversion terminates if the acceptable level of misfit is achieved (convergence), if the

maximum number of iterations is completed, or if the misfit does not decrease on successive
iterations (stalled inversion). Stalled inversion is a common condition; it occurs when the
imposed constraints preclude convergence.

5 CREATING AND EDITING CONTROL & MODEL FILES
5.1 Creating and Editing Control Files
Control File *.ctl Specification file that contains required filenames and some
inversion parameters for a particular inversion run. Select
the name of an existing control file using the browse button;
its contents will be displayed in the form. Alternatively, fill
out the form and create a new control file (see button in
bottom RH corner).
Regional Model File Model file containing regional model which reproduces long
wavelength components of the data. Generally consists of
vertical prisms with large cross-section. Can be bare
basement, or a complex 3D model. Constitutes the starting
model for regional inversion, i.e. inversion of broadly spaced
regional data. If modeling a regional model only, enter
“DUMMY” for the local model.
Local Model File Model file containing starting local model. If using a local
model only, enter “DUMMY” for the regional model.
Observed Data File *.dat File of observed data, or a PAR file which defines the data
file (see below). The data for VPmg is expected in plain
column ASCII format, with easting, northing, and elevation
in the first three columns, followed by one or more columns
of observations.
Inversion Output Model file with inverted density or susceptibility model.

Regional model, local model, and inversion output files have

a common format. Thus output files can serve as starting
models files for subsequent inversion runs.
Data Type Three types of data can be interpreted:

• free-air gravity (igrav = 1)
• gravity gradient (igrav = -1)
• total magnetic intensity (igrav = 0)
• magnetic gradient (igrav = -2)
Model Type This is governed by the iregnl and ilocal parameters in the
control file. Choices are as follows :
• Single regional model, general (iregnl = 3, ilocal = 0, i.e.
no local model)
• Single local model on uniform basement (iregnl = 0, ilocal
= 1)
• Local model incised into regional model (iregnl = 3, ilocal
= 1)
Inversion Style 0 : Basement susceptibility/density variable, unit properties

and contact elevations fixed
1 : Homogeneous unit properties variable, contact elevations
and basement properties fixed.
2 : Elevations variable, all properties fixed, i.e. geometry
inversion.
-1: Heterogeneous unit properties variable, contact
elevations and basement properties fixed.
99: Stochastic heterogeneous unit properties variable,
contact elevations and basement properties fixed.
100 : Srochastic basement susceptibility/density variable,
unit properties and contact elevations fixed
Number of Iterations Number of iterations in inversion. Generally 10 is sufficient.
Data Uncertainty Estimate of observed data error (mgal, Eotvos, nT, or nT/m).
Maximum relative change in interface depth per iteration: Maximum fractional change in
interface depths for each iteration, to control size of
perturbation. Typically 0.05.
Maximum absolute change in density or susceptibility per iteration
Maximum absolute change in unit properties for each
3 -3
iteration. Typically 0.05 g/cm for density or 1 x 10 SI for
susceptibility.
Loads data, and model definition and inversion parameters

for display and editing after VPmg has run.
Launches VPmg. During inversion, only the “active” model

is adjusted, viz. the local model if a local model exists or the
regional model otherwise.
Create New Control File Creates new control file, with the specified name. The Model
File Parameters form is cleared, and re-set with the
parameters read from the active starting model file.
Write Edited Control File Saves changes to an existing control file, with new or old
name. The settings from the Model File Parameters form are
retained, and written as a new model file header to the end of

the control file. VPmg adopts these settings from the end of
the control file for the Active Model.
Note : see section 5 for definitions of file formats.
5.2 Model File Parameters

Displays the active model parameters, either read from the header of the active model file [in
which case the form is labeled Model File Parameters (Active Model)] or read from the end of
the control file [in which case the form is labeled Model File Parameters (Control File)]. The
user can toggle between these options using the Load Model File Parameters … button on
the Control and Model Files form.
The active model is the local model when a local model has been defined; otherwise, the
regional model is the active model. The active model parameters can be edited using this
form. The modified parameters are then appended to the control file using the Write Edited
Control File button (bottom RH corner of form). When VPmg is launched, the parameter
values at the end of the control file take precedence over the those in the model file header.
Title Title for model file

Half-space Elevation Elevation of enclosing uniform half-space, in metres, e.g. average
gridded elevation of model area.
3 -3
Half-space Dens/Susc Density (g/cm ) or susceptibility (10 SI) of enclosing uniform half-
space.
Keep enclosing half-space [property] fixed
If “No”, the enclosing half-space property is optimised after each
iteration in order to minimize the chi-squared misfit [EHSFIX=0]. If
“Yes”, the the enclosing half-space property is maintained at its
starting value. [EHSFIX=1].
IBACKG, Minel, Imask, Distmask, ELMIN
These parameters are normally zero, and rarely change. See
Section 8 below for more details.

Create heterogeneous units
This check box activates a special option, used to convert
homogeneous units to heterogeneous units. The property of each
cell belonging to a heterogeneous unit can be altered independently
during inversion, i.e. as in UBC inversion. For units to be converted,
click on the entry in the Hetero column in the table (change the
entry to Yes). The cells of the heterogeneous unit can be sub-
divided into cells with (approximately) equal vertical dimension; the
vertical dimension of the sub-cells is the Cell Size in the table. If no
sub-celling is required, set Cell Size to a very large number.
Saves new specifications after alteration of file names or inversion
parameters, e.g. between inversion runs.
5.3 Model Limits

This form defines the extents and vertical prism dimensions of the regional and local models.
This information is imported from the model files chosen in the Control and Model Files
form.
Regional Model Limits

Regional model limits loaded from Regional File defined on previous form. Regional model
should contain a generous buffer zone around the area of the detailed local model (in the
example here, the buffer zone is about 2 km wide).
Regional cell size is generally larger than the local cell size (see below).
Local Model Limits

Local model limits loaded from Local File on previous form. The local model limits can be
chosen as desired, although generally is it dependent on the coverage of detailed gravity
stations.
Local model cell size is dependent on the spatial density of the data. As a guide, the cell size
used to create pseudocolour images of the data can be used as the local model cell size.

5.4 Create Simple Model
Simple layered models can be created using the Create Simple Models utility.
The stratigraphy and physical properties are defined on the Model Definitions form.
The ground surface is represented as a grid, and the geological interfaces can either be
draped under the topography, horizontal (at a fixed elevation), or defined as grids. Sample
Model Definitions forms are included below for the three cases.
Check the Drape layers box if draped interfaces are required, and enter the thickness for
each unit in the table. By default, basement extends to an elevation of –25000m.
If the Half-space elevation is left blank, the average of the DTM will be entered automatically.
For most applications, IBACKG, MINEL, IMASK, DISTMASK, and ELMIN can be left as zero.

For perfectly horizontal interfaces, the elevation specified in the table refers to the base of the
unit. By default, basement extends to an elevation of –25000m.

If grid files are provided, use the browse button near the bottom of the form to define the
Layer Base Grid File Name for each unit in the table (except basement).

The ground topography is defined on the DTM Data form.
Adjust the model extents by editing the minimum and maximum Easting and Northing.
The Cell size values define the dimensions of the VPmg model prisms, in the east-west and
north-south directions. The VPmg model prisms need not conform to the DTM grid cell size.

The data file format is defined on the Observed Data form.
Adjust the model extents by editing the minimum and maximum Easting and Northing.
The Cell size values define the dimensions of the VPmg model prisms, in the east-west and
north-south directions. The VPmg model prisms need not conform to the DTM grid cell size.

The model file and PAR file are written to a directory of choice using the Create Model Files
button on the Output Files form.

6 VIEWING MODELS & DATA
6.1 Input Data

This form is displayed after Load and View Models and Data has been selected. It presents
parameters and colour table used for display of the input data and active model.
Area Limits Selects limits of display on View Model form. Can be set to view the
regional model or the local model.
Image Cell Size Cell size for image plan display of data on Observed Data,
Inverted Data, and View Model forms.
Unit Colour Scheme Choose colour scheme for the geological units as displayed on the
View Model form.
3
Bouguer Density Density (g/cm ) used to calculate the Bouguer Gravity for display of
gravity data under the Observed Data, Inverted Data, and View
Model tabs.
Model to View Choose whether to view the model parameters for the Input
Regional, Input Local, or Inverted Model.
Colour table This will display information on the model parameters, viz. the
number of units, the unit properties, the density or susceptibility
bounds applied during inversion, the unit description, and the
display colours. The colours can be changed interactively. To do so,
click on the colour you wish to change, and select the new colour
from the colour palette window. Display colour for uniform basement
is set here; colouring of heterogeneous basement is controlled by
the Minimum and Maximum Dens/Susc values defined in the
upper half of the form.

6.2 Observed Data
Displays the observed data file. Data cannot be edited from this window.
Displays pseudocolour image of the topography (m). Grid size is the

Image Cell Size specified on the Input Data form.
Displays pseudocolour image of the observed free-air gravity
(mgal), gravity gradient (Eotvos) or total magnetic intensity (nT).
Displays pseudocolour image of the Bouguer gravity (mgal).
Bouguer Density is set on the Input Data form.
Example (right) of the image

displayed for the observed free-air
gravity. Note that the Image Cell
Size on the Input Data form was set
to 5 before displaying this image.
By clicking on the image, the value of
the displayed variable will be
displayed in the lower right hand
status box.
A grid file or bitmap of the image can
be saved using the option under the
File menu.
The image can be copied to the
clipboard via the option under the
Edit menu.

6.3 Inverted Data
Displays the results of the inversion, including the calculated model responses, the residual
between the observed and calculated, and the calculated background response at each
station. The background represents the contribution from the enclosing half-space plus, if
both regional and local models exist, the contribution from the regional model.
Select an image for display from the pull-down menu, and click on the View Image button to
display.
Example (right) of a Gravity Residual

image. Note that the Image Cell Size
on the Input Data form was kept at
25 for display of this image.

6.4 View Model
This form controls display and interrogation of the initial and inverted models, and comparison
between observed and calculated data. Both vertical sections and horizontal depth slices
through the models can be displayed. The vertical sections can be standard EW or NS
sections, or on oblique angles. Vertical exaggeration can be applied to the vertical sections to
allow clearer display of complex parts of the model. The model interfaces can also be splined
to create a smoother looking model for presentation purposes.
Note : All examples here display an area defined by a local model as selected on the Input
Data form (described previously).
6.4.1 General Layout
Image Display Choose an image to display using the pull-down menu below the
window. In the example above, the observed TMI is displayed.
The position of the section line, marked in the window, can be
controlled by click-dragging with the mouse, using the scroll bar at
right, or by entering coordinates of a starting point, and an azimuth
(see below). The orientation of the section line can be toggled from
E-W to N-S using the buttons below the Update Line button, at
lower right. Oblique sections can be displayed: click and drag an
end of the section line.
Initial Model Choose to view the starting model for previous inversion run.
Inverted Model Choose to view inverted model.
Vertical Section Choose to view a vertical section through the model.
Depth Section Choose to view a horizontal depth slice.
View Increment Increment (m) that the section is moved when clicking on the scroll
bar arrows.
Image Cell Size Cell size (m) used in display of model sections and slices.
Cells per line Number of cells per line (for information only).
Number of lines Total number of lines (for information only).
Depth Stretch Vertical exaggeration for section view.
Start easting Specifies easting coordinate of starting point for an arbitrary vertical
section through the density model.
Start northing Specifies northing coordinate of starting point for a vertical section.
Azimuth Specifies azimuth of arbitrary vertical section (clockwise degrees
from grid north).
Updates model section view when Start easting, Start northing,
and Azimuth parameters are changed manually.
Sets section line to E-W.
Sets section line to N-S.
Max Elevation Specifies maximum elevation limit for vertical section view.
Min Elevation Specifies minimum elevation limit for vertical section view.
Slice Elevation Specifies elevation to use for horizontal depth slice view.
Displays/refreshes model section or slice.
6.4.2 Example 1 – Vertical Section

To view a vertical section through the inverted model, using the default View Increment,
Image Cell size, and no depth stretch, the View Model form should appear as :
Note that the northing was set to 6521850N for this example by entering that number in the
Start Northing window and clicking
Update Line. By clicking the Model
Section window opens as shown below.
Upper Panel Observed gravity in black,

calculated gravity in red.
Note that this profile is
either Free Air or Bouguer
Gravity depending on the

choice made under the Display Options | Profiles menu in the main View
Model window.
Lower Panel Inverted density model. Upper layers displayed as specified on Input Data
form. Basement densities as per the density colour bar on the right (limits
defined on Input Data form).
Note that the upper and lower elevation limits of the model section are defined by the Min and
Max Elevation parameters on the View Model form.
By clicking on the model, the property value is displayed in the far right status box at the
bottom of the window.
The Model Section window is updated automatically when the section is altered on the View
Model form.
6.4.3 Example 2 – Horizontal Depth Section

To view a horizontal depth section through the inverted model, using the default View
Increment and Image Cell size, the View Model form should look like :
Note that Depth Section has been chosen in the top right. The Slice Elevation of –10 was
obtained by adjusting the scroll bar at the right side of the model display. Click the
button to display the horizontal depth slice through the model..
This shows a slice through the density model at an elevation of

–10 in this example.
By clicking on the model depth slice, the property value is
displayed in the far right status box at the bottom of the
window.
The Model Depth Slice window is updated automatically
when the section depth is altered on the View Model form.
Note that you can switch between vertical and horizontal

(depth) sections, and between initial and inverted models

without having to close the Model Section/Depth Slice window. The image on display will
automatically reflect all changes made on the View Model form.
The sections through the models can also be saved as grid or bitmap files, or copied to the
clipboard using the options under the File and Edit menus respectively.
6.4.4 Example 3 – Depth Stretch applied to a Vertical Section

It is often appropriate to apply a depth stretch to vertical sections through the models in order
to better display the results. Using the same setup as for example 1 previously, section
6521850N is displayed with a depth stretch factor of 3.
Note the Depth Stretch has been entered as 3, and that the Min and Max Elevation have
been changed appropriately. By clicking , the Model Section window
appears as shown below.
As previously, the inverted density model

is displayed in the lower panel. However,
now it has a vertical exaggeration factor
of 3.

6.4.5 Example 4 – Spline Layer Interfaces
For presentation purposes, it is often better for the model interfaces to be smoothly varying.
To accomplish this, a spline operator can be applied to the interfaces by selecting Display
Options | Spline Layer Interfaces in the main View Model window. Note that to get good
results doing this, it may be necessary to reduce the Image Cell Size.
Using example 3 as a starting point, the Spline Layer Interfaces option is turned on, the
Depth Stretch of 3 is retained, and the Image Cell Size is reduced to 5. The View Model
window is now :
The Model Section window will then look like :
The inverted model section appears as previously, except with smoothed interfaces.

6.4.6 Example 5 – Oblique Vertical Section
It is possible to view oblique vertical sections by click-dragging on the section line in the
image window or, as shown below, by entering Start easting, Start northing, and Azimuth
values and clicking Update Line. Note that the section line has been highlighted for this
example.
The Model Section window will then display the vertical section along this oblique line. Note
that in this example, a Depth Stretch of 3 has been applied, and the Spline Layer Interface
option is turned on.

VPmg – PRINT LAYOUT : Example 1
7 PRINT LAYOUT
Hardcopy output of the modelling results can be produced using the Print Layout interface.
The features of this interface are described here for two example plots, plus listing of some
extra features.
The Print Layout interface is only accessible by selecting File | Print from the View Model
form. The interface allows printing of plan views (images), data profiles (observed and
calculated), and model section results (vertical sections only). Note that the section printed
out is the current section selected on the View Model form. Other map components such as
legends, processing details, and a title block are also available.
7.1 Print Layout Example 1 – Plan View and Processing Caption

The first example is an A4 plot consisting of a simple image of the observed gravity, plus
some processing details, and a title block. This demonstrates the use of the Plan View,
Processing Caption, and Title Block components to the Print Layout interface.
Assume the View Model form appears the same as for Example 4 (section 3.4.5). By
selecting File | Print from the View Model form main menu, the Print Layout interface is
activated.
The principal form is the Layout Contents form. This controls what components are to be
displayed on the plot, and provides some options for standard plot layouts.
For this example the Layout Contents form is as follows :
Display Font Font used for all text on plot layout.

Font Size Basic font size (pts) used for text.
Bold Font Click check box to used bold typeface for all text.
Text Colour Colour of text can be changed by clicking on colour box and selecting
desired colour from the colour palette window.
Headline Text Enter map title.
Title Block Control position of title block on page. Choices are right, top, left,
bottom, or none. In this example the title block is at the right.
Background Colour Choose colour of background – generally white.

Display Panels Click check box to include border lines around each panel on layout.
Better results are obtained if this is left unchecked.
Display Frame Click check box to include border around entire layout.
Layout Panel The layout panel consists of 24 boxes. Each box corresponds to a
panel on the layout page. The contents of the panel are controlled by
clicking on the appropriate box, and choosing the desired element from
the drop down list. The choices are as follows :
• None
• Processing Caption (used in this example)
• Plan View (used in this example)
• Profiles
• Profile Description
• Model View
• Layer Description
In this example, a Plan View is selected to display in the top left panel,
and a Processing Caption directly below it.
Note that there are four buttons below the Layout Panel which assist
in constructing the layout required.
Clears all contents of the Layout Panel.
Standard layout including Plan View and a Title Block.
Standard layout including Model View and a Title Block.
Summary layout including all components.
For this example, the Title Block, Processing Caption, and Plan View forms are also
relevant. As there are no profiles or models displayed, the Profiles and Model View forms
are not considered.
The Title Block form appears as follows :
Information for the Company Name, Survey Location, etc can be entered as required. Note
that the width and height of the Title Block can be controled here as well.
The Processing Caption window looks like :

Text can be entered as required and will appear on the layout in the panel selected on the
Layout Contents form.
Margin (cm) Width of margin around the text block
Text Size (pts) Size of text used in processing caption
Centre Text If checked, the processing caption will be centred in the panel on the
layout page. Otherwise the text will be left justified.
Draw Border If checked, a single line border will be drawn around the processing
caption. The distance of this border from the text is controlled by the
margin.
Clears all contents of the Processing Caption.
Loads text from a previously saved text file (*.txt).
Saves processing caption to a text file (*.txt).
For this example, some simple text was entered including information on the cell size of the
imaged grid, and the data limits of the displayed image.
The Plan View form controls the appearance of the image in this example :

Display Section Line Controls whether the current section line is drawn on the image.
Display Data Locations Controls whether the data locations are displayed.
Plot scale (units/m) Enter the scale the plan is to be displayed. In this case it is 1:5000.
Plan Width Enter the width that the plan is to be displayed.
Note that the Plot Scale and Plan Width parameters are linked.
The checked box next to one of these parameters indicates which of
the two is being used to determine the size of the plan in the layout.
Axis Label Interval Interval between coordinate labels on each axis.
Image Select which image to display. Options are :
• Observed free-air Gravity (used in this example)
• Calculated free-air Gravity
• Residual
• Topography
• Bouguer Gravity
Tick Size (cm) Size of border ticks.
Graticule Size (cm) Size of graticule markers.
X axis margin (cm) Width of margin in X direction around image display.
Y axis margin (cm) Width of margin in Y direction around image display.
Label Every Frequency (per tick mark) of coordinate labels.
Labeled Axis Controls which axes are labeled with coordinates.
This layout is now ready for preview and output.

On the lower section of the main Print Layout form is the button.
Clicking this opens the Print Preview window :

The Print Preview window displays the page dimensions in the title bar, and the layout as
defined by the options chosen in the Print Layout interface. In this example, an image of the
observed gravity is displayed, together with some processing information below the image,
and a title block in the lower right hand corner.
The layout can then be sent to a Windows printer by clicking the Print menu (see example 2),
or copied to the clipboard by clicking Copy. Return to the Print Layout options by clicking
Close.

7.2 Print Layout Example 2 – Profiles and Model View
The second example is an A4 plot consisting of a comparison between the observed and
calculated free air gravity profile for the selected section, display of the inverted model for that
section, and a title block. This demonstrates the use of the Profiles and Model View
components of the Print Layout interface.
Assume the View Model form appears the same as for Example 4 (section 3.4.5). By
selecting File | Print from the main menu on the View Model form, the Print Layout interface
is activated.
For this example the Layout Contents form is as follows :
The major differences between this and the previous example is the selection made in the
Layout Panel. In this example, Profile display is chosen in the top left panel, with Profile
Definition below it. In the second column, Model View is selected with Layer Descriptions
below that.
In this case, the Title Block, Profile, and Model View forms are utilised, while the
Processing Caption and Plan View forms are not.
Note that the Title Block used for this example is very similar to the first example so is not
reproduced here.

The Profiles form controls the appearance of profiles on the plot layout :
X Plot scale (units/m) Scale used to plot X coordinate axis in profile panel.
Plan Width Width of profile panel.
Note that the X Plot Scale and Plan Width parameters are linked.
the two is being used to determine the width of the profile panel in
the layout.
Y Plot scale (units/m) Vertical scale of profile panel.
Plan Height Height of profile panel.
Note that the Y Plot Scale and Plan Height parameters are linked.
the two is being used to determine the height of the profile panel in
the layout.
Displayed Data Profile Observed data and calculated responses are plotted together.
Either free-air or Bouguer gravity can be displayed.
Line Colour Choose the colour of the calculated profile by clicking on the colour
box and selecting the desired colour from the colour palette window.
The observed data is always a black profile.
Y axis units Enter units to appear as caption on the Y axis. Here the unit is mgal.
Remaining parameters such as the label intervals and tick size behave as described in Print
Layout Example 1 (section 4.1).
Recall that Profile Definition was chosen in the Layout Panel. This inserts a description of
the displayed profiles onto the plot layout. The checked box next to the Centre Profile
Description in Column option means that the profile legend will be centred in the panel
beneath the Profile plot. If the box is unchecked, the profile legend will be left justified in the
panel.

The Model View form controls the appearance of model sections on the plot layout :
Most of the parameters on the Model View form (eg scales, label intervals, margins, etc) are
similar to the Profiles form and so are not described again.
Parameters specific to the Model View form are :
Display Dens/Susc Colour BarIf checked, a colour bar for the basement properties is
displayed adjacent to the Model View panel.
Dens/Susc Label Interval Interval between labels on the property colour bar.
Colour Bar Caption Units that appear as caption above the density or
susceptibility colour bar.
Model to Describe Choose between Input Regional, Input Local, or Inverted
Model.
Y Axis Caption Units that appear as caption for Y axis.
Recall that Model Description was chosen in the Layout Panel. This inserts a description of
the model layers onto the plot layout. The checked box next to the Centre Model
Description in Column option means that the profile legend will be centred in the panel
beneath the Model View plot. If the box is unchecked, the profile legend will be left justified in
the panel.

This layout is now ready for preview and output.
Clicking opens the Print Preview window :
As defined in the Print Layout interface, a profile plot showing the observed and calculated
free air gravity for the selected northing is displayed in the top left panel, with a description of
the profiles beneath it. The next column contains the inverted model, with the basement
density colour bar adjacent to it, and the model layer description beneath. The title block
appears in the lower right corner.
Note that if the plot layout is not satisfactory, the Print Preview window must be closed by
clicking the Close menu before changes can be made to the layout.
The layout can be sent to a Windows printer
by clicking the Print menu. This opens a
layout window as shown on the right.
The size of the paper in the selected printer is
outlined in black, and the size of the plot layout
in red. Also displayed are the current printer
details and the paper size.
The plot can be rotated by selecting the
Landscape option. Multiple copies can also be
printed.
The plot can be printed at the desired scale, or
fitted to the selected paper size.
Select a different printer or
alter the properties of the
current printer.
Print the layout.
Return to the Print
Preview window.

VPmg – PRINT LAYOUT : Other Features
7.3 Print Layout – Other Features
7.3.1 Layout Definition Files (*.vip)

It is possible to save Layout Definition Files so that layout styles can be recalled later. This
is particularly useful when you wish to use the same overall layout style for different model
sections or profiles from the same data set.
On the main Layout Contents form, the File menu contains the following options relating to
Layout Definition Files :
Save Layout Saves all layout specifications to a file. Default extension will
be *.vip.
Read Layout Reads a previously saved layout definition file into the Print
Layout interface.
Read Layout Components Reads components of a previously saved definition file. The
separate components that can be imported are :
• Contents
• Title Block
• Processing Caption
• Plan View
• Profile Definitions
• Model View
7.3.2 Target Page Size

In the lower panel of the main Print Layout window, the Target Page Width and Height can
be entered. This can assist when previewing the layout to determine whether the plot will fit to
the required page size.
By clicking on the Layout Contents form, the scales of the various
panels in the layout will be set so that the overall layout will fit the
page size defined by the Target Page Width and Height.
7.3.3 Enforce Uniform Scale

By clicking the Enforce Uniform Scale check box on the Layout Contents form, all panels
will be locked to the same plot scale.

VPmg – FILE FORMATS ETC
8 FILE FORMATS
8.1 Control File (*.ctl)

Specification file that contains required filenames and some inversion parameters for a particular
inversion run.
igrav dec inc amb idh idc

iregnl ilocal ild
regional.inp
local.inp
itmax error [nhet, {uindex(j), dzsc(j), j = 1,nhet} ]
∆depth ∆density User_min_ROI
observed.dat OR observed.par
calculated.out
igrav Defines the data type:

igrav=4 : TEM moment (resistive limit)
igrav=3 : TEM (time decays)
igrav=2 : vector magnetics
igrav=1 : gravity (free-air)
igrav=0 : magnetics (true TMI)
igrav= -1 : gravity gradient
igrav= -2 : magnetic gradient
dec, inc, amb Define the ambient magnetic field for TMI or magnetic gradient modeling [igrav=0 or
-2], or define survey line orientation for RTX gravity gradiometer modeling [igrav=-1].
In the magnetic modelling case the definitions are as follows:
dec : magnetic declination [igrav=0 or -2]
inc : magnetic inclination (degrees, negative in southern hemisphere)
amb : geomagnetic intensity (nT)
For RTX (VK1 system) gravity gradient modelling:
dec : survey line orientation (clockwise degrees from grid north)
inc : arbitrary (set to zero by VPmg)
For Falcon system gravity gradient modelling:
dec : true north orientation (clockwise degrees from grid north)
For general modelling of gravity gradients:
dec : acquisition coordinate system north orientation (clockwise degrees from grid
north)
amb : arbitrary (not used for gravity gradient).
For magnetic gradient data, VPmg assumes currently that the VPmg (E,N,U)
coordinate system coincides with the acquisition coordinate system.
idh Distinguishes underground from above ground surveys; controls self-

demagnetisation
idh=-3 : surface or airborne survey, with self-demagnetisation taken fully into
account (if self-demag module has been purchased)
idh=-2 : surface or airborne survey, with self-demagnetisation factors of 1/3 in all
directions everywhere.

idh=0 : surface or airborne survey
idh=1 : downhole or underground survey (gravity only)
idc.trigger Controls the DC level and treatment of parameters which attain their bounds
idc=100 : DC level free to change (adjusted to achieve least squares fit to data);
cells which attain bounds during heterogeneous property inversion are
fixed at the bound and play no further part.
idc=-100 : DC level free to change (adjusted to achieve least squares fit to data);
cells which attain bounds during heterogeneous property inversion are
retained, and may continue to change.
idc=101 : DC level read from end of regional model file; free to change if no DC
shift recorded at end of regional model. Cells which attain bounds during
heterogeneous property inversion are fixed at the bound and play no
further part.
idc=-101 : DC level read from end of regional model file; free to change if no DC
shift recorded at end of regional model. Cells which attain bounds during
heterogeneous property inversion are retained, and may continue to
change.
idc=102 : DC level read from end of local model file; free to change if no DC shift
recorded at end of local model.
idc=-102 : DC level read from end of local model file; free to change if no DC shift
recorded at end of local model. Cells which attain bounds during
heterogeneous property inversion are retained, and may continue to
change.
The idc parameter is not obligatory; if it is missing, the DC level is free to change,
i.e. the default value for idc is 100.
‘trigger’ is the decimal part of this parameter and controls how regularly a forward
calculation is triggered during an inversion. Some inversion options are more non-
linear than others and the ability to control how regularly forward calculations are
done (and new derivatives) computed can be desirable. If ‘trigger’ is not specified,
the default it 10. ‘trigger’ must be a value between 1 and 9 otherwise a value of 10
is assumed.
iregnl & ilocal Define the model style :

iregnl=0, ilocal=1 : local model on uniform basement. The VPmg basement property
can be adjusted via homogeneous unit inversion, but not via
basement only inversion. If the model is irregular in shape and does
not completely fill the rectangular area bounded by xmin, xmax,
ymin, & ymax [Section 8.4], the undefined prisms are assigned to
the enclosing half-space. Data located above or within the
undefined prisms should be deleted from the data file; the data
points in question are identified in the VPMG.LOG file.
iregnl=3, ilocal=0 : active regional model on uniform or variable basement. The
VPmg basement can be adjusted via basement only inversion, but
not via homogeneous unit inversion. If the model is irregular in
shape and does not completely fill the rectangular area bounded by
xmin, xmax, ymin, & ymax [Section 8.4], the undefined prisms are
assigned to the basement. Data located above or within the
undefined prisms should be deleted from the data file; the data
points in question are identified in the VPMG.LOG file.
iregnl=3, ilocal=1 : local model incised into regional model. The incised local model
must completely fill the rectangular area bounded by local model
xmin, xmax, ymin, & ymax [Section 8.4]. The regional model
basement cannot be adjusted via inversion. If the regional model is
irregular in shape and does not completely fill the rectangular area
bounded by the regional model xmin, xmax, ymin, & ymax [Section
8.4], the undefined prisms are assigned to the regional basement.

iregnl=4, ilocal=1 : complex model
ild [.nn] Defines the inversion style. If ild=integer.nn, then a succession of subsets of nn% of
the data will be inverted. This is a low memory option for very large inversion
problems. If .nn is zero or absent, VPmg will invert the entire data set (lying within
the active model area).
ild = 0 : Basement properties variable, unit properties and contact elevations fixed.
ild = 100 : Stochastic inversion applied to basement properties; unit properties and
contact elevations fixed. Basement min and max property bounds (see
section 8.5 below) are regarded as the 0.15 and 99.85 percentile values for
the property distribution. Thus the PDF is represented as two half-Gaussian
distributions. The upper distribution for the basement has mean dlaynlay and
sd (dmaxnlay-dlaynlay)/3; the lower distribution for the nth unit has mean
dlaynlay and sd (dlaynlay-dminnlay)/3.
ild = 1 : Homogeneous unit properties variable; contact elevations, basement
properties and heterogeneous unit properties fixed.
ild = -1 : Heterogeneous unit properties variable; contact elevations, basement

properties and homogeneous unit properties fixed.
ild = 99 : Stochastic inversion applied to heterogeneous unit properties; contact

elevations, basement properties and homogeneous unit properties fixed.
Unit property min and max bounds (see section 8.5 below) are regarded as
the 0.15 and 99.85 percentile values for the unit property distributions. Thus
the PDF is represented as two half-Gaussian distributions. The upper
distribution for the nth unit has mean dlayn and sd (dmaxn-dlayn)/3; the
lower distribution for the nth unit has mean dlayn and sd (dlayn-dminn)/3.
ild = 2 : Contact elevations variable, all properties fixed.
regional.inp Model file containing regional model (optional). Enter DUMMY if no regional model.
local.inp Model file containing starting local model (optional). Enter DUMMY if no local model.
itmax Maximum number of iterations for inversion. Set to zero for forward model only. If
itmax=-1, VPmg converts nominated homogeneous units to heterogeneous units.
error Absolute data uncertainty, in mgal, Eotvos, or nT, when itmax ≥ 0.
[nhet] Number of homogeneous units to be converted to heterogeneous units. Only
required when itmax=-1.
[uindex(j),dzsc(j)] Index of jth homogeneous unit to be converted to a heterogeneous unit, and
desired thickness of sub-cells in the heterogeneous units. Only required when
itmax=-1.
∆depth Maximum relative change in interface depth per iteration (ild=2 inversion). Value 0.1
permits a change of at most 10% of the depth during each iteration.
3 -3
∆property Maximum absolute change in density (g/cm ) or susceptibility (10 SI) per iteration
(ild=0,1 inversion).
User_min_ROI Defines the radius (in metres) of the "neighbourhood of influence" for drill hole
constraints (property or geometry). The User_min_ROI parameter is optional; if it
is missing, the usual default "neighourhood of influence" is used (2.5*diagonal cell
size for property, no minimum for geometry).
observed.dat Observed data file; format defined in Section 8.2 below.

observed.par File to define the name and format of the data file, and the data components to be
inverted. A par file is essential for inversion of multiple gravity gradient or magnetic
gradient components. For inversion of a single data set, e.g. TMI or a single gravity
gradient component, use either a dat file or a par file. The par file format is defined
in Section 8.3 below.
calculated.out Model File containing final inverted model plus observed and calculated data.

8.2 Observed Data Files
File contains the observed data, be it regional data for regional inversion, or detailed data for local
inversions.
east1 north1 elev1 obs11 [obs12] [obs13] [obs14] …

east2 north2 elev2 obs21 [obs22] [obs23] [obs24] …
……
eastn northn elevn obsn1 [obsn2] [obsn3] [obsn4] …
eastn Easting (m) of measurement point at location n.

northn Northing (m) of measurement point at location n.
elevn Elevation of measurement point at location n (m).
obsnm Free-air gravity (mgal), mth gravity gradient (Eotvos), TMI (nT), or mth magnetic
gradient (nT/m) reading at nth location.
8.3 PAR Files

A PAR file defines the name and format of the data file, and specifies the data channels selected for
inversion. For multi-channel potential fields inversion, a PAR file must be specified in the control file.
For single channel inversion, either a PAR file or a data file can be specified.
#VPMG#
data file name
nvar
nch
column1 chid1
column2 chid2
…
columnnch chidnch
#VPMG# Identifier
nvar Number of fields (columns) in the data file; minimum nvar is 4, for east, north,
elevation, and reading.
nch Number of data channels (or components) for modeling and inversion.
columnn Column number for the nth data channel.
chidn 3-character ID for the nth data channel. The legal channel identifiers for gravity
gradients are GXX, GXY, GXZ, GYY, GYZ, GZZ for components defined w.r.t. the
VPmg grid; GGA & GGC for along-line and cross-line VK1 (Rio Tinto system)
components; and GUV & GNE for the Falcon measured (geographic) components.
TMI is the identifier for total magnetic intensity, and MXX, MXY, MXZ, MYY, MYZ,
MZZ are the identifiers for magnetic gradient components defined w.r.t. the VPmg
grid.
Note that VPmg uses an (E,N,U) Cartesian coordinate system. Therefore, if grid
north = true north, GXX corresponds to the GEE component, and GYY is the GNN
component; likewise, MXX corresponds to the MEE component, and MYY is the
MNN component.
For magnetic gradient data, VPmg assumes currently that the VPmg (E,N,U)
coordinate system coincides with the acquisition coordinate system.
3-character identifiers for TEM moments and for Tx loop coordinates, for use in VPmg PAR files:
RLX, RLY, RLZ, RLT for x, y, z "resistive limit" components and total field {not sure yet how to
distinguish 2-component total field from 3-component total field}
LX1,LX2,LX3,LX4 for x-coordinates of loop Tx corners
LY1,LY2,LY3,LY4 for y-coordinates of loop Tx corners
LZ1,LZ2,LZ3,LZ4 for z-coordinates of loop Tx corners

The NCH parameter is negative for ground TEM, i.e. if loop coordinates are required: NCH= -
1*(NUM_CMPTS + 12)
8.4 “3D” Model Files (and VPmg output files)

The VPmg “3D format” is a generalisation of the “2D” format which can represent any 3D block
model geology. In the 3D format, each vertical prism can be divided into an arbitrary number of cells,
and each cell can be assigned to any geological unit.
The model file is a concatenation of “data blocks”, namely the
parameter block [highlighted yellow below],
homogeneous unit block [green],
basement block [cyan],
heterogeneous unit block(s) [white], and
responses block [pink].
There is a separate data block for each heterogeneous unit.
#MOD_3D#
title1
xmin xmax ymin ymax
xcell ycell
nlay [nhet { uindex(j), dzsc(j), j=1,nhet}]
dlay1 dmin1 dmax1 [Q1 dec1 inc1] label1
dlay2 dmin2 dmax2 [Q2 dec2 inc2] label2
…….
dlaynlay dminnlay dmaxnlay [Qnlay decnlay incnlay] labelnlay
elevback densback ehsfix
ibackg minel imask distmask [elmin]
east1 north1 elev1 nlay1 elev(1)1 flag(1)1 …..elev(nlay1-1)1 flag(nlay1-1)1
east2 north2 elev2 nlay2 elev(1)2 flag(1)2 …..elev(nlay2-1)2 flag(nlay2-1)2
….…
eastn northn elevn nlayn elev(1)n flag(1)n …..elev(nlayn -1)n flag(nlayn -1)n
title2 for Basement Block
eastb1 northb1 elevb1 propertyb1 [baseb1]
eastb2 northb2 elevb2 propertyb2 [baseb2]
…….
eastbn northbn elevbn propertybn [basebn]
title3 for Heterogeneous Unit Block nhetu nhetc ihu
eastc1,northc1,nheti1,{ihu(j)1,zt(j)1,zb(j)1,nsc(j)1,j=1,nheti1}{[phet(k)1,pflag(k)1,k=1,nsc(j)1],j=1,nheti1}
eastc2,northc2,nheti2,{ihu(j)2,zt(j)2,zb(j)2,nsc(j)2,j=1,nheti2}{[phet(k)2,pflag(k)2,k=1,nsc(j)2], j=1,nheti2}
….
eastcn,northcn,nhetin,{ihu(j)n,zt(j)n,zb(j)n,nsc(j)n,j=1,nhetin}{[phet(k)n,pflag(k)n,k=1,nsc(j)n], j=1,nhetin}
title4 for Responses Block
eastd1 northd1 elevd1 obs1 calc1 [Bx1,By1,Bz1] back1
eastd2 northd2 elevd2 obs2 calc2 [Bx2,By2,Bz2] back2
….
eastdn northdn elevdn obsn calcn [Bxn,Byn,Bzn] backn
#MOD_3D# 3D format identifier

title1 File contents title.
xmin Minimum easting of rectangular model area. This defines a prism edge, i.e. will differ
by xcell/2 from the nearest prism centre.
xmax Maximum easting of rectangular model area. This defines a prism edge, i.e. will
differ by xcell/2 from the nearest prism centre.
ymin Minimum northing of rectangular model area. This defines a prism edge, i.e. will
differ by ycell/2 from the nearest prism centre.

ymax Maximum northing of rectangular model area. This defines a prism edge, i.e. will
differ by ycell/2 from the nearest prism centre.
xcell Dimensions of model cells in E-W direction (m).
ycell Dimensions of model cells in N-S direction (m).
nlay Total number of geological units, including basement, in model. nlay=1 for
basement-only models, e.g. terrain models. If nlay < 0, some of the geological units
are heterogeneous.
nhet Number of heterogeneous units; required only when nlay < 0.
uindex(j) Unit index for the jth heterogeneous unit; required only when nlay < 0. If uindex(j) <
0, the property weights (used for heterogeneous property inversion) for unit
|uindex(j)| are read from the Heterogeneous Unit block of the model file (see below).
dzsc(j) Notional sub-cell dimension (m) for the jth heterogeneous unit; required only when
nlay < 0.
3 -3
dlayn Density or susceptibility of unit n (g/cm or 10 SI).
3 -3
dminn Lower limit of density or susceptibility in inversion for unit n (g/cm or 10 SI). If
dminn=dmaxn, the property of the nth layer is fixed, i.e. plays no part in inversion.
3 -3
dmaxn Upper limit of density or susceptibility in inversion for unit n (g/cm or 10 SI). If
dminn=dmaxn, the property of the nth layer is fixed, i.e. plays no part in inversion.
Qn Koenigsberger ratio for unit n. Omit value for gravity or gravity gradient modelling.
decn Declination of magnetic remanence (clockwise angle from grid north) of unit n
(degrees). Omit value for gravity or gravity gradient modelling.
dincn Inclination of magnetic remanence (negative angle in southern hemisphere) of unit n
(degrees). Omit value for gravity or gravity gradient modelling.
labeln Text description of geological unit n.
elevback Background elevation for uniform half-space enclosing model (m). Read from
regional model file if one exists; otherwise from local model.
3
densback Background density or susceptibility for uniform half-space enclosing model (g/cm ).
Read from regional model file if one exists; otherwise from local model.
ehsfix ehsfix = 1: enclosing half-space property fixed during inversion
ehsfix = 0: enclosing half-space property variable during inversion
Read from regional model file if one exists; otherwise from local model.
ibackg Background response calculation flag. Read from local model file if one exists;
otherwise from regional model.
ibackg = 0 : background model responses (regional and enclosing half space) must
be (re)calculated during the first iteration (see below)
ibackg = 1 : background responses read from the end of the active model file. The
active model file in this case would normally be an output file generated during an
earlier run of VPmg. The active model is the local model if one exists, or the regional
model otherwise. For elevation inversion (ild=2), setting ibackg=1 will mean that the
exact active model responses will be calculated during each iteration, not estimated
from the derivatives and parameter perturbations. This is more accurate but slower.
ibackg = 2 : active model responses (for the starting model) as well as the fixed
background responses are read from the end of the active model file. If ibackg is
zero initially, VPmg re-sets ibackg to 2 in the output file; in that sense ibackg=2 is
the normal setting. For susceptibility inversion of TMI data (igrav=0; ild=0 or 1),
setting ibackg=2 will mean that the exact active model responses are calculated
during the first iteration, but are estimated from the derivatives and parameter
perturbations for all subsequent iterations. This approach has the advantage of
speed. However, given the slight non-linearity of TMI inversion, there is some risk
that the calculated data will differ appreciably from the true model responses,
especially if itmax is large.
ibackg = -1 : “background” responses read from the end of the active model file
relate to external elements of the model. This option was introduced to expedite
modelling and inversion of sea-floor gravity data; the “external element” in this case
is a layer of seawater extending from the model limits to infinity. The response of the
seawater layer is computed during an earlier run of VPmg with minel = -1. The
“background” values read from the active model file are adopted as starting values,

i.e. added to the normal background values. The RL of the EHS must equal the
elmin value specified for the minel = -1 run, i.e. top of EHS coincides with the base
of the extra layer. In all other respects, ibackg = -1 is equivalent to ibackg = 0.
minel Controls the basal elevation of model prisms, below which a uniform half space is
assumed. If minel = 0 then -25 km is adopted as the model base. If minel = 1, model
base is at RL=0 (usually sea level); this is appropriate for terrain effect calculations.
minel = 2 is a special test setting. minel = 3 for the “irregular heterogeneous layer”
option [section 2.11]. If minel = -1, the base of the model is arbitrary, i.e. in this case
elmin is read from the model file. This option was originally introduced for seafloor
gravity, to account for the effect of the seawater at the edge of the model. In this
case, elmin is the RL of the seafloor. The top of the “enclosing layer” is at elevation
elevback, as usual. The minel = -1 option is used in combination with the ibackg = -1
option if a 2-layer “enclosing half-space” is required, e.g. for seafloor gravity.VPmg
adopts the minel value read from the active model, i.e. from the local model file if
one exists or otherwise from the regional model.
imask Allows the user to restrict inversion to model prisms which are within a certain
range, distmask, of data points. If imask = 0, a default distmask value is adopted by
VPmg: only prisms within the default horizontal radius distmask of a data point will
contribute to its derivatives. If imask = 1, the default distmask applies to derivative
calculations (as for imask = 0) and all interfaces are fixed in prisms further than the
default distmask radius from the nearest data point during geometry inversion. For
property inversion (ild ≠ 2), imask = 1 is equivalent to imask = 0. If imask = 2, the
distmask radius is specified by the user (see below). The effect of imask = 2 is as
for imask = 1, except that the horizontal “radius of influence” is prescribed by the
user. VPmg adopts the imask value from the local model file if one exists; otherwise
from the regional model.
distmask Radius of influence (in metres) for derivative calculations. See imask above. A value
of distmask is required when imask = 2; otherwise the distmask parameter is
dummy. Read from local model file if one exists; otherwise from the regional model.
[elmin] Defines the basal elevation of model prisms, below which a uniform half space is
assumed. elmin is read from the active model file only in the special case when
minel = -1.
eastn Easting of centre point of vertical prism n. [Geological units not defined if nlay = 1,
i.e. basement only model. See Note 1 below]
northn Northing of centre point of vertical prism n. [Geological units not defined if nlay = 1,
elevn Surface elevation of top of vertical prism n. [Geological units not defined if nlay = 1,
nlayn Number of cells or interfaces in prism n.
elev(j)n Elevation of interface at base of cell j within vertical prism n.
flag(j)n Flag controlling whether the interface at elev(j)n is fixed or free during inversion, and
defining the geological unit immediately above. Interfacial flags are floating point
numbers (not integers) for the 3D models. The 3D format flags take the form
INDD( j − 1, n )
FLAG ( j, n ) = IFLAG ( j, n ) + sgn{IFLAG ( j, n )} ∗
100
where IFLAG(j,n) denotes the 2D format integer interfacial flag, and where INDD(j-
1,n) is the index for the geological unit assigned to the cell immediatel;y above the
interface. [Note that interface j is at the base of the (j-1)th cell.]
iflag(j)n = 0 : free interface (bounded above by the ground surface)
iflag(j)n = 1 : fixed interface, pierced by a drill hole. A contact flagged with 1 will
affect parameter weighting during geometry inversion, which can in turn reduce
inversion speed. Therefore use 1 flags only for drill pierce points.
iflag(j)n = 2 : fixed interface, constrained by the operator or by VPmg, e.g. if
imask=1. A contact flagged with 2 will not affect parameter weighting during
geometry inversion. Use 2 flags to fix contacts which are not drilled.

iflag(j)n = -1 : fixed “artificial” interface, to restrict movement of a free interface
during inversion. Imposed owing to a near-miss by drill hole(s)
iflag(j)n = -2 : fixed “artificial” interface, to restrict movement of a free interface
during inversion. Imposed operator.
iflag(j)n = -3 : fixed “artificial” interface between sub-cells in a heterogeneous unit.
title2 Basement density/susc section title. Must begin with the word “Basement”, starting
in first column.
eastbn Easting of centre point of vertical prism n.
northbn Northing of centre point of vertical prism n.
elevbn Elevation of top of basement within vertical prism n.
3 -3
propertybn Basement density (g/cm ) or susceptibility (10 SI) within vertical prism n.
basebn Elevation of base of heterogeneous layer in vertical prism n. Only required for the
special heterogeneous layer option. See section 2.11
title3 Title for Heterogeneous Unit block. Must begin with the word “Heterogn”, starting in
first column.
nhetu Number of heterogeneous units defined in this block. nhetu=1.
nhetc Number of sub-cells in the heterogeneous unit #ihu.
ihu Index (unit number) for the heterogeneous unit defined in this data block.
eastbn Easting of centre point of vertical prism n. Only prisms which contain cells belonging
to one or more heterogeneous units are listed in this section of the model file.
northbn Northing of centre point of vertical prism n.
nhetin Number of intervals of heterogeneous units within vertical prism n. There may be
more than one interval of a particular heterogeneous unit.
ihu(j)n Unit index identifying the jth interval of a heterogeneous unit within vertical prism n; j
increases downwards.
zt(j)n Elevation of top of the jth interval of a heterogeneous unit in vertical prism n.
zb(j)n Elevation of bottom of the jth interval of a heterogeneous unit in vertical prism n.
nsc(j)n Number of cells which comprise the jth interval of a heterogeneous unit in vertical
prism n. Each cell has vertical dimension [zt(j)n - zb(j)n] / n.
phet(k)j Property (density or susceptibility) of the kth cell within the jth interval of a
heterogeneous unit in vertical prism n. Index k ranges from 1 to nsc(j)n.
pflag(k)j Inversion flag of the kth cell within the jth interval of a heterogeneous unit [index
ihu(j)] in vertical prism n. pflag is of the form ipf.nnnn, where ipf is an integer flag
and where nnnn is a weight, defined to 4 decimal places.
ipf = 0: the cell property is free to change during heterogeneous property inversion
(when ILD=-1);
ipf = 1: the cell property is fixed, e.g. owing to proximity to a drill hole (in which
properties have been determined).
The decimal part nnnn of pflag is a weight (an indicator of certainty); this is used to
condition the inversion when uindex(ihu(j)) < 0, i.e. when the user defines the
weights (see parameter block above). The weight ranges from zero (uncertain, i.e.
free to change) to 0.9999 (very well defined, virtually fixed). If nnnn is zero or
absent, VPmg default weights are applied during inversion, based on proximity to
cells for which ipf=1, i.e. cells with fixed property.
title4 Title for Responses block. Must begin with the word “EAST”.
eastdn Easting of measurement station n. Need not coincide with prism centre.
northdn Northing of measurement station n. Need not coincide with prism centre.
elevdn Elevation of measurement station n, on or above the ground surface. If below top of
vertical prism at that location, the prism top is lowered if idh=0. [Downhole and
underground capability not yet implemented]
obsn Gravity (mgal), gravity gradient (Eotvos), or TMI reading (nT) at station n.

calcn Calculated model response at station n, i.e. including background contribution, in
mgal, Eotvos, or nT. calcn is true TMI in the case of magnetic inversion (igrav=0), or
the selected tensor component in the case of gravity gradient inversion (igrav=-1).
{Bxn,Byn,Bzn} Calculated magnetic components at station n, i.e. active model response without
background, in nT – recorded for magnetic inversion only (igrav=0).
backn Background response from model at station n. Values are normalised, i.e. are not in
mgal, Eotvos, or nT. backn is a single scalar for gravity and gravity gradient
inversion (igrav=-1 or 1), but the three magnetic components are recorded in the
case of magnetic inversion (igrav=0).
Notes : special cases
1. In cases when the model consists of basement only, be it uniform (terrain model) or a
heterogeneous basement (e.g. apparent density or susceptibility), nlay=1 and the layer or unit
definition section will be absent from the model file.
2. In cases where iback = 0, background values are not expected in the starting model file and will
be (re)calculated. Consequently, the data section need not be present at the end of the file.

9 EXAMPLE VPmg INVERSIONS
A number of sample files are included with the VPmg install set. These relate to geology and
aeromagnetics from the Otway Basin, South Australia. A few inversion options using these files are
briefly described below.
The sequence of inversions is fairly realistic. The aims were twofold: to investigate the extent to
which the magnetic data can characterise the basement; and to assess the significance of
susceptibility variations at shallow depth within the sediment, as a possible indirect indicator of
hydrocarbon microseepage.
Figure 9.1: TMI image for a section of the Otway Basin, South Australia. The yellow border defines
the regional model area; the red rectangle encloses the local model area (see Section 9.4 below).
9.1 Homogeneous property inversion of regional model

The regional starting model comprises an undifferentiated sedimentary package overlying a
crystalline basement. The VPmg model prisms are 1km square. The TMI data is gridded onto a 1km
mesh; mesh points coincide with VPmg prism centers.
The average basement susceptibility is unknown. Therefore a homogeneous property inversion is
performed first, to optimise the basement susceptibility and enclosing half-space susceptibility prior
to the basement geometry inversion. The control file for this inversion is Reg_Otway_Homog.ctl
-3
The susceptibility of the basement was set as 5 x 10 SI initially. VPmg homogeneous property
inversion stalled after 8 iterations. Thus a uniform basement with the shape as defined in the starting
model cannot satisfy the TMI data to within the desired accuracy of 1 nT. The RMS misfit decreased
-3
from 10.9 nT to 5.2 nT. The final basement susceptibility was 9.38 x 10 SI. The sedimentary cover
was treated as magnetically inert, i.e. fixed at zero susceptibility throughout.
The susceptibility of the enclosing half-space was optimised at the same time. Its initial and final
-3 -3
values were 6.86 x 10 and 10.20 x 10 SI respectively. The optimised half-space value is close to
the final susceptibility for the basement, as would be expected. The top of the enclosing half-space
is at an elevation of –3470m, this being the average elevation of the basement surface in the
starting model.
9.2 Basement geometry inversion of regional model

Initially suppose that the basement is fairly uniform in susceptibility, but that its topography is
uncertain. VPmg geometry inversion can be applied to adjust the shape of the basement

unconformity. The starting model for basement geometry inversion is Reg_Otway_3.sus, the output
model from the homogeneous property inversion just described. The control file for this inversion is
Reg_Otway_Geom.ctl
The geometry inversion is constrained by wells. In this case, drilling is sparse, and only two drill
holes intersect basement. The basement surface is fixed at those two points. Wells that do not
intersect basement also constrain the model by imposing upper bounds on the basement
topography (the upper bound is coincident with the EOH or TD). These drill hole constraints were
inserted into the model file using Mira Geoscience utilities in Gocad.
After 20 iterations of VPmg geometry inversion, the RMS misfit had been reduced from 5.2 nT to 1.4
nT. The modified basement geometry very nearly satisfies the TMI data to the prescribed 1 nT
accuracy.
Figure 9.2: Interpreted basement topography for a section of the Otway Basin, South Australia.
Fixed contacts (pierce points) are depicted as large horizontal plates in the diagram (with the same
lateral dimensions as a VPmg prism). The bound constraints are visualised as plates on top of red
bars; the red bars indicate the maximum permitted upward movement of the interface.
9.3 Basement susceptibility inversion of regional model

As an illustration of non-uniqueness, consider now a scenario under which the basement shape is
considered well-defined, but its susceptibility (lithological composition) is expected to be variable. In
this case VPmg basement susceptibility is appropriate, to introduce lateral susceptibility variations
into the basement. The starting model for basement susceptibility inversion is again
Reg_Otway_3.sus, the output model from the homogeneous property inversion described in Section
9.1 above. The control file for this inversion is Reg_Otway_Bment_Sus.ctl
After 20 iterations of VPmg basement susceptibility inversion, the RMS misfit had been reduced
from 5.2 nT to 2.3 nT. The regional model with heterogeneous basement almost satisfies the TMI
data to the prescribed 1 nT accuracy. However, it is not possible to explain the shorter wavelength
TMI components in terms of lateral susceptibility variations in a basement of this shape; see Figure
9.3.
As before, the sedimentary cover was treated as magnetically inert, i.e. fixed at zero susceptibility
throughout. The susceptibility of the enclosing half-space was allowed to vary. Its final value was
-3
10.05 x 10 SI.

Figure 9.3: North-south section through the regional model after basement susceptibility inversion.
Location of the section is indicated at left, superimposed on the TMI.
9.4 Heterogeneous unit inversion of local model

We have generated two regional basement models that fit the data fairly well. In this exercise, we
will create a more detailed VPmg model incorporating all the main sedimentary formations over a
localised area of interest. VPmg allows a local model of a higher resolution to be incised into a
regional model. In this way, higher resolution refinements can be made to the local model while the
large-scale ‘regional’ trends are (still) implicitly accounted for by the surrounding regional model.
In order to achieve the desired 1 nT fit, it will be necessary to permit susceptibility variations at
shallower depth. VPmg will invert for susceptibility variations in the uppermost layer of the model.
Notionally, we are inverting to delineate shallow magnetic sources which could be related to
hydrocarbon micro-seepage.
The local starting model for the heterogeneous unit inversion is SPG_Loc_1.sus. The local model
prisms are 250m square. As represented in the starting model file, all the sedimentary units in the
sequence are homogeneous in susceptibility. Before the heterogeneous unit inversion can be
performed, the uppermost sedimentary unit (Gambier Limestone) must be converted to a
heterogeneous unit. In other words, the model file must record the susceptibility of each of the
cells comprising the Limestone unit, whereas initially all the cells within the Limestone are assigned
the same susceptibility. In the process, the cells can be sub-divided. The cells comprising the
Gambier Limestone are divided into sub-cells with a vertical dimension of 50m. The control file for
this conversion is SPG_Loc_Conv.ctl
The heterogeneous unit inversion involves two model files. The regional model file is
Reg_Otway_5.sus, the output model from the basement susceptibility inversion described in Section
9.3. The regional model provides “context” for the heterogeneous unit inversion, but it does not
change itself. The DC level for the combined regional + local inversion should in most cases be fixed
at the value recorded at the end of the regional model file. If the DC level is allowed to float, the
influence of the regional model will be diminished and there may be a marked discontinuity in
susceptibility around the boundary of the local model.
The local model file is SPG_Loc_2.sus, the output model from the homogeneous to heterogeneous
unit conversion just described. The local model is “active”, i.e. able to change. The data for the
detailed inversion is SPG_Loc.dat. The TMI data has been gridded onto a 250m mesh; mesh points
coincide with VPmg prism centers.
The control file for the combined regional + local heterogeneous unit inversion is SPG_Loc_Het.ctl
Initially, all the sedimentary units are assigned a uniform susceptibility of zero. Susceptibility
variations can develop within the Gambier Limestone during inversion, whereas (by choice) we have
elected to maintain the underlying sediments at zero susceptibility. The upper and lower bounds for
-3 -3
susceptibility in the Limestone were 1 x 10 and –1 x 10 SI respectively. The negative lower bound
was selected as a device to cater for remanent magnetization.
The starting misfit for the local model incised into the regional model was 2.0 nT. After 2 iterations of
VPmg heterogeneous unit inversion, the RMS misfit had been reduced to 0.95 nT. Thus the
combined model satisfied the detailed (250m grid) TMI data to the prescribed 1 nT accuracy. Thus

the shorter wavelength TMI components can be explained in terms of shallow susceptibility
variations within the Limestone (Figure 9.3).
Figure 9.4: Horizontal slice through the local VPmg model after heterogeneous unit inversion. The
local model is incised into the regional model with heterogeneous basement, defined in . Colours
indicate the inferred variations in susceptibility within the Gambier Limestone at an elevation of -
-3
0.9m. Unit of susceptibility is 10 SI.

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The VPmg user interface, VPview, was written by John Paine (Scientific Computing & Applications,
Adelaide).
The original version of this VPmg User Documentation manual was written by Rob Angus (RAMA
Geoscience, Brisbane).
Glenn Pears (Mira Geoscience, Brisbane) assisted with preparation of figures.
Otway Basin TMI data kindly provided by PIRSA, Adelaide.
11 USER SUPPORT
Peter Fullagar p.fullagar@uq.edu.au

Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd fullagargeophysics@yahoo.com
Brisbane phone: +61 7 3720 8321
Australia mobile: +61 41 730 3428
Glenn Pears glennp@mirageoscience.com

Mira Geoscience Asia Pacific Pty Ltd
Brisbane phone: +61 7 3720 8321
Australia mobile: +61 40 248 5263
GMT +10 hours
12 REFERENCES
Fullagar, P.K., Hughes, N.A., and Paine, J., 2000, Drilling-constrained 3D gravity interpretation:
Exploration Geophysics, 31, 17-23.
Fullagar, P.K., Pears, G.A., Hutton, D., and Thompson, A., 2004, 3D gravity and aeromagnetic
inversion for MVT lead-zinc exploration at Pillara, Western Australia: Exploration Geophysics, 35,
142-146.
Fullagar, P.K., and Pears, G.A., 2007, Towards geologically realistic inversion: Exploration ’07, Fifth
Dicennial Conference on Exploration, Toronto.
Fullagar, P.K., Pears, G.A., and McMonnies, B., 2008, Constrained inversion of geological surfaces
- pushing the boundaries: The Leading Edge, 27, 98-105.
Hjelt, S.E., 1973, Combined magnetostatic anomalies of two parallel circular cylinders: in
Interpretation of Borehole Magnetic Data and Some Problems of Magnetometry, S.E. Hjelt and
A.Ph. Phokin (eds.), Report No. 1, Department of Geophysics, University of Oulu, Finland, 1981.

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PO Box 1946, Toowong, QLD 4066, Australia ph: +61 (7) 3720 8321

Interpreted depth to top limestone

Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd VPmg User Documentation Report FGR01F-4 II

Fullagar Geophysics Pty Ltd VPmg User Documentation Report FGR01F-4 IV

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• basement properties variable, unit properties and contact elevations fixed;

• contact elevations variable, all densities or susceptibilities fixed.

Features under development appear in grey text.

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2.1 Litho-stratigraphic tagging

2.2 Accurate representation of surfaces

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2.5 Apparent susceptibility and density models

2.6 Handling regional effects

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2.7 Depth-to-basement modelling

2.8 Computing true total magnetic intensity (TMI)

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2.11 Heterogeneous unit inversion

2.12 Stochastic inversion

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Inversion terminates if the acceptable level of misfit is achieved (convergence), if the

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5 CREATING AND EDITING CONTROL & MODEL FILES

5.1 Creating and Editing Control Files

Inversion Output Model file with inverted density or susceptibility model.

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Data Type Three types of data can be interpreted:

Inversion Style 0 : Basement susceptibility/density variable, unit properties

Loads data, and model definition and inversion parameters

Launches VPmg. During inversion, only the “active” model

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Note : see section 5 for definitions of file formats.

5.2 Model File Parameters

Title Title for model file

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5.3 Model Limits

Regional Model Limits

Local Model Limits

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6 VIEWING MODELS & DATA

6.1 Input Data

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Displays pseudocolour image of the topography (m). Grid size is the

Example (right) of the image

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Example (right) of a Gravity Residual

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6.4.1 General Layout

Displays/refreshes model section or slice.

6.4.2 Example 1 – Vertical Section