EN2131 – SOIL SCIENCE AND WATER QUALITY

UNIT – I SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS

Major soil types of India- Soil physical properties- soil water relationship –forms and occurrence
of soil water-soil water potential and its components –kinds of water in soil – soil moisture
characteristic curve – soil water constants – Entry , retention and flow of water in the root zone –
concept of plant- available water- methods of measurement of soil moisture and matric tension-
soil irrigability

Major soil types if India:

Types of Soil in India – An oft-tested topic in General Awareness and General Knowledge is
Geography. And soil is the bedrock of geography. The soil in an area is an indicator of the
climate of that region, not to mention the history and formation of that region. It is a factor that
influences the vegetation, wildlife, and human culture in that region. So let us find out more
about soil and the types of soil in India in these Static GK Notes. You can download this in PDF
for revision later.

What is Soil? Soil is an important layer of earth‘s crust (outermost layer). It is the mixture of
organic matter, minerals, gases, water and air and other organisms. It is the anchor for vegetation
which is the key to a food cycle on Earth.

How is Soil Formed?

Soil originally comes from rocks, also called the ‗parent material‘. Soil formation starts when
rock is exposed to the atmosphere. Properties of a soil will depend upon the type of parent
material and how the soil is formed. Atmospheric conditions play a vital role in both the process
and rate of physical and chemical decomposition of the parent material. Step 1: Rocks break due
to weathering (rock sediments deposit at the site of destruction) and/or erosion (the broken rock
materials transport to other locations). Step 2: It transports through water, wind etc. and
deposited in the form of sediments and produces soil.

Factors Affecting Formation of Soil

 Parent materials
 Topography
 Climate Organisms
 Time
Soil Horizon and Profile
Any soil is made of layers, also called horizons. Horizons put together, form a soil profile. Each
profile tells a story about the life of the soil. There are generally six horizons that form the soil
profile.

Minerals in Soil
There are two types of minerals present in the soil.
1. Primary Minerals Mainly silicate minerals with varying proportion of Aluminum,
Calcium, Sodium, Iron and Magnesium)
2. Secondary Minerals Clay, Mineral Oxides etc.
Functions of Soil
Soil has four very important functions (apart from other usages)
1. As a base/medium for plant growth (essential for life in our ecosystem)
2. As a means of storage, supply and purification of water
3. As a modifier of Earth's atmosphere
4. Providing natural habitat and basis for life.

Types of Soil in India

The soils of India has been classified depending on the how they are formed, their color,
composition etc.
 Alluvial soils,
 Black soils,
 Red soils,
 Laterite and Lateritic soils,
 Forest and Mountain soils,
 Arid and Desert soils,
 Saline and Alkaline soils and
 Peaty and Marshy soils.

1. Alluvial Soil
These soils cover more than 40% of the total land area of the country.
 a. Location: Mainly found in the northern plains and river valleys where the rivers deposit the
sediments. In peninsular region, they are found in the coastal areas.
b. Structure: Alluvial soils are rich in phosphoric acid and organic matter but poor in potash.
Alluviums are mainly loams, i.e. mixtures of sand and clay.
c. There are two types of alluvial soils:
i. Khadar Soils: This type is moisture retentive and sticky when wet. It is new soil and
is very fertile. Khadar areas are prone to flooding that become available for
agriculture when a river changes its course.
ii. Bangar Soils: It is old soil and it is sandier and less fertile. Bangar areas are less
prone to flooding. d. Major crops: If proper irrigation is done, the alluvial soils yield
good crops of sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, rice, wheat, jute, maize, oilseeds,
vegetables and fruits.

2. Black Soil These soils are black in color and are also called ‗Regur‘. These soils cover
around 16% of the total land area of the country.
a. Location: Black soils are generally found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
b. Structure: These contain Lime, Potash, Magnesium, and Alumina but lack Phosphorous,
Organic Matter etc. These are impermeable and develop wide cracks during dry season. This
permits oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths making it very fertile. They can also hold
moisture very well.
c. Major Crops: Black soils are rich in chemical properties and very suitable for growth of
cotton. So, they are also called black cotton soil. Other major crops are wheat, jowar, linseed,
sunflower and millets etc. Rice and sugarcane are also grown where proper irrigation
facilities are available.

3. Red and Yellow Soil

Red in color due to wide diffusion of iron in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Yellow color
forms due to hydration. These soils are formed where rainfall is low. These soils are sandier
and cannot retain moisture for longtime.
a. Location: Found in some parts of Deccan plateau, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Western Ghats
etc.
b. Structure: They are rich in potash but lack lime, magnesium, humus etc.
c. Major Crops: These soils are very fertile in nature. Red soils work well with the proper use
of fertilizers and irrigation.
It give excellent yields of cotton, tobacco, oil seeds, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, potatoes and
fruits.
4. Laterite Soil
These soils are formed in the areas with high temperature and high rainfall. High
temperatures facilitate the decomposition of humus by Bacteria while high rainfall leaches
silica and lime. As a result these soils become acidic and rich in aluminum and iron oxides.
Laterite soils do not retain moisture.
a. Location: Found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Assam etc.
b. Structure: Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium. These are generally
acidic in nature.
c. Major Crops: This soil (not very fertile) is used in the cultivation of cotton, rice, wheat,
pulses, tea, coffee, etc. This is also used in cashew-nut cultivation.

d. There are types of Laterite Soils based on their particles:

 i. Deep Red Laterite: Have excess of iron oxide and potash but short of Kaolin (clay). Not
fertile.

iii. White Laterite: The color is due to excess of Kaolin. These soils lose fertility very
quickly.
iv. iii. Underground Laterite: The upper parts are dissolved especially in iron which
settles down below the upper layer. This makes the soils fertile.

e. Other uses: It is useful for making bricks because of presence of huge amount of iron.
5. Arid Soil
These soils are sandy and have low clay content. Due to high evaporation in arid regions, the
soils become deficient of humus and moisture. However, proper irrigation results in fairly good
crop yields. The color of this soil ranges from red to brown and light brown.
a. Location: The region west of the Aravalli has arid soils.
b. Structure: Saline in nature due to the high salt content. Poor in nitrogen but rich in plant food.
Lack moisture and humus.
c. Major Crops: Mainly drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, rape, cotton,
wheat, millets, maize and pulses are grown.
6. Forest and Mountain Soils
This soil occupies about 9% of the total land area of India. These soils are formed by the
deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.
a. Location: These soils are found mainly in Himalayan region, Western and Eastern Ghats as
well as in some parts of the peninsular plateau.
b. Structure: These soils are rich in humus but are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
Therefore, they need fertilizers for good yields.
c. Major Crops: Good for plantations of tea, spices, coffee and tropical fruits in Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala and wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits in Himachal Pradesh, J&K and
Uttaranchal.

7. Saline and Alkaline Soils

These soils are known by different names such as Reh, Kallar, Usar, Thur, Rakar, Karl and
Chopan.
a. Structure: Some rock and mineral fragments liberate sodium, magnesium, calcium salts and
sulfurous acid on weathering. These salts are transported by rivers and subsequently in to the
lower soils. These salts are then transferred from lower layers to the top soil layer due to
evaporation.
b. Location: These soils are mainly found in AP and Karnataka. These are also found in drier
parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
c. Major Crops: Accumulation of the salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for
agriculture.

8. Peaty and Marshy Soils

Peaty and Marshy soils are formed in humid regions as a result of deposition of huge amounts of
organic matter in the soils under waterlogged conditions. The peaty soils are black and heavy.

Peaty Soils: Highly salty and rich in organic matters. But, they are deficient in potash and
phosphate. Mainly found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called Kari.
Marshy Soils: Result of water-logging and the presence of iron and varying amount of organic
matter. These are found in the coastal areas of Orissa and Tamil Nadu, Sundarbans of West
Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of Uttaranchal.

Top crops: These soils are generally covered with water during the monsoon and they are used
for rice cultivation as soon as the monsoon passes.

What is Soil Erosion?

Washing or blowing away of the top layer of the soil is called soil erosion. Top layer of
soil is the most fertile because it contains the most organic, nutrient-rich materials. Soil erosion
is caused by natural factors like rain, water, ice etc. or manual factors such as ploughing of the
field. But it is also caused by man-made factors.

Common Man-Made Reasons for Soil Erosion

1. Shifting cultivation
2. Deforestation
3. Overgrazing
4. Jhum cultivation etc.

Impact of Soil Erosion

1. Reduces the capacity of soil to hold water.
2. Lower layers generally contain fewer nutrients than top layer, hence, soil erosion contributes
to loss of nutrients.
3. Water infiltration is reduced, which makes it harder for the seedlings to break through the soil
crust.
4. Erosion does not remove topsoil uniformly over the surface of a field, which makes it
impossible for a farmer to apply fertilizers and chemicals uniformly and obtain uniform results.

Soil Conservation
Soil Conservation is the effort to protect soil from erosion. The Government of India has set up
the Central Soil Conservation Board to take care of this issue and make some plans to control
soil erosion. Some measures that have been in practice to protect the soil erosion are:
 Afforestation
 Checking overgrazing
 Changing agriculture practices

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

Texture:
Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as sand, silt and clay
in the soil. The proportions of the separates in classes commonly used in describing soils are
given in the textural triangle shown in Fig.1.5. In using the diagram, the points corresponding to
the percentages of silt and clay present in the soil under consideration are located on the silt and
clay lines respectively. Lines are then projected inward, parallel in the first case to the clay side
of the triangle and in the second case parallel to the sand side. The name of the compartment in
which the two lines intersect is the class name of the soil in question. For examples soil
containing 15% clay, 20% silt and 65% sand is sandy loam and a soil containing equal amounts
of sand, silt and clay is clay loam.
The percentages of sand, silt and clay in a soil could be determined in a soil laboratory by two
standard methods - hydrometer method and pipette method (Black et al., 1965a). Both methods
depend on the fact that at any given depth in a settling suspension the concentration of the
particles varies with time, as the coarser fractions settle at a faster rate than the finer (Fig. 1.6).
In the field, soil texture could be estimated by the following methods (Fig. 1.7).
(i) Feel method. In this method, the soil is moistened with water and rubbed between the thumb
and fingers. The way the wet soil ―slicks out‖ gives a good idea of the clay content. The sand
particles are gritty, the silt has a floury or talcum - powder fell when dry and is only moderately
plastic and sticky when wet. Accuracy of this method depends largely on experience.

Fig. 1.3. Volume and weight composition of a soil (Percentage of air and water varies
according to moisture saturation of soil)

Fig. 1.4. Mineralogical composition of soil (area within the figure denotes the relative
abundance of minerals)
Fig. 1.5. Soil textural triangle

Fig. 1.6. The settling of particles in a soil suspension

Fig. 1.7. Field methods of soil texture estimation (Feel method and Ball and ribbon
method)

(ii) Ball and ribbon method: The procedure of this method as described by Coche and Laughlin
(1985) is as follows: Take a handful of soil and wet it so that it begins to stick together without
sticking to the hand. A ball of about 3 cm diameter is made and put down. If it falls apart it
is sand. If it sticks together roll the ball into a sausage shape 6 – 7 cm long. If it does not remain
in this form it is loamy sand. If it remains in this shape, continue to roll until it reaches 15 – 16
cm long. If it does not remain in this form, it is sandy loam. If it remains in this shape, try to
bend the sausage into a half circle and if it doesn't, it is a loam. If it does, bend the sausage to
form a full circle and if it doesn't it is heavy loam. If it does with slight cracks in the sausage, it
is light clay. If it does without any cracks, it is clay.
(iii) Ball throwing method: The texture of the soil can be inferred by the way a ball of soil acts
when it is thrown at a hard surface such as a wall or a tree (Fig.1.8). The steps to be followed in
this method as described by Coche and Laughlin (1985) are as follows: Throw a ball of soil to a
tree or wall 3 m away. If the soil is good only for splatter shots when either wet or dry, it has a
coarse texture (loamy sand). If there is a ―shot gun‖ pattern when dry and it holds its shape
against medium range target when wet, it has a moderately coarse texture (sandy loam). If the
ball shatters on impact when dry and clings together when moist but does not stick to the target it
has a medium texture (loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam). If the ball holds its shape for long
- range shots when wet and sticks to the target but is fairly easy to remove it has a moderately
fine texture (clay loam). If the ball sticks well to the target when wet and becomes a very hard
missile when dry, it has a fine texture (clay).
The usual mechanical analysis of soils in the laboratory gives the percentages of the three size
fractions, sand, silt and clay. For special uses, the same methods of laboratory analyses (pipette
method or hydrometer method) can provide a much more detailed analysis giving further
breakdown of the relative amounts of soil particles for more size classes in the form of a table or
graph. The data in the graphical form is given as a particle - size frequency curve (PSF curve).
PSF curves for selected soils are shown in Fig. 1.9. The vertical axis represents the cumulative
percentage of occurrence of the various particles sizes and the horizontal axis represents the
logarithms of the particle size. The vertical axis in the left hand side relate to the percentages of
particles passing through sieves of a particular size and the vertical axis in the right hand side
relate to the percentages of particles not passing through sieves of a particular size.
The more vertical the PSF curve or part of the curve, the more uniform the particle size; a
vertical line represents a perfect uniform particle size. The more inclined the curve or part of it,
the greater the difference between the particle sizes (i.e. smaller porosity and higher
compaction). The inflexion point of the curve shows the most frequent particle size by weight.
Fine textured soils have their curves towards the right hand side of the graph and the coarse
textured soils to the left hand side. From the PSF curves, the percentages of silt, sand and clay
can be calculated and using the textural triangular diagram the texture could be determined.
Soil texture is an important soil parameter determining the suitability of a site for aquaculture. A
clayey soil stabilizes pond bottom besides the fact that it adsorb large quantity of nutrients and
release them slowly over a long period to the overlying water. The clayey soil normally holds
higher amounts of organic matter than light textured soils and thereby increases the productivity
of the pond. It should be noted that too clay a soil (very sticky clay) may not be very satisfactory
as it may give rise to fixation of phosphorus and create other physico-chemical biological
problems. Such soils may give rise to cracks on draining the ponds, thereby increase seepage
losses.

Structure:
The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but when the
arrangement of the particles is considered the term structure is used. Structure refers to the
aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles or cluster of
primary particles which are separated by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness.
Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to moisture and air relationships, availability of
nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth. E.g. highly plastic clay (60% clay) is good
for crop product if it has a well developed granular structure which facilitates aeration and water
movement. Similarly a soil though has a heavy texture, can have a strongly developed structure,
thus making it not very satisfactory for aquaculture as a result of this soil allowing high seepage
losses.
Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.
Grade: Grade of structure is the degree of aggregation and expresses the differential between
cohesion within aggregates and adhesion between aggregates. These properties vary with the
moisture content of the soil and it should be determined when the moisture content is normal -
not when unusually dry or unusually wet. The four major grades of structure rated from 0 to 3
are listed below.
0 - Structure less: No observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural
 lines of weakness. Massive if coherent; single grain if no coherent.
1 - Weak: That degree of aggregation characterized by poorly formed indistinct
aggregates that are barely observable in place. When disturbed, soil
material that has this grade of structure breaks into a mixture of few
entire aggregates many broken aggregates and much unaggregated
material.
2 - Moderate: Well formed distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and evident
but not distinct in undisturbed soil. When disturbed, they break down
into a mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some broken
aggregates and little unaggregated material.
3 - Strong: Durable aggregates that is quite evident in undisturbed soil that adheres
weakly to one another. When removed from the profile the sokl material
consists very largely of entire aggregates and includes few broken ones
and little or no non-aggregated material.

Consistence:
Consistence is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is determined by the
cohesive and adhesive properties of the soil mass. This is a term used to designate the
manifestation of the cohesive and adhesive properties of soil at various moisture contents. A
knowledge of the consistence of the soil is important in tillage operations, traffic and pond
constructions. Consistence gives also an indication of the soil texture.
Consistence is described for three moisture levels:
- Wet soil - non sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non plastic, slightly plastic, plastic and
very plastic.
- Moist soil - loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm.
- Dry soil - loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, and extremely hard.
Description of the consistence terms mentioned above can be obtained from ―Guidelines for Soil
Profile Description‖ by FAO (FAO, 1974).
Particle density
Particle density of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil solid phase) -
expressed in g/c.c. Most soils have particle density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter
decrease the density and iron compounds increase the density.
Bulk density
Bulk density of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume includes both soil
and pores) - expressed in g/c.c.
Pore space:
Particle density can be determined using specific gravity bottle technique and bulk
density by taking soil core samples of known volume in the field and determining the even dry
weight (Black et al., 1965a). Water and air movements through soil depend on the pore space
and the size distribution of the pores (microspores and macrospores). Lower the pore space or
higher the bulk density of the soil, the higher the suitability of the soil for aquaculture.
Atterberg limits:
From the previous section it could be noted that consistence of soils changes with the
amount of moisture in the soil. Atterberg limits correspond to the moisture content at which a
soil sample changes it's consistence from one state to the other. Liquid limit (LL) and plastic
limit (PL) are two important states of consistence. Liquid limit is the percentage moisture content
at which a soil changes with decreasing wetness from the liquid to the plastic consistence or with
increasing wetness from the plastic to the liquid consistence, whereas the plastic limit is the
percentage moisture content at which a soil changes with decreasing wetness from the plastic to
the semi-solid consistence or from the semi-solid to the plastic consistence. Plastic index (PI) =
LL - PL, is the moisture content range at which the soil remains plastic.

Table III. Typical laboratory tests showing average LL, PL and PI (Coche and Laughlin,
1985)

Soil type LL PL PI
Sands 20 0 0
Silt 27 20 7
Clays 100 45 45
Colloidal clays 399 49
Soil colour:
Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil as well as the
type of minerals in the soil. For example the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of iron
oxide under oxidised conditions (well-drainage) in the soil; dark colour is generally due to the
accumulation of highly decayed organic matter; yellow colour is due to hydrated iron oxides and
hydroxide; black nodules are due to manganese oxides; mottling and gleying are associated with
poor drainage and/or high water table. Abundant pale yellow mottles coupled with very low pH
are indicative of possible acid sulphate soils. Colours of soil matrix and mottles are indicative of
the water and drainage conditions in the soil and hence suitability of the soil for aquaculture.
Soil colour is described by the parameters called hue, value and chroma. Hue represents the
dominant wave length or colour of the light; value, refers to the lightness of the colour; chroma,
relative purity or strength of the colour. The colour of the soil in terms of the above parameters
could be quickly determined by comparison of the sample with a standard set of colour chips
mounted in a note-book called MUNSELL SOIL COLOUR CHARTS (Munsell Soil Colour
Charts, 1973). In these charts, the right hand top corner represents the Hue; the vertical axis, the
value; and the horizontal axis, the chroma.
Soil permeability:
It is the ability of the soil to transmit water and air. An impermeable soil is good for
aquaculture as the water loss through seepage or infiltration is low. As the soil layers or horizons
vary in their characteristics, the permeability also differs from one layer to another. Pore size,
texture, structure and the presence of impervious layers such as clay pan determines the
permeability of a soil. Clayey soils with platy structures have very low permeability.
Permeability is measured in terms of permeability rate or coefficient of permeability (cm per
hour, cm per day, cm per sec.).
Permeability rate or coefficient of permeability is determined in the laboratory by measuring the
rate of flow of water from a constant head of water through a colomn of soil at specific moisture
content and other conditions. It is determined in the field by digging a hole of approximately 30
cm diameter, smearing the sides of the hole with heavy wet clay or lining with plastic sheet and
measuring the rate of infiltration of water by filling the hole repeatedly with water and noting the
time it takes for the water level to go down by a specific depth.
Coefficient of permeability of soils (pond bottom soils) suitable for aquaculture should be
smaller than 5 × 10-6 m/s (Coche and Laughlin, 1985). For more information on this refer to the
chapter on ―water supply‖ in this Manual.

Soil temperature
Soil temperature is important to gardeners, especially when it comes to spring planting.
Many seeds need a certain minimum temperature before they will germinate.

a) Factors influencing soil temperature

i. Local climate: Soil temperature is highly correlated to air temperature
ii. Slope steepness and aspect: In the Northern Hemisphere, north-facing aspects tend to be
cooler than south-facing aspects. The effect is more pronounced with steeper slopes and
lower relative humidity.
iii. Topography: Topography influences microclimates. For example, cool air flows down
from mountaintops along drainages and settles in low parts of valleys. Soil and air
 temperature in these drainages and low areas may be lower than the elevated areas adjacent
to them. This is readily apparent in the ―citrus belt‖ in the San Joaquin Valley.
iv. Cover: Plants shade the soil, reducing the temperature. In addition, growing plants cool the
temperature through transpiration.
v. Soil color: D arker-colored soils absorb heat more readily than lighted colored soils
vi. Horticultural practices: Mulching reduces heat by reducing insolation—the absorbtion of
heat when it‘s sunny and can also act as an insulator —holding in heat in extremely cold
weather

b) Soil temperature influences on soil properties

i. Biological activity: Lower temperature = lower biological activity. Below about 40°F there
is little biological activity.
ii. Organic matter accumulation: Lower temperature = higher organic matter accumulation.
iii. Weathering of parent materials: Fluctuating temperatures help break down mineral grains.
Warmer temperatures increase chemical weathering.
v. Nutrient availability: Many nutrients are unavailable or poorly available at low
temperatures, especially phosphorus. (This is primarily related to biological activity.)

Drainage
Soil drainage or drainage classes are a way of expressing the frequency and duration of periods
in which the soil is saturated (has free water or water in excess of field capacity).
Excess free water in the root zone can kill plants or keep them from becoming established.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture recognizes seven natural drainage classes (from the Soil
Survey Manual):
a) Excessively drained
Water is removed very rapidly. The occurrence of internal free water commonly is very
rare or very deep. The soils are commonly coarse-textured and have very high hydraulic
conductivity or are very shallow. These soils tend to be droughty.
b) Somewhat excessively drained
Water is removed from the soil rapidly. Internal free water occurrence commonly is very
rare or very deep. The soils are commonly coarse-textured and have high saturated hydraulic
conductivity or are very shallow.
c) Well drained
Water is removed from the soil readily but not rapidly. Internal free water occurrence
commonly is deep or very deep; annual duration is not specified. Water is available to plants
throughout most of the growing season in humid regions. Wetness does not inhibit growth of
roots for significant periods during most growing seasons. The soils are mainly free of the deep
to redoximorphic features that are related to wetness.
Introduction
Both soil and water are essential for plant growth. The soil provides a structural base to
the plants and allows the root system (the foundation of the plant) to spread and get a strong
hold. The pores of the soil within the root zone hold moisture which clings to the soil particles by
surface tension in the driest state or may fill up the pores partially or fully saturating with it
useful nutrients dissolved in water, essential for the growth of the plants. The roots of most
plants also require oxygen for respiration. Hence, full saturation of the soil pores leads to
restricted root growth for these plants. (There are exceptions, though, like the rice plant, in which
the supply of oxygen to the roots is made from the leaves through aerenchyma cells which are
continuous from the leaves to the roots).
Since irrigation practice is essentially, an adequate and timely supply of water to the plant
root zone for optimum crop yield, the study of the inter relationship between soil pores, its water-
holding capacity and plant water absorption rate is fundamentally important. Though a study in
detail would mostly be of importance to an agricultural scientist, in this lesson we discuss the
essentials which are important to a water resources engineer contemplating the development of a
command area through scientifically designed irrigation system.
Soil-water system
Soil is a heterogeneous mass consisting of a three phase system of solid, liquid and gas.
Mineral matter, consisting of sand, silt and clay and organic matter form the largest fraction of
soil and serves as a framework (matrix) with numerous pores of various proportions. The void
space within the solid particles is called the soil pore space. Decayed organic matter derived
from the plant and animal remains are dispersed within the pore space. The soil air is totally
expelled from soil when water is present in excess amount than can be stored.

Classification of soil water

As stated earlier, water may occur in the soil pores in varying proportions. Some of the
definitions related to the water held in the soil pores are as follows:
• Gravitational water: A soil sample saturated with water and left to drain the excess out by
gravity holds on to a certain amount of water. The volume of water that could easily drain off is
termed as the gravitational water. This water is not available for plants use as it drains off rapidly
from the root zone.

• Capillary water: the water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has drained
off from the soil is known as the capillary water. This water is held in the soil by surface tension.
Plant roots gradually absorb the capillary water and thus constitute the principle source of water
for plant growth.

• Hygroscopic water: the water that an oven dry sample of soil absorbs when exposed to moist
air is termed as hygroscopic water. It is held as a very thin film over the surface of the soil
particles and is under tremendous negative (gauge) pressure. This water is not available to plants.

The above definitions of the soil water are based on physical factors. Some properties of soil
water are not directly related to the above significance to plant growth. These are discussed next.
Soil water constants
For a particular soil, certain soil water proportions are defined which dictate whether the water is
available or not for plant growth. These are called the soil water constants, which are described
below.
• Saturation capacity: this is the total water content of the soil when all the pores of the soil are
filled with water. It is also termed as the maximum water holding capacity of the soil. At
saturation capacity, the soil moisture tension is almost equal to zero.

• Field capacity: this is the water retained by an initially saturated soil against the force of
gravity. Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained off from the soil, it is said to reach the
field capacity. At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil are drained off, but water is retained
in the microspores. Though the soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil to soil, it is
normally between 1/10 (for clayey soils) to 1/3 (for sandy soils) atmospheres.

• Permanent wilting point: plant roots are able to extract water from a soil matrix, which is
saturated up to field capacity. However, as the water extraction proceeds, the moisture content
diminishes and the negative (gauge) pressure increases. At one point, the plant cannot extract any
further water and thus wilts.
Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:
• Temporary wilting point: this denotes the soil water content at which the plant wilts at day
time, but recovers during right or when water is added to the soil.
• Ultimate wilting point: at such a soil water content, the plant wilts and fails to regain life even
after addition of water to soil.

It must be noted that the above water contents are expressed as percentage of water held in the
soil pores, compared to a fully saturated soil. Figure 2 explains graphically, the various soil
constants; the full pie represents the volume of voids in soil.

As shown in Figure 2, the available water for plants is defined as the difference in moisture
content of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point.
Field capacity and Permanent wilting point: Although the pie diagrams in Figure 2
demonstrate the drying up of saturated soil pores, all the soil constants are expressed as a
percentage by weight of the moisture available at that point compared to the weight of the dried
soil sand sample.
Soil water constants expressed in depth units:
In the last section, the soil water constants were mentioned as being expressed as weight
percentages of the moisture content (that is amount of water) held by the water at a certain state
with respect to the weight of the dried soil sample. The same may also be expressed as volume of
water stored in the root zone of a field per unit area. This would consequently express the soil
water constants as units of depths. The conversion from one form to the other is presented below:
Assume the following:
• Root zone depth = D (m)
• Specific weight of soil = γs (kg/m3)
• Specific weight of water = γw (kg/m3)
• Area of plot considered = 1m x 1m
Hence, the weight of soil per unit area would be : γs x 1 x D (kg)
The weight of water held by the soil per unit area would be equal to :γx1xd
Where d is equivalent depth of water that is actually distributed within the soil pores.
Hence the following constants may be expressed as:

Field capacity = Weight of water held by soil per unit area

Weight of soil per unit area
= γw × 1 × d
γs × 1×D

Thus, depth of water (d Fc) held by soil at field capacity (FC)

= γs × D×FC
γw
Similarly, depth of water (d wp) held by soil at permanent wilting point (PWP)

= γs × D×PWP
γw
Hence, depth of water (d Aw) available to plants
= γs × D× [FC-PWP]
γw
Therefore, the depth of water available to plants per meter depth of soil
= γs × [FC-PWP]
γw
It may be noted that plants cannot extract the full available water with the same efficiency.
About 75 percent of the amount is rather easily extracted, and it is called the readily available
water. The available water holding capacity for a few typical soil types are given as in the
following table:

Soil Texture Field Capacity (FC) Permanent Bulk Density(γs) Available water per
percent Wilting Point Kg/m3 meter depth of soil
(PWP) profile(m)
percent
Sandy 5 to 10 2 to 6 1500 to 1800 0.05 to 0.1
Sandy loam 10 to 18 4 to 10 1400 to 1600 0.09 to 0.16
Loam 18 to 25 8 to 14 1300 to 1500 0.14 to 0.22
Clay loam 24 to 32 11 to 16 1300 to 1400 0.17 to 0.29
Clay 32 to 40 15 to 22 1200 to 1400 0.20 to 0.21
Fig. 24.1.Soil condition at Saturation, Field Capacity and Permanent wilting point.

Water absorption by plants

Water is absorbed mostly through the roots of plants, though an insignificant absorption is also
done through the leaves. Plants normally have a higher concentration of roots close to the soil
surface and the density decreases with depth as shown in Figure 3.

In a normal soil with good aeration, a greater portion of the roots of most plants remain within
0.45m to 0.60m of surface soil layers and most of the water needs of plants are met from this
zone. As the available water from this zone decreases, plants extract more water from lower
depths. When the water content of the upper soil layers reach wilting point, all the water needs of
plants are met from lower layers. Since there exists few roots in lower layers, the water extract
from lower layers may not be adequate to prevent wilting, although sufficient water may be
available there.
When the top layers of the root zone are kept moist by frequent application of water through
irrigation, plants extract most of the water (about 40 percent) from the upper quarter of their root
zone. In the lower quarter of root zone the water extracted by the plant meets about 30 percent of
its water needs. Further below, the third quarter of the root zone extracts about 20 percent and
the lowermost quarter of root zone extracts the remaining about 10 percent of the plants water. It
may be noted that the water extracted from the soil by the roots of a plant moves upwards and
essentially is lost to the atmosphere as water vapours mainly through the leaves. This process,
called transpiration, results in losing almost 95percent of water sucked up. Only about 5percent
of water pumped up by the root system is used by the plant for metabolic purpose and increasing
the plant body weight.

Watering interval for crops

A plot of land growing a crop has to be applied with water from time to time for its
healthy growth. The water may come naturally from rainfall or may supplement by artificially
applying water through irrigation. A crop should be irrigated before it receives a setback in its
growth and development. Hence the interval between two irrigations depends primarily on the
rate of soil moisture depletion. Normally, a crop has to be irrigated before soil moisture is
depleted below a certain portion of its availability in the root zone depending on the type pf
plant. The intervals are shorter during summer than in winter. Similarly, the intervals are shorter
for sandy soils than heavy soils. When the water supply is very limited, then the interval may be
prolonged which means that the soil moisture is allowed to deplete below 50percent of available
moisture before the next irrigation is applied. The optimum rates of soil moisture for a few
typical crops are given below (Reference: Majumdar, D K, 2000)
• Maize : Field capacity to 60 percent of availability
• Wheat : Field capacity to 50 percent of availability
• Sugarcane : Field capacity to 50 percent of availability
• Barley : Field capacity to 40 percent of availability
• Cotton : Field capacity to 20 percent of availability

As for rice, the water requirement is slightly different than the rest. This is because it
requires a constant standing depth of water of about 5cm throughout its growing period. This
means that there is a constant percolation of water during this time and it has estimated that
about 50 to 70 percent of water applied to the crop is lost in this way.
For most of the crops, except rice, the amount of water applied after each interval should be such
that the moisture content of the soil is raised to its field capacity. The soil moisture depletes
gradually due to the water lost through evaporation from the soil surface and due to the
absorption of water from the plant roots, called transpiration more of which has been discussed
in the next session. The combined effect of evaporation and transpiration, called evapo-
transpiration (ET) decides the soil water depletion rate for a known value of ET (which depends
on various factors, mainly climate); it is possible to find out the irrigation interval.
Some of the operational soil moisture ranges of some common crops are given below:

Rice:
This crop is grown both in lowland and upland conditions and throughout the year in
some parts of the country. For lowland rice, the practice of keeping the soil saturated or up to
shallow submergence of about 50mm throughout the growing period has been found to be the
most beneficial practice for obtaining maximum yields. When water resources are limited, the
land must be submerged at least during critical stages of growth. The major portion of the water
applied to the rice crop, about 50-75% is lost through deep percolation which varies with the
texture of the soil. Since the soil is kept constantly submerged for rice growth, all the pores are
completely filled with water through it is in a state of continuous downward movement. The total
water required by the rice plant is about 1.0 to 1.5m for heavy soils and soils with high water
table; 1.5 to 2.0m for medium soils and 2.0 to 2.5 for light soils with deep water table.
Wheat:
The optimum soil moisture range for tall wheats is from the field capacity to 50% of
availability. The dwarf wheats need more wetness, and the optimum moisture range is from 100
to 60 percent availability. The active root zone of the crops varies from 0.5 to 0.75m depending
upon the soil type. The total water requirement for wheat plants vary from 0.25m to 0.4 m in
northern India to about 0.5m to 0.6m in Central India.
Barley:
This crop is similar to wheat in its growing habits, but can withstand more droughts
because of the deeper and well spread root system. The active root zone of Barley extends
between 0.6m to 0.75m on different soil types. The optimum soil moisture ranges from the field
capacity to 40% of availability.
Maize:
The crop is grown almost all over the country. The optimum soil moisture range is from
100 to 60% of availability in the maximum root zone depth which extends from 0.4 to 0.6 on
different soil types. The actual irrigation requirement of the crop varies with the amount of
rainfall. In north India, 0.1m and 0.15m is required to establish the crop before the onset of
monsoon. In the south, it is found that normal rain fall is sufficient to grow the crop in the
monsoon season where as 0.3m of water is required during water.
Cotton:
The optimum range of soil moisture for cotton crop is from the field capacity to 20% of
available water. He root zone varies upto about 0.75m. The total water requirement is about 0.4m
to 0.5m.
Sugarcane:
The optimum soil moisture for sugarcane is about 100 to 50 percent of water availability
in the maximum root zone, which extends to about 0.5m to 0.75m in depth. The total water depth
requirement for sugarcane varies from about 1.4m to 1.5m in Bihar; 2.2m – 2.4m in Karnataka;
and 2.0 – 2.3m in Madhya Pradesh.

Importance of water in plant growth

During the life cycle of a plant water, among other essential elements like air and
fertilizers, plays a vital role, some of the important ones being:
• Water maintains the turgidity of the plant cells, thus keeping the plant erect. Water accounts for
the largest part of the body weight of an actively growing plant and it constitutes 85 to 90 percent
of the body weight of young plants and 20 to 50 percent of older or mature plants.
• Water provides both oxygen and hydrogen required for carbohydrate synthesis during the
photosynthesis process.
• Water acts as a solvent of plant nutrients and helps in the uptake of nutrients from soil.
• Food manufactured in the green parts of a plant gets distributed throughout the plant body as a
solution in water.
• Transpiration is a vital process in plants and does so at a maximum rate (called the potential
evapo transpiration rate) when water is available in adequate amount. If soil moisture is not
sufficient, then the transpiration rate is curtailed, seriously affecting plant growth and yield.
• Leaves get heated up with solar radiation and plants help to dissipate the heat by transpiration,
which itself uses plant water.

Important Definitions
1. Root Zone: The soil root zone is the area of the soil around the plant that comes in contact
with the plant root (Figure 4).
2. Soil Moisture tension: In soils partially saturated with water there is moisture tension, which
is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the soil water pressure. Moisture tension is
equal to the pressure that must be applied to the soil water to bring it to a hydraulic
equilibrium, through a porous permeable wall or membrane, with a pool of water of the same
composition.

3. Wilts: Wilting is drooping of plants. Plants bend or hang downwards through tiredness or
weakness due to lack of water.

A water potential definition

Water potential is the energy required, per quantity of water, to transport an infinitesimal
quantity of water from the sample to a reference pool of pure free water. To understand what that
means, compare the water in a soil sample to water in a drinking glass. The water in the glass is
relatively free and available; the water in the soil is bound to surfaces diluted by solutes and
under pressure or tension. In fact, the soil water has a different energy state from ―free‖ water.
The free water can be accessed without exerting any energy. The soil water can only be extracted
by expending energy. Soil water potential expresses how much energy you would need to
expend to pull that water out of the soil sample.
Soil water potential is a differential property. For the measurement to have meaning, a reference
must be specified. The reference typically specified is pure, free water at the soil surface. The
water potential of this reference is zero. Water potential in the environment is almost always less
than zero, because you have to add energy to get the water out.

Intensive vs. extensive variables

Water movement in the environment is really a physics problem, and to understand it, we
have to distinguish between intensive and extensive variables. The extensive variable describes
the extent or amount of matter or energy. The intensive variable describes the intensity or quality
of matter or energy. For example, the thermal state of a substance can be described in terms of
both heat content and temperature.
The two variables are related, but they are not the same. Heat content depends on mass, specific
heat, and temperature. You can‘t tell by measuring heat content whether or not heat will be
transferred to another object if the two touch each other. So you also don‘t know if the object is
hot or cold or whether it will be safe to touch.
These questions are much easier to answer if you know the intensive variable—temperature. In
fact, though it can be important to measure both intensive and extensive variables, often the
intensive variable gives you more useful information. In terms of water, the extensive variable
is water content, and it tells you the extent, or amount, of water in plant tissue or soil. The
intensive variable is water potential, and it describes the intensity or quality of water in plant
tissue or soil. Many questions about water availability and movement are best answered by
measuring soil water potential.
Water potential answers two key questions
1. Water movement
Water will always flow from high potential to low potential. This is the second law of
thermodynamics—energy flows along the gradient of the intensive variable. Water will move
from a higher energy location to a lower energy location until the locations reach equilibrium, as
illustrated in Figure 1. For example, if a soil‘s water potential were -50 kPa, water would move
toward the more negative -100 kPa to become more stable.
2. Plant water availability
Liquid water moves from soil to and through roots, through the xylem of plants, to the
leaves, and eventually evaporates in the substomatal cavities of the leaf. The driving force for
this flow is a water potential gradient. Thus, in order for water to flow, the leaf water potential
must be lower than the soil water potential. In Figure 2, the soil is at -0.3 MPa and the roots are
slightly more negative at -0.5 MPa. This means the roots will pull water up from the soil. Then
the water will move up through the xylem and out through the leaves. And the atmosphere, at -
100 MPa, is what drives this gradient.

Fig
ure 2. Example water potential gradient in a system
Water potential measurements clearly indicate plant available water, and unlike water
content, there is an easy reference scale–plant optimal runs from about -2-5 kPa which is on the
very wet side, to approximately -100 kPa, at the drier end of optimal. Below that, plants will be
in deficit, and past -1000 kPa they start to suffer. Depending on the plant, water potentials below
-1000 to -2000 kPa cause permanent wilting.
Irrigators and scientists use water potential sensors in conjunction with water content sensors to
understand plant water availability. In Figure 3, you can observe where the water content
declines and at what percentage the plants begin to stress. It‘s also possible to recognize when
the soil has too much water: the water content is above where water potential sensors start to
sense plant stress. Using this information, researchers can identify the plant optimal range at
12% to 17% volumetric water content. Anything below or above that range will be too little or
too much water.

Water potential is frequently called water tension, soil suction, and soil pore water pressure. We
typically use units of pressure to describe soil water potential, including megapascals (MPa),
kilopascals (kPa), bars, and meters (mH2O), centimeters (cmH2O), or millimeters of water
(mmH2O).
Water potential is actually measured in energy per unit of mass, so the official units should be
joules per kilogram, but if you take into account the density of water, the units become
kilopascals, therefore we typically describe it using units of pressure.

How to calculate water potential

Soil water potential is the sum of four different components: gravitational potential + the matric
potential + the pressure potential + the osmotic potential (Equation 1).

Matric potential is the most significant component as far as soil is concerned because it relates to
the water that is adhering to soil surfaces. In Figure 5, the matric potential is what created the
water film clinging to the soil particles. As water drains out of the soil, the air-filled pore spaces
get bigger, and the water gets more tightly bound to the soil particles as the matric potential
decreases.
Matric potential
Matric potential arises because water is attracted to most surfaces through hydrogen bonding and
van der Waals forces. Soil is made up of small particles, providing lots of surfaces that will bind
water. This binding is highly dependent on soil type. For example, sandy soil has large particles
which provide less surface-binding sites, while a silt loam has smaller particles and more
surface-binding sites.

Osmotic potential
Osmotic potential describes the dilution and binding of water by solutes that are dissolved in the
water. This potential is also always negative.
Osmotic potential only affects the system if there is a semi-permeable barrier that blocks the
passage of solutes. This is actually quite common in nature. For example, plant roots allow water
to pass but block most solutes. Cell membranes also form a semi-permeable barrier. A less-
obvious example is the air-water interface, where water can pass into air in the vapor phase but
salts are left behind.
You can calculate osmotic potential from the following equation if you know the concentration
of solute in the water

Water potential equation 2

Where C is the concentration of solute (mol/kg), ɸ is the osmotic coefficient (-0.9 to 1 for most
solutes), v is the number of ions per mol (NaCl= 2, CaCl2 = 3, sucrose = 1), R is the gas constant,
and T is the Kelvin temperature.

Osmotic potential is always negative or zero and is significant in plants and some salt-affected
soils.
Gravitational potential
Gravitational potential arises because of water‘s location in a gravitational field. It can be
positive or negative, depending on where you are in relation to the specified reference of pure,
free water at the soil surface. Gravitational potential is then

Water potential equation 3

Where G is the gravitational constant (9.8 m s-2) and H is the vertical distance from the
reference height to the soil surface (the specified height).
Pressure potential
Pressure potential is a hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure being applied to or pulled on the water.
It is more macroscopic effect acting throughout a larger region of the system.
There are several examples of positive pressure potential in the natural environment. For
example, there is a positive pressure present below the surface of any groundwater. You can feel
this pressure yourself as you swim down into a lake or pool. Similarly, a pressure head or
positive pressure potential develops as you move below the water table. Turgor pressure in plants
and blood pressure in animals are two more examples of positive pressure potential.
Pressure potential can be calculated from

Equation 4
Where P is the pressure (Pa) and PW is the density of water.

Though pressure potential is usually positive, there are important cases where it is not. One is
found in plants, where a negative pressure potential in the xylem draws water from the soil up
through the roots and into the leaves.
Water potential and relative humidity
Water potential and relative humidity are related by the Kelvin equation. If you know
temperature and humidity, you can calculate the water potential using this equation

Equation 5

Different Types of Soil Water

Soil water is the term for water found in naturally occurring soil. Soil water is also called rhizic
water. There are three main types of soil water - gravitational water, capillary water, and
hygroscopic water - and these terms are defined based on the function of the water in the soil.

Gravitational Water
Gravitational water is free water moving through soil by the force of gravity. It is largely found
in the macrospores of soil and very little gravitational water is available to plants as it drains
rapidly down the water table in all except the most compact of soils.

Capillary Water
Capillary water is water held in the microspores of the soil, and is the water that composes the
soil solution. Capillary water is held in the soil because the surface tension properties (cohesion
and adhesion) of the soil microspores are stronger than the force of gravity. However, as the soil
dries out, the pore size increases and gravity starts to turn capillary water into gravitational water
and it moves down.
Capillary water is the main water that is available to plants as it is trapped in the soil solution
right next to the roots if the plant.

Hygroscopic Water
Hygroscopic water forms as a very thin film surrounding soil particles and is generally not
available to the plant. This type of soil water is bound so tightly to the soil by adhesion
properties that very little of it can be taken up by plant roots. Since hygroscopic water is found
on the soil particles and not in the pores, certain types of soils with few pores (clays for example)
will contain a higher percentage of it.

Chemically combined water:

The amount of water present in the chemical compounds, which are present in the particles of
soil. This is not available to the plants.

The water chemically combined in the structure of soil minerals is known as combined water.
After the elimination of hygroscopic water by heating soil to about 150°C., the only water that
remains is in the hydrated oxides of aluminium, iron, silicon, etc.
This water is absolutely unavailable to the plants and can only be driven off from the soil by
resorting to very high temperature but not before bringing about irreversible changes in the
physical and chemical composition of the soil itself.

Atmospheric humidity:
This is water vapor present in air, which can be absorbed by hanging roots of the epiphytes due
to presence of spongy velamen tissue and hygroscopic hairs.

Introduction
A soil-water characteristic (SWC) curve describes the amount of water retained in a soil
(expressed as mass or volume water content, θm or θv) under equilibrium at a given matric
potential. An SWC is an important hydraulic property, related to size and connectedness of pore
spaces, hence strongly affected by soil texture and structure, and by other constituents, including
organic matter. Modeling water distribution and flow in partially saturated soils requires
knowledge of the SWC, therefore plays a critical role in water management and in prediction
of solute and contaminant transport in the environment. Typically a SWC is highly nonlinear and
is relatively difficult to obtain accurately. Because the matric potential extends over several
orders of magnitude for the range of water contents commonly encountered in practical
applications, the matric potential is often plotted on a logarithmic scale. Figure 1 depicts
representative SWC curves for soils of different textures, demonstrating the effects of porosity
(saturated water content) and the varied slopes of the relationships resulting from variable pore-
size distributions.

Water-Retention Curve
The relationship between matric potential and volumetric water content (θ) is referred to
by many names, such as ‗water-retention curve,‘ ‗soil-water characteristic curve,‘ ‗pressure
head–water-content relationship,‘ ‗water content–matric potential curve,‘ and ‗capillary
pressure–saturation curve.‘ Stepwise reduction of the matric potential of an initially completely
saturated soil, i.e., starting at a matric potential value of zero, results in the initial drainage
curve (IDC; Figure 2). When no more water can be drained from the soil, the residual water
content (θr) has been reached. Reversing the process at this point, by increasing stepwise the
matric potential until it reaches zero, produces the main wetting curve (MWC; Figure 2). The
two curves are noticeably different, which is referred to as ‗hysteresis.‘ Reversing the process
again yields the main drainage curve (MDC; Figure 2). Reversal points can start at any point
during drainage or wetting and will form scanning curves, which are always inside the loop
formed by the MWC and MDC.

All variables in the previous sections have been assumed to occur at the microscopic
level, or at least not at a level greater than the pore level. Most of the measurements are,
however, obtained at the macroscopic level, as is the case with water-retention curves.
Transitions can be made from the microscopic level to the macroscopic level, and it can be
shown that, under most conditions, expressions for potential have the same form at both levels.
Consequently, at the macroscopic level, average pressures within macroscopic volume elements
are dealt with.

Soil Water
Available water capacity and water holding characteristics of soils are critical to water
management planning for irrigated and dry land crops. Deciding what crop to plant, plant
population, when to irrigate, how much to irrigate, when to apply nitrogen, and how much
nitrogen to apply depends, in part, on the water holding capacity of soils. Making prudent
irrigation management decisions is critical to preserving the quantity and quality of Nebraska‘s
water resources.
Soil Water Definitions
To adequately discuss soil water, you must be familiar with the following terms:
Soil water: water contained within or flowing through the soil profile. Surface water must
infiltrate the soil profile to become soil water. Ground water is subsurface water in sufficient
quantity that wells or springs can use it.

Excess soil water or gravitational water: water that drains or readily percolates below the
active root zone by the force of gravity. Since drainage takes time, part of the excess water may
be used by plants before it moves out of the root zone.
Available soil water: water that is retained in the soil and can be extracted by the plant.
The available soil water is most important for crop production. It is the water held by the soil
between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Field capacity: the water content of a soil at the upper limit of the available soil water range. It
is the amount of water remaining in a soil after the soil has been saturated and allowed to drain
for approximately 24 hours.

Permanent wilting point: the lower limit of the available soil water range. When plants have
removed all of the available water from a given soil, they wilt and will not recover. Figure
3.1 illustrates the concepts of field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Minimum allowable balance: the soil water content at which crops begin to experience water
stress. Plants can use approximately 50 percent of the available soil water without experiencing
water stress (a shortage of water). Normally, the minimum allowable balance is 50 percent of
the available soil water. For example, if your soil is a uniform loam with available soil water of
2.0 inches/foot, and the crop‘s active root zone is 3 feet, then the available soil water in the
active root zone is 2.0 inches/foot times 3 feet or 6.0 inches. The minimum allowable
balance in that three-foot active root zone would therefore be 6.0 inches times 50% or 3.0
inches.

Unavailable water: soil water held so firmly to soil particles by adsorptive soil forces that it
cannot be extracted by plants. Unavailable water is still present when soil is drier
than permanent wilting point.

Figure 3.1. Illustration of field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Based on these definitions, soil water is classified into three categories: 1) excess soil water or
gravitational water, 2) available soil water, and 3) unavailable soil water. Available water is
further broken down into a) readily available water, no plant stress and b) less available water,
plant stress likely. Figure 3.2 is a schematic representation of soil water reservoir components.
The size of the reservoir depends on the crop‘s active rooting depth.
 Figure 3.2. Components of the soil water reservoir.

Soil Water Retention

Despite the belief that soil absorbs water, water is actually ―held‖ in the soil in two ways: 1) as a
film coating on soil particles, and 2) in the pore space between particles, Figure 3.1. When water
infiltrates into the soil from either precipitation or irrigation, the pore spaces are nearly filled
with water. During and immediately after a rain or irrigation the greatest vertical movement of
water occurs in the soil. After this initial movement, as the soil reaches field capacity, water
movement continues due to gravity and capillary action. Capillary action is important for
retaining water in the soil pores.
Small tubes (capillary tubes) can be used to illustrate capillary action. Like soil pores, capillary
tubes come in different diameters. When one end of a capillary tube is placed in water, water will
rise in the tube because the capillary action is stronger than the pull of gravity. Because capillary
action is stronger than gravity, water will never completely drain through the soil profile. Some
water will always be ―held‖ in the soil profile.
Water rises farther in small capillary tubes than in larger ones. Larger capillary tubes correspond
to coarser textured soils (sands have large pores). Smaller capillary tubes correspond to finer
textured soils (clays have small pores). Capillary action can best be explained with an
illustration, Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3. Capillary action is illustrated by how far water rises in tube of various
diameters.
Figure 3.4illustrates how water will be drawn up into four soil types. Four tubes containing soils
of differing textures are placed upright in a tub of water. the water rises highest in the clay
because it has the smallest pores. The clay soil exerts the greatest capillary action on the water.
The fine sand having the larger pores exerts the least force.

Figure 3.4. Capillary action illustrated by the relative height of wetting for four soil
textures.

Figures 3.3 and 3.4 illustrate how water is held in soils. The capillary action or tension, which
holds water in the soil, is most important to plant growth. Smaller pores hold water with more
tension (negative pressure) than larger pores. As soil dries, the tension of the remaining water
increases. Plants can extract less and less water as the soil water tension increases.

Available Water Capacities

A soil‘s water storage characteristics are very important for irrigation management. Since the
size and number of pores in soils are directly related to soil texture, soil texture is the indicator
for the amount of water a soil can hold. Table 3.1 can be used to determine the amount of
available soil water that a soil of a given texture will hold. This is its available water capacity.
Figure 3.5 shows the actual quantity of water stored for four soil textures. The numbers are
presented on an inches per foot basis.

Plant Uptake: Water moves from soil to plant roots and on through plants as a result of potential
differences, just as it does elsewhere. Water potentials in plants and the conductivity of the plant
parts change rapidly and vary over large magnitudes depending upon the atmospheric conditions
and the physiology of the plant.
Plants are capable of removing large quantities of water from soils. Details at the microscopic
scale of individual roots are difficult to study, but this basic work is being carried out. For most
water management purposes, it is sufficient to quantify the average rate of water loss per unit
area. This is often called the evapotranspiration rate or ET since it combines direct evaporation
from the soil surface and evaporation of water taken up by plants and transpired through the
plant system. Numerous methods have been developed to measure and estimate these
evapotranspiration rates. Potential evapotranspiration rates or PET values are generally
calculated for a reference crop growing under well watered conditions. ET values for a specific
crop are obtained by multiplying this PET value by a crop coefficient to account for differences
in plant species and stage of growth and by a soil factor reflecting differences in soil wetness and
hence the soil potential and conductivity in the vicinity of the roots.
SOIL MOISTURE MEASUREMENT
Soil moisture is estimated both by direct and indirect method. Direct methods involves
the determination of moisture in the soil while indirect methods estimate amount of water
through the properties of water I the soil. In direst methods moisture is estimated thermo-
gravimetrically either through oven – drying or by volumetric method.
Oven drying method
Soil sample is collected in a moisture can and wet weight of the sample is recorded.
The soil sample is dried in hot air oven at 105 oC until constant weight is obtained and dry
weight of the sample is recorded.
Moisture content (on weight basis) = Wet weight-Dry weight X 100
Dry weight
Volumetric method
Soil sample is taken with a core sample or with a tube auger whose volume is known.
The amount of water present in the soil sample is estimated by drying in the oven. The
volumetric moisture content can also be estimated from the moisture content estimated on
dry weight basis.
The most common instrument used for estimating soil moisture by indirect methods is;
tensiometer, gypsum block, neutron probe, pressure plate and pressure membrane apparatus.
Tensiometer
Tensiometer is a sealed, airtight, water-filled tube (barrel) with a porous tip on one end
and a vacuum gauge on the other, as shown in Figure 1. A tensiometer measures soil water
suction (negative pressure), which is usually expressed as tension. This suction is equivalent
to the force or energy that a plant must exert to extract water from the soil. The instru- ment
must be installed properly so that the porous tip is in good contact with the soil, ensuring that
the soil-water suction is in equilibrium with the water suction in the tip. The suction force in
the porous tip is transmitted through the water column inside the tube and displayed as a
tension reading on the vacuum gauge. Soil-water tension is commonly expressed in units of
bars or centibars. One bar is equal to 100 centibars (cb).
The suction at the tip is transmitted to the vacuum gauge because of the
cohesive forces between adjacent

Water molecules. As the suction approaches approximately 0.8 bar (80 cb), the cohesive
forces are exceeded by the suction and the water molecules separate. When this occurs, air can
enter the tube through the porus tip and the tensiometer no longer functions correctly. This
condition is referred to as breaking tension.
 Tensiometers work in the range from 0 to 0.8 bar. The suction scale
On the vacuum gauge of most commercial tensiometers reads from
0 to 100 cb.

Tensiometers are quite affordable for scheduling irrigation. The

cost ranges from $25 to $50 each, depending on length of the barrel,
which ranges from 6 to 72 inches. The only other equipment required is
a small hand-held vacuum pump used for calibration and periodic
servicing. Tensiometers are easy to use but may give faulty readings if
they are not serviced regularly.

Tensiometers are best suited for use in soils that release most of their
plant-available water (PAW) at soil-water suctions between 0 and 80 cb.
Soil textures in this category are those that consist of sand, loamy sand,
sandy loam, and the coarser-textured range of loam and sandy clay loam.
Many clayey and silty soils still retain over 50 percent of their plant-
available water at suctions greater than 80 cb, which is outside the
working range of a tensiometer. Tensiometers are not recommended for
clayey and silty soils unless irrigation is to be scheduled before 50 percent
depletion of the plant-available water, which is the normal practice for
some vegetable crops such as tomatoes.

Gypsum block or Electrical resistance blocks

Electrical resistance blocks consist of two electrodes enclosed in a block of porous
material, as shown in Figure 2. The block is often made of gypsum, although fiberglass or
nylon is sometimes used. Electrical resistance blocks are often referred to as gypsum blocks
and sometimes just moisture blocks. The electrodes are connected to insulated lead wires that
extend upward to the soil surface.

Resistance blocks work on the principle that water conducts electricity. When properly
installed, the water suction of the porous block is in equilibrium with the soil-water suction
of the surrounding soil. As the soil moisture changes, the water content of the porous block
also changes. The electrical resistance between the two electrodes increases as the water
content of the porous block decreases. The block's resistance can be related to the water
content of the soil by a calibration curve.

To make a soil-water
reading, the lead wires are
connected to a resistance
meter containing a voltage s o
u r c e. T h e m e t e r
normally reads from 0 to 100
or 0 to 200. High readings on
the scale (corresponding to
low electrical resistance)
indicate high levels of soil-
water, whereas low meter
readings indicate low levels.
 Because of the pore size of the material used in most electrical resistance blocks,
particularly those made of gypsum, the water content and thus the electrical resistance of the
block does not change dramatically at suctions less than 0.5 bar (50 cb). Therefore, resistance
blocks are best suited for use in fine-textured soils such as silts and clays that retain at least 50
percent of their plant-available water at suctions greater than 0.5 bar. Electrical resistance blocks
are not reliable for determining when to irrigate sandy soils where over 50 percent of the plant-
available water is usually depleted at suctions less than 0.5 bar.

Neutron moisture meter

Soil moisture can be estimated quickly and continuously with neutron moisture meter
without disturbing the soil. Another advantage is that soil moisture can be estimated from
large volume of soil. This meter scans the soil about 15 cm diameters around the neutron
probe in wet soil and 50 cm in dry soil. It consists of a probe and a scalar or rate meter. This
contains a fast neutron source which may be a mixture of radium and beryllium or americium
and beryllium. Access tubes are aluminum tubes of 50-100 cm length and are placed in the
field when the moisture has to be estimated. Neutron probe is lowered in to access tube to a
desired depth. Fast neutrons are released from the probe which scatters in to soil. When the
neutrons encounter nuclei of hydrogen atoms of water, their speed is reduced. The scalar or
the rate meter counts of slow neutrons which are directly proportional to water molecule.
Moisture content of the soil can be known from the calibration curve with count of slow
neutrons.

Pressure membrane and pressure plate Apparatus

Pressure membrane and pressure plate apparatus is generally used to estimate field
capacity, permanent wilting point and moisture content at different pressure. The apparatus
consists of an air tight metallic chamber in which porous ceramic pressure plate is placed.
The pressure plate and soil samples and saturated and are placed in the metallic chamber. The
required pressure of 0.33 or 15 bar is applied through a compressor. The water from the
outlet till equilibrium against applied pressure is achieved. After that, the soil samples are
taken out and oven- dried for determining the moisture content.
 Phene Cell
The Phene cell works on the principle that a soil conducts heat in relation to its water
content. By measuring the heat conducted from a heat source and calibrating the conductance
versus water content for a specific soil, the Phene cell can be used reliably to determine soil-
water content. Because the Phene cell is placed at the desired soil depth, a separate cell is
needed for each depth at each location to be monitored. For irrigating small acreages, the
total cost of using the Phene cell is less than that of the neutron probe. For large acreages, the
neutron probe may be more cost effective.

Time Domain Reflectometer

The time domain reflectometer (TDR) is a new device developed to measure soil-water
content. Two parallel rods or stiff wires are inserted into the soil to the depth at which the
average water content is desired. The rods are connected to an instrument that sends an
electromagnetic pulse (or wave) of energy along the rods. The rate at which the wave of
energy is conducted into the soil and reflected back to the soil surface is directly related to
the average water content of the soil. One instrument can be used for hundreds of pairs of
rods. This device, just becoming commercially available, is easy to use and reliable.

Selecting the Right Device

When cost, ease of use, and reliability are considered, tensiometers and electrical
resistance blocks are usually the most practical devices for measuring soil-water in North
Carolina. For best results, tensiometers and electrical resistance blocks must be properly
installed, maintained, and calibrated for the primary soil types in each field. Installation
Focedures for tensiometers and resistance blocks are described in the next section. The
gravimetric method can be used to calibrate tensiometers and electrical resistance blocks on
the farm.

Preparing and Installing Measuring Devices

Tensiometers
Before a tensiometer is installed, the porous tip should be soaked in water overnight.
The tube should then be filled with boiled (air-free) water, and the gauge and tip should be
tested using a small, hand-held vacuum pump (available from tensiometer manufacturers).
The vacuum pump should also be equipped with a vacuum gauge. It is used to create a
vacuum in the tensiometer.

After the porous tip of the tensiometer is saturated, attach the vacuum pump to the top
of the tensiometer with the cap removed. Use the pump to evacuate air from the tensiometer
barrel. The vacuum gauge reading on the pump and on the tensiometer should be the same.
Furthermore, this reading should remain constant for several seconds, indicating that air is
not leaking through the porous tip.

If tension cannot be maintained, the tip or barrel has probably been damaged or
cracked. The most common cause of failure is a crack in the porous tip resulting from rough
handling. A cracked tip allows air to enter the barrel so that tension forces in the soil are not
correctly transmitted to the gauge. Tips, seals and gauges can be replaced by the tensiometer
manufacturer.

After the vacuum pump test has been completed, the rubber seal in the cap should be
tested. Fully assemble the tensiometer and place it on a table or surface so that the porous tip
is exposed to the air. Water will begin evaporating from the tip. Within a few minutes, the
tension reading on the gauge should begin to increase. If it does not, the rubber stopper in the
cap is not providing a good seal and should be replaced. Otherwise, the tensiometer is ready
for installation. It should be transported to the field with the tip submersed in a container of
water or wrapped in a moist cloth so that tension is not broken before installation.

A probe slightly smaller than the diameter of the porous tip (for example, a steel rod,
broom handle, or tube) is used to make a hole in the soil for the tensiometer. The depth of the
hole should be about 1/4 to 1 inch less than the actual depth for the porous tip (Figure 3).
Pour 1/4

cup of water into the hole to moisten the soil at the bottom. Insert the tensiometer and
gently push it down to the desired depth, usually one-half the effective root zone depth. To
ensure good contact between the soil and the

porous tip, push the tip into the undisturbed soil just below the depth created by the probe.
After the probe has been installed, the soil and porous tip usually reach equilibrium within 24
hours, and the instrument is then ready to use.

The tensiometer should be installed to one-half the effective root depth. The porous tip
must be in good contact with the adjacent soil.

Field experiences with tensiometers have been mixed. When properly installed and
maintained, tensiometers are reliable. Unsatisfactory results are usually caused by inadequate
maintenance. Sandy soils, which are best suited for tensiometers, have low levels of plant-
available water. In coarse, sandy soils the water content may decrease from field capacity to
less than 20 percent of the plant-available water within three days. At this depletion rate,
tension can exceed 80 cb within three days, breaking the water column (tension). The soil
may then appear dry and the crop may show visible signs of stress. Because tension was
broken and the tensiometer is no longer functioning correctly, however, the gauge shows a
low tension (high soil moisture). Thus the irrigator concludes that the tensiometer is
unreliable. Tensiometers should be read every day (sometimes twice a day in very sandy
soils) until you obtain a feel for how fast the soil dries after rainfall or irrigation.

Whenever tension is broken, the tensiometer must be serviced. This includes refilling
the instrument with boiled water and checking it with the vacuum pump. Adding a little food
coloring to the boiled water makes it easier to see whether water is still present in the
tensiometer. Air bubbles in the water column tend to collect at the top of the barrel and
appear clear compared to the colored water. The water column should always be free of air
bubbles, and water should always be stored in the reservoir. It may be necessary to add water
to the reservoir during the season even if tension is not broken.

Electrical Resistance Blocks

Like tensiometers, electrical resistance blocks should be soaked overnight before they
are installed in the field. A soil probe should be used to make a hole to the desired
installation depth. The hole should be slightly larger than the moisture block so the block
slips in easily. After placing the resistance block in the hole, backfill the hole with a thick
soil slurry using soil from the installation depth. Since fine-textured soils do not dry as
rapidly as sandy soils, resistance blocks do not need to be read as frequently as tensiometers.
Normally, three to four readings per week are adequate.

The electrical resistance of soil-water is affected by substances dissolved in the water.

The exchange of water between the soil and the block over the course of the irrigation season
may gradually alter the electrical resistance of the block and eventually alter the calibration.
This is not a serious problem in North Carolina soils unless highly saline water is used for
irrigation. Since electrical resistance blocks are inexpensive, however, new calibrated blocks
should be installed at the beginning of each growing season.

Positioning Soil-Water Measuring Devices

If tensiometers or electrical resistance blocks are used, at least one device should be
located in each of the major soil types in the irrigated field. For most soils irrigated in North
Carolina, the effective root depth is about 12 inches. The soil-water measuring device should
therefore be installed to a depth of 6 inches. In soils with a dramatic textural change within
12 inches of the soil surface, such as a loamy sand surface texture overlying a sandy clay
loam, one device should be installed in the center of the effective root zone portion of each
layer.
Soil-water measuring devices should be installed in the plant row. Install them as soon as
possible after planting so that roots will grow around them and water extraction will resemble
natural field conditions. Flag each device so that it can be easily found in the growing crop.
Mark the end of each row containing a device.

Measurement of Suction
Matric suction Matric suction is an important variable in unsaturated soil mechanics for
establishing hydraulic characteristics and in defining the state of stress in unsaturated soils.
Therefore, control or measurement of matric suction becomes essential in order to evaluate
physical and mechanical behaviors of the unsaturated soils under changing stress conditions.
However, it is difficult to measure and control the negative pore water pressure as cavitation
occurs in free water when the pressure approaches – 1 atm. Cavitation is the process of vapor
nucleation in a liquid when the absolute pressure falls below the vapor pressure. Even though
the boiling refers to the same phase transformation, in the process the vapor nucleation in a
liquid occurs when the temperature is raised above the saturated vapor/liquid temperature.
The water-phase in both soil and measurement system becomes discontinuous due to
cavitation and, thus, making the measurements undependable. However, in nature, the matric
suction exists in several hundred folds of magnitude to the atmospheric pressure and this
influences the behavior of soils. This is the major limitation of the tensiometers that directly
measure negative pore water pressure. Thus, alternative measurement techniques have been
developed.
Several commonly used techniques are described, in this section, for measuring the
matric suction of soils that are given below - Tensiometers - Axis Translation Technique -
Osmotic technique - Electrical/Thermal Conductivity Sensors - Filter paper techniques
Tensiometers are used for the direct measurement of negative pore water pressures in the
soils by establishing a continuous connection between soil pore water and the measuring
system. Similarly, axis-translation techniques rely on controlling the difference between the
pore air pressure and pore-water pressure and measuring the corresponding water content of
soil in equilibrium with the applied matric suction. On the other hand, electrical or thermal
conductivity sensors are the indirect methods of measuring techniques that correlate matric
suction to the electrical or thermal conductivity of a porous medium embedded in a mass of
unsaturated soil. In contrary, filter-paper technique relies on measuring the equilibrium water
content of small filter papers in direct contact with unsaturated soil specimens. The suction
measurements use these techniques are combined with the previously described measurement
techniques for soil moisture content for establishing soil-water characteristic curve. In many
field applications and research applications in geotechnical engineering, measurement of
total suction (i.e., sum of matric suction and osmotic suction) is important. Thus, the
following techniques for measuring total suction are also described in this section. -
Humidity control techniques (thermocouple psychrometers, chilled-mirror hygrometers, and
polymer resistance/capacitance sensors) - Non-contact filter paper method. Humidity
measurement devices include. Humidity control techniques described here are using the salt
solutions. The noncontact filter paper method is an indirect humidity measurement technique
that relies on determining the equilibrium water content of small filter papers sealed to
establish the vapor phase connection of unsaturated specimens.

Soil Irrigability classification deals with evaluation of soils for their suitability to
irrigation on the basis of quantitative limits of soil characteristics pertinent to irrigation. ...
Therefore, there is none to slight soil limitations for sustainable use under irrigation.