434 Charter 8 Faicrion Rigid surtace of contact, « ye Soft surface of contact ) Fig. 8-25 *8.8 Rolling Resistance ‘When a rigid cylinder rolls at constant velocity along a rigid surface. the normal force exerted by the surface on the cylinder aets perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact, as shown in Fig. 8-25a, Actually, however, no materialsare perfectly rigid, and therefore the reaction of the surface on the eylinder consists of a distribution of normal pressure. For ‘example, consider the cylinder to be made of avery hard material, and the surface on which it roll to be relatively soft. Due to its weight, the cylinder compresses the surface undemeath it, Fig.8-25h.As the cylinder rolls, the surface material in front ofthe cylinder retards the motion since its being deformed, whereas the material in the rear is restored from the deformed state and therefore tends to push the cylinder forward. The normal pressures acting on the cylinder inthis manner are represented in Fig.8-25b by their resultant forces N, and N,. Because the magnitude of the force of deformation, Na. and its horizontal component is always greater than that ‘of restoration, N,, and consequently a horizontal driving force P must be applied to the cylinder to maintain the motion, Fig. -25b.* Rolling resistance is caused primarily by this effect. although itis also, to a lesser degree, the result of surface adhesion and relative micro- sliding between the surfaces of contact. Because the actual force P needed to overcome these effects is difficult to determine, a simplified method will be developed here to explain one way engineers have analyzed this phenomenon. To do this, we will consider the resultant of the entire normal pressure, N= N, +N, acting on the cylinder, Fig.8-25c. As shown in Fig. 8-25d, this force acts at an angle @ with the vertical. To keep the cylinder in equilibrium, ic. rolling at a constant rate, itis necessary that N be concurrent with the driving force P and the ‘weight W. Summing moments about point A gives Wa = P(r cos@). Since the deformations are generally very small in relation 10 the ‘ylinder’s radius. cos @ ~ 1; hence, Wa > Pr Wa pat 4) ‘The distance a is termed the coefficient of rolling resistance, which has the dimension of length. For instance, a = 05mm for a wheel rolling on a rail, both of which are made of mild steel. For hardened “Actually, the deformation force Ny causes nergy to be stored in the material a its magnitude i increased, whereas the restoration fee Ny. a8 ie magnitude 1 dcereated, allows some ofthis energy 10 be released The remaining energy is fost ince it used 10 ‘beat up the surface, and ifthe eylnder’s weight i very large it accounts for permancat ‘Seformation ofthe srface. Work must be dane by the horzontal force Pt make up foe this hss,steel ball bearings on steel, a ~ 0.1 mm. Experimentally, though, this factor is difficult to measure, since it depends on such parameters as the rate of rotation of the cylinder, the elastic properties of the contacting surfaces, and the surface finish. For this reason, litle reliance is placed on the data for determining a. The analysis presented here does, however, indicate why a heavy load (W) offers greater resistance to motion (P) than a light load under the same conditions, Furthermore, since Wa/r is generally very small compared to u,W. the foree needed to roll a eylinder over the surface will be much less than that needed to slide it across the surface. It is for this reason that a roller or ball bearings are often used to minimize the frictional resistance between moving parts. A l0skg stee! wheel shown in Fig. 8-26a has a radius of 100 mm and rests on an inclined plane made of soft wood. If # is increased so that ‘the whee! begins to roll down the incline with constant velocity when 4 = 1.2%, determine the coefficient of rolling resistance. o SOLUTION As shown on the free-body diagram, Fig. 8-266, when the wheel has, impending motion, the normal reaction N aets at point A defined by the dimension a. Resolving the weight into components parallel and perpendicular to the incline, and summing moments about point A, yields CHEM, = 0; = (98.1 c08 1.2° N)(a) + (98.1 sin 1.2° N)(100 cos 1.2° mm) = 0 Solving, we obtain a= 209mm Ans. 88 Rowne Ressrance 435 Rolling resistance of railroad whes om t rails is small since steel is very sti. By Comparison, the rolling resistance of the ‘wheels of tractor n'a wet fields very arg.436 Charter 8 Faicrion proses $-114. The collar bearing uniformly supports an axial force of P = 800 Ib. If the coefficient of static friction is i, = 03, determine the torque M required to overcome friction 8-118. ‘The collar bearing uniformly supports an axial force of P = S00 Ib. Ifa torque of M = 3 Ibis applied to the shaft and causes it to rotate at constant velocity, determine the coefficient of kinetic friction atthe surface of contact, I in ffir | M Probs. S-114/118 *B-116. Ifthe spring exerts a force of 900 Ih.on the block, determine the torque M required to rotate the shaft. The coefficient of static friction at all contacting surfaces is m= 03, #8117. ‘The disk clutch is used in standard transmissions fof automobiles. If four springs are used to force the two plates A and B together, determine the force in each spring required to transmit a moment of M = 600 Ib+ft across the plates. The coefficient of static friction between A and B is = 03. Prob. 8-117, B-118. If P = 900N is applied to the handle of the bell crank, determine the maximum torque M the cone clutch can transmit. The coefficient of static friction at the contacting surface is, = 03. 1s Prob. 8-116, Prob. 8-118,$119, Because of wearing at the edges, the pivot bearing is subjected to a conical pressure distribution at its surface ‘of contact. Determine the torque M required to overcome fietion and turn the shalt, which supports an axial force P. ‘The coefficient of static friction i pu. For the solution, it is necessary to determine the peak pressure py in terms of P and the bearing radius R, 88 Rowne Ressrance 437 “8-121. The shaft is subjected to an axial force P. If the reactive pressure on the conical bearing is uniform, determine the torque M that is just sufficient to rotate the shaft. The coefficient of static friction at the contacting surface i * Prob. 8-119) "8-120. ‘The pivot bearing is subjected to a parabolic pressure distribution at its surface of contact. If the coefficient of static friction is w,, determine the torque M required to overcome friction and tum the shaft if it supports an axial force P. Prob. 8-121 $122. “The tractor is used to push the 1501 pipe. To do this it must overcome the fictional frees atthe ground, caused by sand, Assuming that the sand exers a pressure on the bottom of the pipe as shown, and the coefficient of static frietion between the pipe and the sand is 4, = 0. determine the horizontal force required to push the pipe forward, Also. determine the peak pressure py. Prob. 8-122,438 Charter 8 Faicrion 8-123. The conical bearing is subjected to a constant pressure distribution at its surface of contact. If the coefficient of static friction is 4. determine the torque MT required to overcome friction ifthe shalt supports an axial force P. Prob, 8-123 8-124, Assuming that the variation of pressure at the bottom of the pivot bearing is defined as p = py(R/r). determine the torque M needed to overcome frition if the shaft is subjected to an axial force P. The coefficient of static friction is 4. For the solution, itis necessary to determine ‘Poin terms of P and the bearing dimensions and R. #8125, The shaft of radius r fits loosely on the journal bearing. If the shaft transmits a vertical force P to the bearing and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the shalt and the bearing is yj, determine the torque M required to turn the shaft with constant velocity, Prob. 8-125, 8-126. The pulley is supported by a 25-mm-diameter pin, I the pulley fits loosely on the pin, determine the smallest force P required to raise the bucket, The bucket has a mass of 20 kg and the coefficient of static friction between the pulley and the pin is 4, = 03. Neglect the mass of the palley and assume thatthe cable does not slp on the pulley: 8.127. The pulley is supported by a 25-mm-diameter pin. Ifthe pulley fits loosely on the pin, determine the largest force P that can be applied to the rope and yet lower the bucket. The bucket has a mass of 20 ke and the coefficient of static friction between the pulley and the pin is u, = 03. Neglect the mass of the pulley and assume that the cable ‘does not slip on the pulley. 751mm, robs. 81261127*8-128. The cylinders are suspended from the end of the ‘bar which fits loosely into a 40-mm-diameter pia. IA has a ‘mass of 10 kp, determine the required mass of B which is jus sufficient to keep the bar from rotating clockwise. The ‘coefficient of static friction between the bar and the pin is b= 0.3 Neglect the mass of the bat ‘*8-129, The cylinders are suspended from the end of the bar which fits loosely into a 40-mni-diameter pin. If A has a ‘mass of 10 kg. determine the required mass of B which is just sufficient to keep the bar from rotating counterclockwise, ‘The coefficient of static fiction between the bar and the pin isu, ~ 03.Negleet the mass ofthe bar, se mim 00 min + Probs. #128129 8-130, The connecting rod is attached to the piston by 2 0.7S-in-diameter pin at B and to the crank shaft by a 2inediameter bearing A. I the piston is moving downwards, and the coelficient of static friction at the contact points is j1, = 02. determine the radius of the friction cirele at each connection 8-131. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a 20-mm-diameter pin at B and to the crank shaft by a S0-mm-diameter bearing A. If the piston is moving "upwards, and the coefficient of static friction atthe contact points is, ~ 0.3. determine the radius ofthe frietion circle at each connection Probs. 81307131 88 Rownc Ressrance 439 *8-152. The S-kg pulley has a diameter of 240 mm and the axle has a diameter of 40 mm. Ifthe coefficient of kinetic friction between the axle and the pulley is yy = 0.15, determine the vertical force P on the rope required to lift the 80-Kg block at constant velocity. “84133. Solve Prob. 8-132 if the force P is applied horizontally to the right robs. 8182/13 SAM. ‘The bell crank fits loosely into a O.S-in-diameter pin. Determine the required force P which is just sufficient {o rotate the bell crank clockwise. The coefficient of static friction between the pin and the bell crank is jy ~ 0.3. 8-138. The bell crank fits loosely into a O.S-in-diameter pin. If P = I Tb, the bell crank is then on the verge of Totating counterclockwise. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the pin and the bell rank. toin + robs. 81341354ao Charter 8 Friction "8136, The wagon together with the load weighs 150 Ib. If the coefficient of rolling resistance is a = 003 in, determine the force P required to pull the wagon with constant velocity. Prob. $136 #84137. The lawn roller has amass of 80 kg If the arm BA Js held at an angle of 30° from the horizontal and the coefficient of rolling resistance for the roller is 25 mm, determine the force P neoded to push the roller at constant speed. Neglect riction developed at the axle, .and assume that the resultant force P acting on the handie is applied along arm BA, e Prob. $137 813% Determine the force P required to overcome rolling resistance and pull the S0-kg roller up the inclined plane with constant velocity. The coefficient of rolling resistance isa = 15 mm. 8413. Determine the force P required to overcome rolling resistance and support the S0-kg roller if it ells down the inclined plane with constant velocity. The coetficient of rolling resistance is a = 1S mum Prods. $-13W/139) "8-140, ‘The cylinder is subjected to a load that has a Weight WV. If the coefficients of rolling resistance for the cylinder's top and botiom surfaces are a and ap. respectively, show that a horizontal fore having a magnitude of P = [W(a4 % a)/2r istequired to move the load and thereby roll the cylinder forward, Neglect the ‘weight of the eylinder Ww - Prob. 8-140, “8-141, ‘The 1.2-Mg steel beam is moved over a level surface using a series of 30-mm-diameter rollers for which the coefficient of rolling resistance is 4 mm atthe ground and 0.2 mm at the bottom surface of the beam, Determine the horizontal force P needed to push the beam forward at ‘constant speed. Him: Use the result of Prob. 8-140. Prob. 8-141 8-142, Determine the smallest horizontal force P that "ust be exerted on the 2004h block to move it forward. The rollers each weigh 50 Ib, and the coefficient of rolling resistance at the top and bottom surfaces is a = 0.2 in, Prob. $142,Chsoree Review 4at |_| CHAPTER REVIEW Dry Friction Frictional forces exist between two rough surfaces of contact. These forces | et on body so o oppose its motion for tendency of motion. | A static ftietional force approaches a maximum yalue of F, =X, where is the coefficient of sai friction. In this ‘ease. motion between the contacting surfaces is impending. {i slipping occurs then the ction free remains essentially constant and equal to Fy = wyN. Hete ny isthe coeficient | opine friction. ‘The solution of a_ problem involving trition requires fist drawing the tee: ‘body diagram of the body. If the unknowns eannot he determined sity | from the equations of equilibrium, and r B the possibilty of slipping occurs then | the tnction equation should be applied at the appropriate points of contact in ‘order to complete the solution. It_may also be possible for slender hr objects, like crates, to tip over, and this N situation should also be investigated. npg tie “Tipping =h4a2 Charter 8 Faicrion Wedges Wedges are inclined planes used to increase the application of a force. The two force equilibrium equations are used to relate the forces acting on the wedge. An applied for ‘wedge to move P must push on the to the right If the coefficients of friction between the surfaces are large enough, then P ‘can be removed, and the wedge will be selt-locking and remain in place. Screws Square-threaded screws are used to M= Wrian(o + 4.) Upward Impending Serew Motion ‘move heavy loads. They represent an inclined plane, wrapped around a ‘ylinder. M’ = Wrtan(o ~ @) “The momen needed to tum a screw | Downward Impending Screw depends upon the coetficent of friction Motion and the crew's lead angle 0 ao 1 the cooticiont of fietion between the . surfaces large enough, then the screw Me = Wrtan(d ~ a) will support the load without tending to | Downward Setew Motion turn, iit willbe self-locking. ‘e260 ‘Motion or impending ‘motion of bit relative tosurl Flat Belts “The force needed to move a flat belt over a rough curved surface depends only om the angle of belt contact, and the coefficient of friction.Collar Bearings and Disks ‘The frictional analysis of a collar bearing or disk requires looking at a differential element ofthe contact area. ‘The normal foree acting on this clement is determined trom force equilibrium ‘along the shaft, and the moment needed to turn the shaft at a constant rate is | determined from moment equilibrium about the shaft's axis the pressure on the surface ofa collar bearing is uniform, then integration ives the result shown, (Cusoren Review 443 Journal Bearings ‘When a moment is applied to a shaft in | @ nonlubricated or partially lubricated journal bearing, the shaft will tend to roll up the side of tae bearing until slipping occurs. This defines the radius ‘of a friction circle, and from it the ‘moment needed to turn the shaft can be | determined M = Rrsin dy Rolling Resistance: |The resistance ofa wheel to rolling ver a strface is. caused by Wcalized | deformation of the two materials in contact. This uses the resultant normal force acting on the rolling bod to be {nclned 0 that it provides component that acts in the opposite direction ofthe | applied force Peausing the motion. This cle is characterized using the coefficient of rolting resistance, a, which is determined from experiment.aaa Charter 8 Faicrion BR S148. A single force P is applied to the handle of the drawer. If fiction is neglected at the bottom and the coctiient of static friction along the sides is = 0, determine the largest spacings between the symmetrically placed handles so that the drawer does not bind at the comers A and when the foree P is applied to one of the handles. 125m 8-145, The truck has a mass of 1.25 Mg and a center of ‘mass at G. Determine the greatest load it ean pull f(a) the truck has rear-wheel drive while the front wheels are free 10 roll, and (b) the truck has four wheel drive. The coefficient of ‘atic friction between the wheels and the grounds a, = 0S, and between the crate and the ground, itis; = 04. B-MM6, Solve Prob. 8-145 if the truck and traveling up a 10" in te are *8-144 ‘The semicircular thin hoop of weight W and center of gravity at G is suspended by the small pee horizontal force P is slowly applied at B.1f the hoop begins toslip at A when ? = 30°, determine the cootficient of static fiction between the hoop and the peg. Prob. 8-144 Probs. 8-145/146 B-147. If block A has a mass of 15 kg, determine the largest mass of block B without causing motion of the system. The coefficient of static friction between the blocks ‘and inclined planes is 4, = 0.2. Prob. 8-187,“8-148, The cone hasa weight W and center of gravity at G. Ifa horizontal force P is gradually applied to the string attached to its vertex, determine the maximum coefficient of static frition for slipping to occur. bdot-de— Prob, 8-148, +8149, ‘The tractor pulls on the fixed tree stump. Determine the torque that must be applied by the engine to the rear wheels to cause them to slip. The front wheels are free to roll, The tractor weighs 3500 Ib and has a center of gravity at G. The coefficient of static frietion between the rear wheels and the ground is 2, = 05. 8-150. ‘The tractor pulls on the fixed tree stump. If the coeficient of static friction between the rear wheels and ‘the ground is, = 06, determine ifthe rear wheels slip oF the front wheels liftoff the ground as the engine provides torque to the rear wheels. What is the torque needed 10 cause this motion? The front wheels are free to roll. The ‘tractor weighs 2500 Ib and hasa center of gravity at G. Renew Prosiens 445 S151. A roofer, having a mass of 70 kg, walks slowly in an "upright position down along the surface of a dome that has a radius of curvature of r = 20m. I the coefficient of static friction between his shoes and the dome is j= 07, {determine the angle @ at which he first begins 0 slip. Prob, $151 *8-182 Column D is subjected to a vertical load of 8000 I. ssupported on x0 identical wedges A and B for ‘which the coefficient of state fietion at the contacting, surfaces between A and B and between Band Cis js, = Ok Determine the force P nceded to raise the column and the equilibrium force P* needed to hold wedge A stationary. The contacting surface between A and D is smooth ‘$153. Column Dis subjected toa vertical load of $000 Ib. Its supported on two identical wedges A and B for which the coefficient of static friction at the contacting surfaces between A and # and between B and Cis p, = 04. I the forces P and P’ are removed, are the wedges self-locking? ‘The contacting surface between A and D is smooth 000 6Center of Gravity and Centroid CHAPTER OBJECTIVES * To discuss the concept of the center of gravity, center of mass, and the centroid. * To show how to determine the location of the center of gravity and ccontroid for a system of discrete particles and a body of arbitrary shape. * Touse the theorems of Pappus and Guldinus for finding the surface area and volume for a body having axial symmetry. * To present a method for finding the resultant of a general distributed loading and show how it applies to finding the resultant force of a pressure loading caused by a fluid. 9.1 Center of Gravity, Center of Mass, and the Centroid of a Body In this section we will first show how to locate the center of gravity for a bbody.and then we will show that the center of mass and the centroid of a bbody can be developed using this same method. Center of Gravity. A body is composed of an infinite number of particles of differential size, and so if the body is located within a gravitational field, then each of these particles will have a weight dW, Fig. 9-1a. These weights will form an approximately parallel force system, and the resultant of this system is the total weight of the body, which passes through a single point called the center of gravity, G, Fig. 0-16. ‘This is true as tong as the gravity fed is assumed to have the same magnitude and rection everywhere. Tht assumption is appropriate for most engineering applications, ‘ice graity dacs not vary appreciably between, for instance, the bottom andthe top of a building4ag Charter 9 Center oF Gravity ano CentRoio es « y Pec ” Fig. 4 Using the methods outlined in Sec. 48, the weig of the weights ofall of its particles, that is tof the body is the sum +P, = w paw ‘The location of the center of gravity, measured from the y axis, is determined by equating the moment of W about the y axis Fig. 9-1b,10 the sum of the moments of the weights of the particles about this same axis If dW is located at point (¥. ¥. 2). Fig. 1a, then (May = 2My3 aw = faw Similarly, if moments are summed about the « axis, (Ma) = 2M pw = fra Finally, imagine that the body is fixed within the coordinate system and this system is rotated 90° about the y axis, Fig. 9-Ic. Then the sum of the moments about the y axis gives (My = EM; = saw ‘Therefore, the location of the center of gravity G with respect to the x,y, z axes becomes oy are the coordinates of the center of gravity G,Fig. 9-1b. are the coordinates of each particle in the body, Fig. 91a,9.1 Centen oF Gravity, Center oF Mass, ano nie Centa00 OF 4 Booy Center of Mass of a Body. In order to study the dynamic response or aceelerated motion of 2 body. it becomes important to locate the body's center of mass C,,. Fig. 9-2. This location can be determined by substituting dW = g dmr into Egs. 9-1. Since g is constant. it cancels _ [am (iti [eam (ee Centroid of a Volume. If the body in Fig, 9-3 is made from a homogeneous material, then its density p (rho) will be constant. ‘Therefore, a differential element of volume dV has a mass dm = pdV. Substituting this into Eqs. 9-2 and canceling out p, we obtain formulas that locate the centroid C or geometric center of the body: namely (2) av a fw yw ao [w few fo Ef 0-3) ‘These equations represent a balance of the moments of the volume of the body, Therefore, if the volume possesses two planes of symmetry, then its centroid must lie along the line of intersection of these two planes For example, the cone in Fig. 9-4 has a centroid that lies on the y axis 30 that 0. The location ¥ can be found using a single integration by choosing @ differential element represented by a tin disk hhaving a thickness dy and radius r=z Its volume is dV = ar'dy = m2'dy and its centroid is at ¥ yz =0 Fig. 9-2 449450 Charter 9 Center oF Gravity ano CentRoio © Integration must be used to determine the location ofthe center of gravity of this goal post due tothe curvature of the supporting ember, ©) © Centroid of an Area. Ian area lies in the 1-y plane and is bounded by the curve y = f(x), 8 shown in Fig. 95a then its centroid wil be in this plane and ean be determined fiom integrals similar to Eqs. 9-3 namely, aaa fra (omar ies ‘These integrals ean be evaluated by performing a single imegration if we use a rectangular strip for the differential area element. For example, if ‘vertical strip is used, Fig. 9-Sb, the area of the element is d = y dx,and its centroid is located at ¥ = x and ¥ = y/2. If we consider a horizontal strip, Fig.9-Se, then dA = x dy,and its centroid is located at ¥ = x/2 and Centroid of a Line. Ifa line segment (or rod) lies within the «~ plane and it can be described by a thin curve y = f(x), Fig.9-6a, then its centroid is determined from (4) (5)9.1 Centen oF Gravity, Center oF Mass, ano nie Centa00 OF 4 Booy 451 ‘Here, the length of the differential element is given by the Pythagorean theorem, dd. = V (dx) + (dy)? .which cam also be written in the form aL V “WH dy. a= (i) (Ga Ey) a Either one of these expressions can be used: however, for application, the one that will result in a simpler integration should be selected. For ‘example, consider the rod in Fig. 9-66, defined by y = 212. The length of the element is dL = V1 + (dy/dx)? dx, and since dy/dx = 4x, then dL = Vi + Gx)? dx. The centroid for this element is located at ¥ = x (ig kee a ak * The centroid represents the geometric center of a body. ‘This point coincides with the center of mass or the center of gravity only if the material composing the body is uniform or y homogeneous. Formulas used to locate the center of gravity or the centri simply represent a balance between the sum of moments of all the parts of the system and the moment of the “resultant” for the je system. In some cases the centroid is located at a point that is not on the “object,as in the case of a ring, where the centroid is at its center. Also, this point will ic on any axis of symmetry for the body, Fig. 9-7 Fig. 9-7.