1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Vegetable oils constitute an important part of the diet of humans. There is increasing

awareness of the importance of vegetable oils as a source of health-enhancing compounds.

Thus, the world demand for vegetable oil is set to rise even more rapidly from year to year,

and this trend will impact on the price levels of oils. It is, therefore, important that countries

and communities which have non-conventional seed oils carry out research that can lead to

commercial production of their seed oils to at least satisfy local demand (Olagunju, 2006).

Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentum) is a perennial grass-like plant with spheroid tubers, pale

yellow cream kernel surrounded by a fibrous sheath. It is also known as yellow nutsedge,

earth or ground almonds, “Souchet” in French, “ermandeln” in German and “chufa” in

Spanish (TTSL, 2005). Grossman and Thomas (1998) reported that chufa came to Spain

from Africa. Tiger nut is found wild and cultivated in Africa, South America, Europe, and

Asia. Tiger nuts grow in the wild, along rivers and are cultivated on a small scale by rural

farmers mostly in the northern states of Nigeria. It is locally called “aya” in Hausa; “aki

awusa” in Igbo; “ofio” in Yoruba and “isipaccara” in Effik (Ndubuisi, 2009).

Tiger nuts are edible, sweet, nutty, flavoured tubers which contain protein, carbohydrate,

sugars, and lots of oil and fiber (FAO, 1988). Unfortunately, despite these potentials in tiger

nuts, it has been a neglected crop in Nigeria. This probably may be due to inadequate

knowledge of its production, utilization and nutritional value. Tiger nut could provide a

basis for rural industries in Africa. It is an important food crop for certain tribes in Africa,

often collected and eaten raw, baked as a vegetable, roasted or dried and ground to flour. It
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is mostly consumed raw as a snack without knowledge of the food and nutritional quality

(FAO, 1988). It has also been found to possess good therapeutic quality (Moore, 2004).

Various food processing techniques can be applied to tiger nut processing to modify its

appearance, develop its natural flavour, stimulate the digestive juices, add cultivar to the

menu, make it easily digestible and bio-available, destroy harmful microorganisms, improve

its nutritional quality and prevent decomposition (Ndubuisi, 2009). There are mainly three

varieties namely: black, brown and yellow, and only yellow and brown are readily available

in the Nigerian markets. The yellow cultivar is preferred to all other varieties because of its

inherent properties like its bigger size, attractive colour, and fleshier body. The yellow

cultivar also yields more milk, contains lower fat and less anti-nutritional factors especially

polyphenols (Okafor et al., 2003).

Tiger nut helps to prevent heart problems, thrombosis and activate blood circulation; it is

also responsible for preventing and treating urinary tract and bacterial infection and assist in

reducing the risk of colon cancer when eaten (Adejuyitan et al., 2009). The edible and stable

oil obtained from the tuber is said to be superior oil that compares favorably with olive oil.

The oil is golden brown in colour and has a rich, nutty taste (Bamishaiye and Bamshaiye,

2011). The oil remains in a uniform liquid form at refrigeration temperature. This makes the

oil suitable for salad making. It has a high oleic acid and low polyunsaturated fatty acid

(linoleic acid and linolenic acid), enough to cover daily minimum needs for an adult (around

10 g) and low acidity (Ezebor et al., 2005). It also has higher oxidative stability than other

oils, due to the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids and gamma-tocopherol (Arafat et al.,

2009). It is regarded as high-quality oil and is highly recommended for cooking over other
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oils because it is more resistant to chemical decomposition at high temperatures (Arafat et

al., 2009).

Furthermore, less fat is absorbed into the food as it creates a crust on the surface during

cooking, preventing the oil itself being absorbed into the product. In the textile industry, oil

is used to waterproof textile fibers. The oil compares well with corn, soybean, olive, and

cottonseed oil and can thus serve as a substitute for these oils especially in times of scarcity.

The oil is a potential source of biodiesel and much research has been conducted in that area

(Bamishaiye and Bamshaiye, 2011).

1.2 Broad Objective

The broad objective of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical properties of tiger nut

flour and oil from different cultivars as well as study the shelf stability of plantain chips

fried in the oil.

1.2.1 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this work were to:

i. Extract tiger nut oil from different cultivars using n-hexane

ii. determine the functional properties of tiger nut flour from different cultivars.

iii. determine the Physico ̵ Chemical properties of the tiger nut flour and oil extracted

from different cultivars.

iv. determine the fatty acid composition of the tiger nut oil from different cultivars.

v. determine the shelf stability and sensory properties of plantain chips fried in tiger nut

oil from different cultivars.

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1.3 Justification

Tiger nut has been, for many years, one of the underutilized food crops in Nigeria. It is

mostly eaten raw as a snack and not considered as a very important food crop that has great

potential in managing, preventing and eliminating malnutrition (macronutrient and

micronutrient deficiencies), food insecurity problems. There is increasing awareness of the

importance of vegetable oil as sources of health-enhancing compounds, nutraceuticals, food

insecurity problems, feedstock for industrial polymers and for many other industrial

products. Thus, the world demand for vegetable oils is set to rise even more rapidly from

year to year, and this trend will impact on the price levels of oils. It is, therefore, important

that countries that have non-conventional seed oils carry out research that can lead to

commercial production of their seed oils to at least satisfy local demand. The use of tiger nut

oil in processing plantain chips which is a popular snack and the stability of the oil will

provide additional information for the utilization of the oil in processing other foods.
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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 History of Tiger Nuts

Tiger nuts are not actually nuts but tubers found on the root of a sedge plant. Tiger nuts are

edible tubers with a sweet nutty flavour. It was first discovered 4000 years ago and comes in

several varieties. The tubers were originally cultivated by ancient Egypt's populations at the

Nile valley. Their cultivation was subsequently extended throughout other areas with a

temperate climate and fertile soil. Reports have shown that tiger nuts came to Spain from

Africa (Deatra, 1999). Other common names for these tubers are "earth almond" and

"yellow nutsedge". They are quite hard and are generally soaked in water before

consumption. In Egypt and the Mediterranean, nut sedges were used as sources of food,

medicine, and perfumes. Tiger nut tubers were routinely roasted and consumed by nursing

mothers. The dried ground tubers were used in coffee and chocolate drinks.

Oil extracted from the tubers was an ingredient in soap making as well as a lubricant for fine

machinery. The leafy plant parts of the nutsedge were fed to livestock. Egyptians made very

efficient use of the nutsedge. They used them in cultivation as early as 2400 BC. One such

example of tiger nuts is depicted in a wall painting of an Egyptian tomb in the 15th century

BC (Deatra, 1999). In the painting, workers were shown to be weighing the nuts while a

scribe records their work. In another part of the same tomb, instructions were written for

eating the tubers as sweets after grinding and adding honey. Tiger nut tubers have been

found in the tombs and are considered to be locally domesticated in Egypt. This gives the

impression that the tubers were greatly valued by the Egyptians as a food source (Deatra,

1999).
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2.2 Botany of Tiger Nuts

Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus) is a species of sedge, native to warm temperate to subtropical

regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Tiger nut is a highly adaptable crop and grows well

under a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. It is found throughout the tropics,

subtropics and warm temperature regions. It is cultivated in Western Africa but is a serious

weed of cotton, cereals, potatoes, and sisal in Eastern Africa. It is also grown in South

America, Europe, and Asia. The tubers grow 50 to 250 tubers per plant and weigh 2 to 26g

per tuber (FAO, 1988).

Tiger nut is an annual or perennial plant, growing to 90 cm tall, with solitary stems growing

from a tuber. The stems are triangular in section and bear slender leaves 3-10 mm wide. The

flowers of the plant are distinctive, with a cluster of flat oval seeds surrounded by four

hanging leaves positioned 90 degrees from each other. The plant foliage is very tough and

fibrous and is often mistaken for grass (Deatra, 1999). Tiger nut plant produces edible

yellow to yellowish-brown spike-lets flowers, mostly only 1 cm to 1.5 cm long. The root

system is by yellowish rhizome, ending in single tubers of 5-20 mm in length, with a thin

brown outer skin that darkens with maturity. In its non-flowering state, it resembles Cyperus

rotundus which is dark brown, slightly fragrant, unpleasant-tasting tubers produced in a

chain and blunt-tipped leaves with no shoulders. Tiger nut is classified in the division:

Magnoliophyta; class: Liliopsida; order: Cyperales; family: Cyperaceae. Cyperus esculentus

is in the order Commelinales and the family Cyperaceae. Cyperus esculentus can be

distinguished from other species of New World nutsedge by its persistent linear brown

spikelets that have closely overlapping scales. The stem of yellow nutsedge is triangular and

has a light green-yellow color. Rhizomes that terminate in tubers are the main means of
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reproduction, although it does produce viable seed (Deatra, 1999). In West Africa, the plant

often grows in great concentration and is gathered from the wild. It is interesting to note that

esculentus, means edible in Latin (Negbi, 1992).

Tiger nut tubers are of different varieties; the notable ones are black, yellow and brown with

various sizes (Barminas et al., 2001). The most common varieties are long and round. The

varieties are:

i. Cyperus esculentus var. esculentus.

ii. Cyperus esculentus var. hermannii.

iii. Cyperus esculentus var. leptostachyus.

iv. Cyperus esculentus var. macrostachyus.

v. Cyperus esculentus var. sativus

vi. Cyperus esculentus var. rotundus

Most literature uses the name Cyperus esculentus for both the weedy and the useful sedge.

The weedy cultivar esculentus produces many seeds although the cultivated cultivar sativus

produces few seeds (Lapham and Drennan, 1990). Cyperus esculentus var. esculentus and

Cyperus esculentus Var. sativus are closely related (Negbi, 1992 and ONRG, 2005). Cultivar

sativus has a grey-orange color and cultivar esculentus has a grayed brown color according

to the Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart as reported by De Vries and Femke (1991).

The cultivated cultivar does not have the capability of the perennial yellow nutsedge grown

as annual plants. They also lack the abundant seed production typical of the perennial

nutsedge. Cultivated tubers are also known to be larger than perennial yellow nut sedges.

These characteristics seem to indicate a possible pattern of human selection that may have

separated the edible tiger nut from the weedy nutsedge. The taste of the weedy tiger nuts
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compared to the cultivated has been found to be very similar. Also, the weedy nutsedge is

more fibrous to chew and less desirable (De Vries and Femke, 1991). The perennial yellow

nutsedge is sometimes a troublesome invasive weed in planted fields (FAO, 1988). It is

often regarded as a useless pest to home gardeners as well as commercial growers. Along

with being a useless weed, it is difficult to control. However, several commercial herbicides

have been labeled for use exclusively on yellow nutsedge and are available at local retailers

(Ezeh, 2016).

2.3 Ecology of Tiger Nuts

Tiger nut is common in seasonally wet grassland, irrigated crops, damp grassland, and along

banks, but at the same time is considered fairly drought resistant. It does not tolerate shade.

Best yield is obtained with moderately high temperatures throughout the growing season and

well-distributed rainfall. The high temperature of 27 - 30 ºC, with low nitrogen levels favors

tuber formation. Light sandy loamy soils of pH 5.5 - 6.5 are preferred, but can grow in any

soil provided it is well-drained. Alluvial soils containing relatively high quantities of

Manganese (Mn), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and boron (Bo) are

particularly suitable. It is tolerant of salty soils. Short photoperiods of 8-12 hours favor tuber

formation and long photoperiods of more than 16 h favour vegetative growth (FAO, 1988).

Tiger nut cultivation requires sandy soil and a mild climate. Tubers are soaked in water for

24 – 36 hours before being planted out, either by hand or using a drill. In the United States

of America, tubers that had been chilled were found to germinate better and to produce more

sprouts per tuber. Tubers may be planted at 10-15 cm intervals along rows 60-90 cm apart,

about 2.5- 4 cm deep. At close spacing, 1 tuber per hole is used, with 2 per hole at wider

spacing seed rates (FAO, 1988). Tiger nuts are planted during March, April, and May and
 9

must be irrigated every week until they are harvested in November and December. Harvest

time may take 90-120 days only and at the end of the dry season. Immediately after harvest,

tiger nuts are washed with water in order to remove any sand and small stones. Once the

Tiger nuts have been cleaned, they are dried out in order to preserve them. This is a natural

process that requires 1-3 months. Temperature and humidity levels are carefully monitored

during this period. The Tiger nuts are

turned over every day to ensure uniform drying. Small and damaged tiger nuts are removed

before packaging and utilization (TTSL, 2005).

2.4 Tiger Nut Oil Composition

Tiger nut oil has a similar fatty acid composition to olive oil. This means that it

predominantly consists of oleic acid with values ranging from 65.5 % to 76.1 % of the oil

content (Muhammad et al., 2011 and Yeboah et al., 2012) compared to values for olive oil

from 56 % to 85 % (Visioli and Galli, 1998; Fomuso and Akoh, 2002). Other major fatty

acids in tiger nut oil are palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and stearic acid. The colour, cultivar and

geographical location in which the tubers are grown, and the harvest season have an impact

on the relative proportion of fatty acids present in its oil (Mosquera et al., 1996). The

percentage of oleic acid in tiger nut oil from Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria, the East Mediterranean

region, and Turkey has been reported to be 69.5, 65.6, 76.1, 72.7 and 68.9-73.3 %,

respectively as shown in Table 1.

The variation in fatty acid composition is distinct in that some fatty acids such as α-linolenic

are present in small amounts in tiger nut oil from certain regions but were not detected in

samples from other regions like Ghana. This may be in part due to climatic or environmental

factors as well as the cultivar cultivated, which is not usually specified. In addition, the
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methods of analysis employed may vary from author to author. For example, Kim et al.

(2007) employed Gas Chromatography (GC) for fatty acid analysis while Yeboah et al.

(2012) used Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). GC-MS has the advantage

of identifying compounds using both retention time and mass spectrum so it offers more

accuracy. The total saturated fatty acid content is low with a minimum of 15.4 % in tiger nut

oil from the East Mediterranean to a maximum of 22.3 % from Ghana.

2.4.1 Nutritional composition of tiger nuts and its products

FAO (1988) and TTSL (2005) reported that tiger nut tubers are rich in starch (20-30 % of

dry weight) and fat (20-28 % dry weight) with small quantities of protein which is about

twice that of cassava. Tiger nuts have relatively higher fat content and gross energy, and in

this regard compared better with nuts than that of cereals which also belong to the same

other Cyperales. Research has been done on the oil extracted from the seeds of yellow

nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus var. esculentus) as a non-conventional oilseed. This study was

used to determine oil substitutes for more conventionally used oil types such as soybean,

palm, and olive oils. Non-conventional oils would be less expensive and therefore more

available to poorer (developing) countries.

Tiger nut oil is 80 % unsaturated fatty acid, mainly oleic (64.2 – 68.8 %) and this shows that

tiger nut oil has a good potential as a substitute for imported olive oil (Mc Namara, 2004 and

TTSL, 2005). Fat in diets provide twice much energy as carbohydrate or protein, thus low-

fat diets are recommended to aid weight control. Different types of fat (fatty acids) have

different effects on health and the risk of diseases state such as coronary heart disease

(CHD). Saturated fatty acids (SFA) increase levels of blood cholesterol and should be

avoided whenever possible. There is evidence that the replacement of SFA with
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monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) may have a favorable effect on the risk of CHD. Vehno

et al. (2002) investigated types of fat intake in relation to CHD risk in women and reported

that for every increase of 5 % in every energy from MUFA there is a decrease in CHD

relative risk of 0.81 %. Tiger nut is a good source of phosphorus, potassium, and iron. It also

contains magnesium, calcium, zinc, copper, sodium, and manganese (TTSL, 2005).

Phosphorus found in the plant is usually bound to a compound called phytate meaning that it

is poorly absorbed from the gut into the body. Phosphorous (P), together with calcium,

constitutes the bulk of the mineral substance of the bones and teeth. It plays a part in the

formation of ATP (an energy compound indispensable for "activating" glucose, fatty acids,

etc.) and in the improvement of intellectual performance. Phosphate is important in the

body. It helps regulate acidity/ alkalinity by acting as a buffer (Moore, 2004). Potassium (K)

is important in maintaining electrolyte and chemical balance between the tissue cells and the

blood. Potassium is the most important neural element in intracellular behaviour. It plays a

part in numerous enzymatic reactions and in important physiological processes, such as

cardiac rhythm, nervous conduction, and muscular contraction. Iron (Fe) in food is often in a

complex form. Vitamin C aids in the absorption of iron. Vitamin C is a reducing agent and

changes iron into a more easily absorbed form. An acid medium also helps Fe absorption.

Consequently, iron helps prevent anemia.

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Fatty East South

Acid Egypta Ghana b Nigeriac Mediterraneand Turkeye Koreaf China g
Myristic 0.80 ND 1.7 - ND NR NR
Palmitic 14.50 16.32 10.4 14.80 12.55-14.12 15.4 14.99
Palmitoleic 1.50 ND - - ND 0.2 NR
Stearic 3.40 5.33 0.3 - 1.80-3.35 2.2 2.56
Oleic 69.50 65.55 76.1 72.7 68.92-73.29 65.5 69.32
Linoleic 8.80 12.13 11.8 11.4 9.96-15.46 16.2 13.11
α-linolenic 0.40 ND 0.6 0.5 0.14-0.69 0.5 0.00
Arachidonic 0.20 0.68 6.1 0.6 ND NR NR

a; (Arafat et al., 2009), b; (Yeboah et al., 2012), c; (Muhammad et al., 2011), d; (Ozcan et al., 2010), e; (Coşkuner et al., 2002), f; (Kim
et al., 2007), g; (Zhang et al., 1996)

Table 1: Percentage of the Fatty Acid Profile of Tiger Nut in Different Countrie
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Zinc has a wide range of functions in the body and is found in all body tissues. It is involved

in many enzyme reactions including those involved in energy generation from carbohydrate,

fat, and protein. It also has a role in cell division, the transport of carbon dioxide and oxygen

in the blood and also in immunity. Since it has a wide range of roles in the body, symptoms

of zinc deficiency are also wide-ranging and include a delay in wound healing, poor

appetite, a suppressed immune system and poor growth (Wardlaw and Kessel, 2002, Moore,

2004). Magnesium is also involved in many enzyme systems and in particular those

involving the currency of energy in the body, (ATP). Magnesium is also required for the

synthesis of proteins, the production of energy and muscle contraction (Moore, 2004).

Research studies have suggested that a low intake of magnesium may increase the risk of

coronary heart disease (Al-Delaimy et al.,2004) and type 2 diabetes.

2.5 Nutritional and Health Importance of Tiger Nut

Tiger nuts and their products are rich in carbohydrates, mono-, di-, and polysaccharides

(Moore, 2004 and TTSL, 2005). They contain relatively high levels of protein, oleic acid

(monounsaturated fatty acid which has a bigger resistance to chemical decomposition) and

fat (TTSL, 2005). Tiger nuts have excellent nutritional quality with a fat composition similar

to olive oil and rich mineral content, especially phosphorus and potassium (FAO, 1988;

Moore, 2004). Tiger nut oil has a mild, pleasant flavour and is considered as food oil similar

but superior in quality to olive oil. The polyunsaturated fatty acid content (linoleic acid and

linolenic acid) is enough to cover daily minimum needs of about 10 g (TTSL, 2005 and

Moore 2004). Its oil has a high content of Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), and thus higher

oxidative stability than other oils, due to its content of polyunsaturated fatty acids and

gamma-tocopherol.
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Tiger nuts may need to rely significantly on its health benefits, promoting rich

monounsaturated fatty acid content, high vitamin E levels and prebiotic qualities (Moore,

2004 and NUTRA, 2005). Vitamin E, an antioxidant that protects the body from free radical

attack, is vital for the maintenance of cell membranes. It may also play an important role in

delaying cells from aging thereby improving the elasticity of skin. Vitamin E is good for the

treatment of acne and other skin alterations. It is particularly important in areas of the body

exposed to oxidative stress such as the lungs and the red blood cells (Wardlaw and Kessel,

2002; Moore, 2004).

Tiger nut oil has therapeutic properties as it reduces “bad” cholesterol (LDL-cholesterol) and

increases the “good” one (HDL-cholesterol). It can also reduce levels of triglycerides in the

blood, reduce the risk of formation of blood clots, produce dilatation in veins and prevent

arteriosclerosis.

Tiger nuts may play an important role in the prevention and nutritional therapy for cardiac

pathologies, due to its high content of monounsaturated fatty acids (Oleic acid) to improve

metabolism and health (TTSL, 2005; Moore, 2004). Tiger nut oil exhibits positive effects on

digestive secretions (gastric, pancreatic and bile), due to the high content of oleic acid, the

most powerful stimulator of production of Cholecistokinine (TTSL, 2005). Tiger nuts may

prevent heart attacks, thrombosis and activate blood circulation. Tiger nuts have relative

antioxidant capacity because they contain considerable amount of water-soluble flavonoid

glycoside (a phytochemical) (Bamshaiye and Bamshaiye, 2011). Consumption of

antioxidants could protect the immune system of malnourished populations. The intake of

antioxidant containing foods may delay the progression of HIV infection to AIDS (ONRG,

2005). The high fibre content of tiger nuts combined with its delicious taste makes them
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ideal for healthy eating. The high content of fiber content of tiger nut has a good effect on

digestion (TTSL, 2005). This is because fibre stimulates digestive juices, contributes to a

longer feeling of fullness and speeds up transit in the intestinal tract and so prevents

constipation.

Tiger nut may have prebiotic qualities, a result of the short-chain carbohydrates called

oligosaccharides, which feed probiotic bacteria helping to promote intestinal health

(NUTRA, 2005). Moore (2004) reported that levels of oligosaccharides have not been

measured in tiger nut, however, they were found in the milky drink “horchata”. The

oligosaccharides, which are short-chain carbohydrates and have shown the most promise as

potential prebiotics. Recent research has also suggested that oligosaccharides may increase

the absorption of the minerals calcium and magnesium. These effects were observed with

doses in the range of 5-10 g per day (Delzenne, 2003).

2.6 Economic Importance of Tiger nut

In some parts of Africa, Europe, and Asia tiger nut is grown for its edible tubers. Tiger nuts

may be regarded as an obnoxious weed that has been used historically as food and medicine

by the Egyptians and Native Americans. Even today, the Egyptians cultivate tiger nuts in

moist soils or sandy shores for their edible tubers (ONRG, 2005). Tiger nut tubers may be

consumed raw, roasted, or ground into flour as well as being used to produce vegetable oil,

and cellulose (FAO, 1988). Tiger nut is a representative crop of the Spanish Mediterranean

region, where tubers are used to make horchata. The milky-looking aqueous extract of tiger

nuts has a pleasant and characteristic flavor of vanilla and almonds. Tiger nut milk extract or

“horchata” is gaining popularity in Nigeria. In Maradi state, Eastern Niger, tiger nut is

cultivated for export to Nigeria. Revenues from this exceed those from the typical cash crops
 16

such as cowpea and groundnut. Nowadays, tiger nut is cultivated in Northern Nigeria,

Ghana, and Togo where it is made into sweet meat or used uncooked as a side dish. These

countries, and some others including the Ivory Coast, export 2300 tons of tiger nut tubers

every year to Spain (ONRG, 2005). Tiger nut could be used in seed mixes for wetland

restoration, mitigation and erosion control.

In the United States, the primary use of tiger nut as a crop is to attract and feed game,

particularly wild turkeys. Turkeys love tiger nuts; as natural scratchers, once discovering a

plot of tiger nuts, they will return again and again, all winter long, or until spring arrives and

other food is readily available. Also, tiger nuts have been planted in fields for pigs and hogs

to fatten and improve the taste of pork (IHS, 2005). Tiger nut is potentially a commercial

source of high-oleic acid vegetable oil and high-carbohydrate tuber cakes. The iodine value

of tiger nut oil comes under a non-drying oil which is substantially unsaturated, which could

be utilized for cooking and may find application as a raw material in industries for

manufacturing soap, vegetable oil-based ice cream, salad cream and other non-food

application (Zhang et al., 1996 and Umerie et al.,1997). Barminas et al. (2001) reported that

the calculated fuel value of tiger nut oil is comparable to that of soybean oil. Tiger nut oil

has a high energy density. The physical and fuel properties of oil extracted from tiger nut

have been reported to be similar to those of other vegetable oils and may also be used as

biodiesel fuel. The waste residue after oil extraction could be further modified producing

syrups, flours, or livestock feeds (Zhang et al., 1996 and Barminas et al., 2001). In the

textile industry, tiger nut oil can be used in waterproofing textile fibers (TTSL, 2005).

Another species of sedge plant called Cyperus papyrus has been used by Egyptians to make

paper, sails, cloth, mats, ropes, or plaited into sandals. In the Peruvian Amazon, reportedly
 17

there are a native species of Cyperus used widely by tribal women as a natural contraceptive.

This property has been attributed to a certain mold that grows on the root of the Amazonian

species that has oxytocic (abortive) properties similar to Ergot, a fungus that grows on rye.

2.7 Anti nutrient Factors in Tiger Nut

The nutritional quality of food may be dictated mainly by its chemical composition and the

presence of anti-nutritional factors, such as phytic acid, tannin, and trypsin inhibitor. Phytic

acid, a principal storage chemical ubiquitously distributed in plants was reported to be about

724 mg per 100 g by Linssen (1989). However, fermentation, hydrothermal treatment, and

some other processing methods are able to eliminate or reduce this antinutrient effect

(Obizoba and Atti, 1992). Therefore the level of antinutrients in raw tiger nuts could be

reduced by processing.

There are no reported cases of tiger nut toxicity. However, Ochratoxin A (OTA) has been

found as a contaminant in tiger nut. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by

different species of Aspergillus and Penicillium. It is found as natural contaminants in many

foodstuffs including cereals, dried fruits, cocoa, wine, poultry eggs, and milk. OTA is

immunosuppressive, teratogenic, genotoxic and mutagenic. Adebajo, (1993) reported the

presence of aflatoxins in tiger nut at toxicologically unsafe levels. Bankole and Eseigbe

(1996) detected aflatoxins in 35 % of tiger nut with concentrations ranging from 10-120 g /

kg collected from different parts of Nigeria, and the incidence of Aspergillus flavus and

aflatoxin contamination was found to be correlated.

2.8 Some Physico ̵ chemical Properties of Tiger Nuts and its Products

There is little documentation on the Physico-chemical, functional and organoleptic

properties of tiger nuts. Physico-chemical and functional properties influence food quality.
 18

Most functional properties play a major role in food ingredients during preparation,

processing or storage. The functional properties of tiger nuts can predict how tiger nuts

should be used in food formulations. Tiger nuts are rich in starch. Starch has two major

components: amylose and amylopectin. These polymers are very different structurally with

amylose being linear and amylopectin highly branched - each structure playing a critical role

in the ultimate functionality of the native starch and its derivatives. Viscosity, gelatinization,

texture, solubility, tackiness, gel stability, cold swelling, and retrogradation are all functions

of their amylase/amylopectin ratio (Satin, 2005). Functionality is the key to marketing

starches in a wide range of food applications. No other ingredient provides texture to as

many foods as starch does. Viscosity is a useful criterion of desegregation (such as is

produced in the initial stages of hydrolysis of proteins, starch, and pectin). It is important in

influencing the processing, preparation and quality attributes of foods. The extent of specific

functional properties of starches required by the food industry is almost unlimited and

includes the following: specific viscosity (hot and cold) freeze-thaw stability (natural /

modified) clarity, opacity, processing conditions tolerance, gel formation, flow properties,

emulsion stabilizing capacity, mouthfeel, lubricity, palate-coating, suspension

characteristics, bland taste, long shelf-life stability, colour, anti-caking, cold-water swelling

or dispersibility swelling and resistance to swelling film-forming properties (Marsili, 1993).

The oil in tiger nuts can be classified as stable, non-drying (lauric) oil, as implicated by its

very low iodine value (<100), sharp melting point, and low un-saturation. Tiger nut oil

shares with coconut oil, a saturated oil, olive oil and groundnut oil the common feature of

remaining liquid at room temperature for the same possible reason of having a

preponderance of relatively short-chain saturated fatty acids. The heat of combustion of tiger
 19

nut oil (9500 g cal / g) qualifies its edible oil. Since the oil is low in solidification point (-2

to -4) it makes it a requisite for salad and cooking oil. The oil can be used as an

accompaniment or for cooking food. Less fat is absorbed into food during cooking as a crust

is formed on the surface, preventing the oil itself from being absorbed (TTSL, 2005). Tiger

nut oil has a very low viscosity making it a suitable substitute for industrial applications in

petroleum and natural gas (Deatra, 1999). Tiger nut oil is stable and could be used for

diverse purposes and applications including polish, shampoos, soaps, and by-products,

margarine, salad and cooking oils (Umerie et al., 1997). Tiger nuts are rich in carbohydrate

reserves and they have natural sweet vanilla.

2.8.1 Handling and keeping quality of tiger nuts

The handling of tiger nuts is a very important step in preserving freshness. Proper/ hygienic

handling is required when processing tiger nuts to avoid tissue invasion which may

contribute to microbial (bacteria, fungi, viruses) contamination. The number and type of

microorganisms present in foods reflect the quality and safety of that food. The extent of

microbial growth is influenced by the Physico-chemical properties of the food,

environmental conditions under which the food is stored and characteristics of the

microorganisms (Frazier and Westhoff, 1991; Garbutt, 1997; Mountney and Gould, 1988).

Cooling or freezing of raw tiger nuts may slow down the biological decomposition process

in tiger nuts. Rapid spoilage due to fungi infection, fat deterioration, and rapid fermentation

causes difficulties in handling and processing of tiger nuts and may lead to serious losses.

Fat deterioration (lipolysis) caused by different fat splitting enzymes (lipases) is a general

feature in foods with high-fat content. Tiger nuts will keep for a long time if well dried,

shriveled and wrinkled (FAO, 1988; TTSL, 2005). Fresh tiger nuts can be kept in water
 20

changed daily for up to 10 days. It can also be kept at 0 ºC – 5 ºC but under warm conditions

ferments rapidly. This is due to naturally present microorganisms growing on the tubers

(FAO, 1988).

Eradication of such fungal infections can be by special mechanisms such as solarization and

hot water treatment at high temperature (35-50°C) to kill pathogens. Besides, the viability of

tiger nuts is affected at 55 ºC and above and also within 30 minutes of high-temperature

treatment (Garcia et al., 2004). Tiger nuts (well dried) can be stocked before use without

losing any of their unique properties for up to 2 years after purchase. It is important,

however, that they should be stored in a properly ventilated area (if possible, next to a

window) and during hot periods, plastic that they are wrapped in should be removed (TTSL,

2005). In addition, tiger nuts may need to be fumigated every 6 weeks to protect them from

any kind of damage that may be caused by bugs or insects if they are to last for 2 years

(TTSL, 2005).

2.8.2 Utilization of tiger nuts

Tiger nut is an important food crop for certain tribes in Africa. It is often collected and eaten

by children. It has been cultivated since early times for its small tuberous rhizomes which

are eaten raw or roasted, used for hog feed or pressed for the juice to make a beverage.

Products from tiger nuts may include aqueous solutions (as a base for non-alcoholic

beverages), milky solutions (as a refreshing beverage or partial milk substitute), as well as

an ingredient in cookies and ice cream. Tiger nuts are often used as a substitute for almonds

or as a coffee and cocoa additive (FAO, 1988; NUTRA, 2005). Fresh tiger nuts have been

fermented to produce a local alcoholic drink (Barminas et al., 2001).

 21

Flour obtained from tiger nuts has a unique sweet taste that has been found the ideal for use

in the baking industry. It can be used to make delicious cakes and biscuits and also used to

complement fruit flavours as well. The ground flour can be mixed with sorghum to make

porridge (TTSL, 2005). Tiger nuts could be used in bread, breakfast cereals and puddings. It

could be used to enrich rice, cassava, custard, pap, and couscous. Tiger nuts and its extract

could be blended with wheat flour and local flours for baked products and gruels. Tiger nuts

make tasty snacks for the farm family and can be processed into fine, powdery flour usually

substituted at a rate of one-half tiger nut flour to store-purchased wheat flour in bread and

other recipes without affecting the baking characteristics adversely (IHS, 2005). The oil

obtained from tiger nuts was first used by Egypt 4000 years ago in preference to olive oil.

The oil is golden brown in colour and has a rich, nutty taste (TTSL, 2005).

2.9 Frying

Frying is a unit operation that is mainly used to alter the eating quality of food. The shelf life

of fried foods is mostly determined by the moisture content after frying⁚ foods that retain a

moist interior have a relatively short shelf life, owing to moisture and oil migration during

storage (Fellows, 2000). Foods that are more thoroughly dried by frying for example chips

have a shelf life of up to 12 months at ambient temperature. During frying, both water and

vapor are removed from the larger capillaries first and replaced by hot oil. Moisture moves

from the surface of the food through a boundary film oil, the thickness of which controls the

rate of heat and mass transfer (Fellows, 2000).

The time taken for food to completely fry depends on ⁚ the type of food, the temperature of

the oil, method of frying (shallow or deep-fat frying), the thickness of the food and the

required change in eating quality (Fellows, 2000). There are two main methods of
 22

commercial frying which are distinguished by the method of heat transfer involved; these

are shallow frying and deep-fat frying.

The main purpose of frying is the development of characteristics colours, flavours, and

aromas in the crust of fried foods. The main factors that control the changes to colour and

flavor in a given food are the type of oil used for frying, the age and thermal history of the

oil, the temperature and time of frying, the size , moisture content and surface characteristics

of the food and the post frying treatments (Fellows, 2000). The effect of frying on foods,

therefore, involves both the effect on the oil, which in turn influences the quality of the food

and the direct effect of heat on the fried product (Fellows, 2000).

2.9.1 Plantain chips

Plantains and other cooking bananas (Musa spp.) staple food growth throughout the tropics;

they constitute a major source of carbohydrates for millions of people in Africa, Caribbean

Latin America, Asia and the pacific (Falola et al., 2014). Plantain is the common name for

herbaceous plants of the genus Musa (Adeniji et al., 2007). Plantains are a major staple

food in equatorial Africa and Andean regions. Their attractiveness as food is that they fruit

all year round making them a more reliable all-season staple food. Various parts of the

plantain plant have been consumed as human food since prehistory. Steamed boiled, grilled

baked or fried. In Nigeria, plantain is eaten boiled, fried or roasted plantain called “Boli” it

is usually eaten with palm oil or groundnut. In countries located in Central American and the

Caribbean such as Trinidad and Tobago, plantain is simply fried, boiled or added to the

soup. (Randy et al, 2007).

Plantain chips are the most popular plantain products in Nigeria. They are prepared by

slicing the unripe or slightly ripened plantain with a diameter (2 mm thick) in vegetable oil
 23

at the temperature between 160-170 ◦ C for 3 to 5minutes. The plantain chips prepared in

this way are packed in plastics or in polyethylene bags and stored at 30±2° C for 2 -3 months

at room temperature respectively (Akubor and Adejo, 2000). However, the shelf - life of

plantain chips is greatly reduced when exposed to light and air. The poor shelf life at

plantain chips is due to lipid oxidation occasioned by the heat, oxygen, light, heavy metals,

pigments, alkaline condition and degrees of unsaturation are the catalyst in this process

producing off-flavors and odors called rancidity”.

 24

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Procurement and Preparation of Samples

3.1.1 Procurement of raw materials

Brown (Plate 1) and yellow (Plate 2) tiger nuts were purchased from the North bank market

Makurdi, while the black (Plate 3) tiger nut was purchased from Vande Ikya market, all in

Benue State, Nigeria. They were taken to the Department of Agronomy, Federal University

of Agriculture, Makurdi for identification.

3.1.2 Tiger nut flour production

Tiger nut flour was produced following the method of Adejuyitan (2011) as shown in Figure

1.0. The samples were separately cleaned, washed and oven-dried at 103◦C for 1h. They

were milled and sieved into flour.

3.1.3 Extraction of tiger nut oil

Tiger nut oil was extracted from the resulting flour using n ̵ hexane (a non −¿polar solvent)

according to AOAC, (2012) as presented in figure 2 0. Flour samples (1050 g of each

sample) were used for extraction using a Soxhlet extractor. The lipid was extracted for 5 h

with a 500 ml volumetric flask containing the solvent, which was heated with an electric

heater at 70◦C. Solvent was evaporated off using a rotary evaporator and later the oil oven-

dried at 105◦C for 1 h and stored in bottles to be analyzed later.

 25

3.1.4 Production of plantain chips

Plantain chips were produced according the method described by Tachango et al., (1999) as

shown in figure 3.0. The plantain was washed, peeled, sliced into round pieces, and fried in the

tiger nut oil. It was drained, cooled and packaged in high-density polyethylene bags.

3.2 Storage of Tiger Nut Oil and Fried Plantain Chips

Plantain chips fried with different oil produced from different cultivars of tiger nut was

packaged in a high-density polyethylene and stored in a desiccator while the oils were stored in

bottles at room temperature (28◦C) for a period of three months (12 weeks). The samples were

analyzed at two weeks interval to evaluate the following indices (free fatty acid (FFA),

thiobarbituric acid (TBA), Peroxide values, and moisture content.)

3.3 Proximate Analysis of Tiger Nut Flour

The proximate compositions (moisture, ash, fat, fiber and protein) of the samples were

determined according to standard methods of AOAC (2012) and Carbohydrate was

determined by difference.

3.3.1 Moisture content determination

A clean dry dish with an easily removable lid was weighed (W1). The sample (5g) was

weighed into it (W2). The uncovered dish was placed with its lid open in a well-ventilated

oven maintained at 103oC for 3 h. Thereafter, the dish was covered with the lid and

transferred to a desiccator at room temperature to cool for 30 minutes. It was weighed

immediately and the dish with the sample was placed in the oven for another 2 h. The steps

were repeated until decreases in mass between successive weighing did exceed 0.5 per g

(W3). The loss in weight was reported as the moisture content.

 26

% Moisture content = W1- W2 ҳ 100 (1)

W2 – W3
Where
W1 = Initial weight of the crucible
W2 = Weight of crucible + sample before drying
W3 = Weight of crucible + sample after drying

3.3.2 Crude protein determination

Two grams of the sample was weighed into a digestion tube and 15 ml of concentrated

tetraoxosulphate (IV) acid (H2SO4) was added to dissolve the sample. Kjedhal tablet was

added to speed up the digestion process in a fume cupboard until it gave a clear solution.

Distilled water (75 ml) was added to prevent it from solidifying after digestion. The tube was

placed in a distilling unit and 50 ml of 40 % NaOH dispensed into the diluted solution, and

the digested distilled into 25 ml of 40 % boric acid. The distillate was titrated against 0.47 M

HCl until the first grey colour was seen. A blank was first titrated and the titer value was

recorded (AOAC, 2012).

Titre value ×14.01 ×0.47

% Total Nitrogen= (2)
Weight of sample ×100

% Protein=Total nitrogen ×conversion factor

Molecular weight of Nitrogen=14.01

Molarity of HCl=¿0.47

Conversion factor=6.25
 27

Plate 1: Brown Tiger Nut

 28

Plate 2: Yellow Tiger Nut

 29

Plate 3⁚ Black Tiger Nut

 30

Tiger nut

Sorting

Cleaning

Washing

Draining

Drying

Milling

Sieving

Tiger nut flour

Fig. 1.0: Flow Chart for Tiger Nut Flour Production

Source: Adejuyitan (2011).

 31

Tiger nut flour

Extraction (soxhlet apparatus, n-hexane)

Evaporating (Rotary evaporator)

Drying (oven drying 105◦C)

Tiger nut oil

Fig.2.0: Flow Chart for Extraction of Oil from Tiger Nut

Source: AOAC, (2012).

 32

Unripe plantain bunch

Washing

Peeling

Slicing into round pieces (2 mm thick)

Salting (Optional)

Frying (4 minutes at 160◦C)

Draining

Cooling

Packaging

Plantain Chips

Fig 3: Flow Chart for Preparation of Plantain Chips

Source: Tachango et al. (1999)

 33

3.3.3 Ash content determination

Two gram (2 g) of the sample was weighed into an empty porcelain crucible that was

previously ignited, cooled and weighed. The sample was ignited over a hot plate in a fume

cupboard to char organic matter. The crucible was thereafter placed in the muffle furnace

maintained at a temperature of 600oC for 6 h. After ashing, it was then transferred directly to

a desiccator to cool and weighed immediately (AOAC, 2012).

( Weight of the crucible + Ash )−( Weight of empty crucible ) ×100

% Ash= (3)
Weight of sample

3.3.4 Crude fat determination

The crude fat determination was carried out using the method of AOAC (2012). The thimble

was cleaned and empty weight recorded as W1. Five (5) grams of oven-dried sample was

added and re-weighed as (W2). The round bottom flask was cleaned and weighed empty

(W3) and then filled up with petroleum ether up to three-quarter of the flask. Soxhlet

extractor was fixed with a reflux condenser to adjust the heat sources so that the solvent

boils gently. The thimble containing the sample was then put inside the thimble and inserted

into the Soxhlet apparatus and extraction under reflux was carried out with petroleum ether

for 6 hours. At the end of extraction, the solvent was siphoned out and the flask containing

the oil was dried in the hot -air oven at 100°C for an hour to remove traces of water and

solvent. Thereafter it was cooled and weighed (W4).

% Fat = W4- W3 ҳ 100 (4)

W2-W1

W1 = weight of empty thimble

W2 = weight of thimble and sample before extraction

W3 = weight of the empty round bottom flask

 34

W4 = weight of flask and extracted oil

3.3.5 Crude fiber determination

The crude fiber content of the sample was determined using the method described in AOAC

(2012). Two (2) grams of sample was weighed and transferred into 250 ml beaker. It was

then boiled for 30 minutes with 100 mL of 0.12M H 2SO4 and filtered through a funnel. The

filtrate was washed with boiling water until the washing was no longer acidic. The solution

was boiled for another 30 minutes with 100 ml of 0.012 M NaOH solution; filtered with hot

water and methylated spirit three times. The residue was transferred into a crucible and dried

in the oven at 1030C for 1 hr. The crucible with its content was cooled in a desiccator and

then weighed (W1). The residue was then taken into a furnace for ashing at 600°C for 1 h.

The ashed sample was removed from the furnace and put into the desiccator to cool and later

weighed (W2). The percentage crude fiber was calculated thus:

% Crude fibre = W1‐ W2 (5)

Weight of sample
Where:
W1 = Weight of crucible and residue, W2 = Weight of final ashed sample

3.3.6 Carbohydrate content determination

Carbohydrate content determination was determined by difference (Ihekoronye and

Ngoddy,1985).

% Carbohydrate =100−( %moisture +%Protein+%Fat+%Ash +%Fibre )

 35

3.4 Functional Properties of Tiger Nut Flour

3.4.1 Bulk density

Five (5) gram of flour sample of the tiger nut was poured into a 100 ml measuring cylinder.

The cylinder was tapped continuously until a constant volume was obtained. The bulk

density (g /cm3) was calculated as the weight of flour (g) divided by volume of flour (cm3).

(Oladele and Aina, 2007).

Weight of sample (g)

Bulk density = (6)
Volume of the sample(ml)
3.4.2 Foam capacity

The method described by Oladele and Aina (2007) was used for the determination of foam

capacity (FC). Two grams of flour sample was added to 50 ml distilled water at 30 ± 2°C in

a 100 ml measuring cylinder. The suspension was mixed and properly shaken to foam and

the volume of the foam after 30 s was recorded.

Volume after whipping−Volume before whipping × 100

Foam capacity = (7)
Volume before whipping

3.4.3 Water and oil absorption capacities of tiger nut flour

Water and oil absorption capacities of the flour samples were determined following the

methods of by Oladele and Anna (2007). One (1) gram of the flour was mixed with 10 ml of

water or oil in a centrifuge tube and allowed to stand at room temperature (30 oC) for 1h. It

was then centrifuged at 2000 g/min for 30 min. The volume of water or oil on the sediment

(supernatant) was measured. Water and oil absorption capacities were calculated as Volume

(milliliters) of water or oil absorbed per gram of flour.

WAC/OAC = V1 - V 2 (8)
W
Where
 36

WAC = Water absorption capacity

OAC = Oil absorption capacity

V1 = Initial volume of water or oil

V2 = Final volume after centrifuging

W = Weight of the sample

3.4.4 Swelling index of tiger nut flour

The swelling index was determined according to the method by Olaitan et al. (2014). Two

(2) grams of the flour sample was poured into a 50 ml measuring cylinder and the volume it

occupied was recorded. Already boiled water was added up to 50ml mark and the measuring

cylinder was allowed to stand for 45mins after which the new volume of flour was recorded.

The ratio of the initial volume to the final volume was taken as the swelling index.

change∈volume of sample ( ml )
Swelling index ¿ (9)
Original volume of sample ( ml )

3.5 Mineral Content of Tiger Nut Flour

Five grams (5 g) of tiger nut flour sample was heated gently over a Bunsen burner flame

until most of the organic matter was destroyed. This was further heated strongly in a muffle

furnace for several hours until white-grey ash was obtained. The ash material was cooled.

Twenty milliliters of distilled water and 10 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid were added to the

ashed. The mixture was boiled, filtered into a 250 mL volumetric flask, washed thoroughly

with hot water, cooled and made up to volume. The mineral content of each sample was

analyzed using spectrophotometric method (AOAC, 2012). Samples were analyzed for

sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), copper

(Cu) and phosphorus (P).

 37

3.5.1 Sodium (Na)

The colorimetric method was used to determine sodium content. Sodium stock solution was

prepared by dissolving 1.271 g sodium chloride in water and diluting to 1 liter ( ≡ 500 mg/g

l Na) and a standard dilutes sodium solution was prepared by diluting 10 mLstock sodium

solution to 500 ml with water ( ≡10 mg/l Na) and kept aside. A calibration graph was

prepared from the readings obtained. About 5 mL of sample was mixed with 5 ml of uranyl

acetate, shaken and allowed to stand for 5 minutes. The sample was centrifuged and the

supernatant obtained and mixed with 1 % acetic acid and 0.4 mL of potassium ferricyanide.

The colorimeter was set to scale 0 with distilled water and the standard dilute sodium. The

absorbance of the test sample was read at 589.0nm and the sodium content was calculated

using the following formula:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

(10)
Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

3.5.2 Potassium (K)

Potassium stock solution and standard dilute potassium solution was prepared. A calibration

graph was prepared from the reading obtained. Two milliliters of sample was mixed with 2

mL of sodium cobalt nitrate and allowed to stand for 45 minutes. Then 2 mL of water was

added to the mixture and centrifuged for 15 minutes. The supernatant was obtained and

mixed with 2 mL of 70 % ethanol. The mixture was centrifuged for 5 minutes and the

supernatant boiled in a water bath for 10 minutes. One milliliter of 1 % choline

hydrochloride, 1 mL potassium ferricyanide and 2 ml of distilled water was added to the

 38

extract. The absorbance of the test sample was read at 620 nm using a colorimeter. The

sample solution was then read and potassium content was calculated as follows:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

(11)

3.5.3 Calcium (Ca)

Calcium was determined by the titrimetric method after precipitation as calcium oxalate

(Ndubuisi, 2009). Five milliliters (5 mL) of samples were mixed with 1 mL of ammonium

oxalate solution. pH was adjusted to 8 using ammonium hydroxide solution and adjusted

again to 5 using dilute acetic acid. The mixtures were allowed to stand for 4 hours,

centrifuged and decanted. About 2 ml dilute sulphuric acid was added and it was heated.

Titration was then carried out using 0.02 N potassium permanganate (1 mL = 0.0004 g Ca).

3.5.4 Iron (Fe)

The method described by Ndubuisi (2009) was used to determine the iron content of the

flour samples. Three milliliters (3 mL) of acetate buffer, 2 mL of 2.5 % hydroquinone and 2

mLof α- α dipyridyl was added to 5 ml of the tiger nut mineral ash solution. The pH of the

mixture was adjusted using few drops of Ammonia and the preparation read in a photometric

colorimeter at 250 nm. Iron was calculated as follows:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

(12)
Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

3.5.5 Magnesium (Mg)

One milliliter (1 mL) of magnesium buffer and 2.5 mL of ferrochrome blue-black tea were

added to 5 ml of treated ash solution from tiger nut sample. This was allowed to stand for 10
 39

minutes. The absorbance of the test sample was taken at 520 nm using a colorimeter

(Ndubuisi, 2009). Magnesium was calculated as follows:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

(13)
Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

3.5.6 Zinc (Zn)

The dithizone method was used for zinc determination. About 2.5 mLof 0.2 M acetate buffer

and 0.5 mL of 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate were added to 5 mL of mineral ash sample

solution. The pH was adjusted to 4 – 5.5 and 5 mL of dithizone solution was added. The

mixture was shaken for 4 minutes and allowed to stand to separate. The supernatant was

decanted away and the remaining read at 535 nm (AOAC, 2012). Zinc was calculated as

follows:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

(14)
Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

3.5.7 Copper (Cu)

One milliliter (1mL) of versenate citrate mixture, 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and

few drops of concentrated ammonia (until pink) were added to mineral ash sample solution.

One milliliter (1ml) of 0.1 % diethyl diether carbamate and 5 mL of carbon tetrachloride

were also added, agitated for 5 minutes and allowed to separate. The absorbance of the test

sample was taken at 440 nm (AOAC, 2012). Copper was calculated as follows:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

(15)
Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

3.5.8 Phosphorus (P)

The Vanado Molybdate method was used for phosphorus determination. About four (4)

drops of ammonia, 2.5 mL vanadyl molybdate and 2.5 mLof distilled water were added to 5
 40

mL of the mineral ash sample solution. The absorbance of the test sample was taken at 470

nm using a colorimeter (AOAC, 2012). Phosphorus was calculated as follows:

Absorbance of sample × Concentration of standard solution × Dilution factor

(16)
Absorbance of standard solution × Sample volume

3.6 Analysis of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Tiger Nut Oil

3.6.1 Percentage yield of tiger nut oil

The percentage yield of the tiger nut oil was calculated as

Weight of oil
% Yield of oil = ×100 (17)
Weight of tiger nut flour sample

3.6.2 Peroxide value

Peroxide value (PV) is a measure of the concentration of a substance that can oxidize

potassium iodide to iodine (Sadoudi and Ali, 2017). It is a milliequivalents of oxygen

(hydroperoxides) per 1000 grams of oil. This was done by the AOAC (2012) method.

Oil sample (2.0 g) was accurately weighed into a conical flask, and dissolved in a solvent

mixture containing 12 mL chloroform and 18 ml glacial acetic acid. To the solution 0.5 ml

of a saturated aqueous potassium iodide solution was added. The flask was stoppered and

allowed to stand for 1 min. Thirty milliliters of water were added and the solution was

titrated with 0.1 M sodium thiosulphate solution until the yellow colour had almost gone.

Starch solution (0.5 mL) was introduced and titration continued with the reagent added

slowly until the blue-black colour disappeared. During titration, the flask was continuously

and vigorously shaken to transfer the liberated iodine from the chloroform layer to the

aqueous layer. A blank titration was also performed, and the peroxide value was obtained

from the formula (Sadoudi and Ali, 2017):

 41

(18)

Where:

PV = peroxide value;

V= volume of Na2S2O2 solution used for the sample test (in mL);

V0= volume of Na2S2O2 solution used for the blank test (in mL);

N= normality of Na2S2O2 solution

m = weight of the oil sample taken (in g)

3.6.3 Saponification value

This is the weight of potassium hydroxide, in milligrams, needed to saponify one gram of oil

(Sadoudi and Ali, 2017). Two (2) grams of sample was accurately weighed and placed in a

250 mL flask and 25 mL of a mixture of equal volumes of ethanol and potassium hydroxide

added. The mixture was heated in a water bath (coupled to a reflux condenser from the

Soxhlet extractor) for 30 minutes while being stirred continuously. One milliliter of

phenolphthalein indicator was added and the resulting mixture titrated with 0.5 N

hydrochloric acid. A blank procedure was carried out and the saponification value calculated

using the formula below

N × Eq×(V 0−V 1)
SV = ×10 3 (19)
P
Where:

SV =saponification value, (mg KOH/ g oil);

V0 =volume of hydrochloric acid solution required for the blank, (mL);

V1= volume of hydrochloric acid solution required for the sample, (mL);

N =normality of HCl solution (0.5N);

 42

Eq =equivalent gram of KOH (56.1 g/mol);

p= weight of the oil sample (g).

3.6.4 Thiobarbituric acid value

The thiobarbituric acid value was determined according to the method described by

Benchamaporn et al. (2009). A fifty (50) milligram sample was accurately weighed into a

twenty-five-milliliter volumetric flask and dissolved in a small volume of 1-butanol and

made up to volume with 1-butanol. Then 0.5 mL of the sample solution was transferred to a

dry test tube and 5 mL of TBA reagent solution (0.2883G/100ml of 90 % glacial acetic acid)

added. The test tube was closed with a ground-glass stopper, mixed thoroughly and placed in

a thermostatic bath at 95°C. After 120 min, the test tube was removed from the thermostatic

bath and cooled under running tap water for about 10 min until it reaches room temperature.

The absorbance of the reaction solution was then measured at 530 nm using distilled water

in the reference cuvette. A reagent blank was also prepared and read. The result was

calculated using the equation below:

[50 × ( A−B )]
TBAR value = (20)
m

Where:

A = absorbance of the test solution, B = absorbance of the reagent blank, m = the weight (g)

of the test sample.

3.6.5 Iodine value

The iodine value (IV) indicates the degree of unsaturation of the oil. It is defined as the

number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 grams of oil (Sadoudi, and Ali, 2017). The

method described by Nadeem et al. (2013) was used to determine the iodine value. The oil
 43

sample (0.2g) was weighed and placed in a 250 mL flask and 20 mL of chloroform was then

added to the sample. Wijs reagent (25 ml) was added with the aid of a pipette and the

resulting mixture stirred and stored in a dark place at 25°C for 30 minutes before 10 mL of

30 % potassium iodide was added to the mixture as well as 100 mL of distilled water. The

mixture was then titrated with 0.1N sodium thiosulphate until the yellow colour almost

disappeared. One milliliter of the starch solution was then added and the mixture titrated

further until the blue starch-iodine colour disappeared. A blank titration was also carried out

and the Iodine value calculated using the formula below

TD × 1.269
Iodine value = (21)
M

Where TD= Titre difference

M= mass of sample (g), 1.269= constant

3.6.6 Acid value

Five (5) grams of sample was weighed and placed in a 250 mL flask and fifty (50) milliliter

of a mixture of equal volumes of ethanol and ether, which has been neutralized by 0.5N of

potassium hydroxide, was then added. The resulting mixture was heated for 10 minutes to

allow for the complete dissolution of the sample and then cooled. One milliliter of

phenolphthalein indicator was then added while shaking the contents vigorously. The

mixture was then titrated with 0.5N potassium hydroxide until a pink colour was obtained as

described by AOAC (2012). The entire procedure was repeated for a blank analysis. The

acid value was then calculated using the formula:

TD× N × 56.1
Acid value = (22)
M

Where,
 44

TD= Titre Difference = B – S, B= Titre value blank; S= Titre value with sample

N= Normality of titrating solution (KOH used herein), M= Mass of a sample (g), 56.1 =

molar mass of KOH

The free fatty acid value is usually regarded as half the acid value of the oil.

3.6.7 Free fatty acid (FFA) content

A clean dry beaker was weighed and 2 g of pre-heated oil (heated to about 50°C) was added

and reweighed. Aliquots of ethanol were added to the oil to completely free the fatty acids

and the ethanol-oil mixture was then titrated with 0.1N NaOH using phenolphthalein

indicator. The volume (V) of NaOH required to produce the first permanent pink colour was

recorded and the free fatty acid content of the oil was determined from the formula

M ×V × N
% FFA = (23)
10 ×m

Where:

M = Relative molecular mass of Palmitic acid =256, V = volume of NaOH used, N =

Normality (concentration) of NaOH used, m = Weight of oil used, 10= constant. AOAC

(2012).

3.6.8 Determination of specific gravity

The specific gravity bottle (Pycnometer) was used in measuring the density/specific gravity

of the sample. The specific gravity of oil is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of

the oil at a defined temperature to that of the same volume of water at the same temperature

(AOAC, 2012). Cleaned, dried pycnometer was weighed. It was filled with water maintained

at 20ºC and weighed (W1) again. The bottle was emptied (W2), dried and filled with oil and

weighed (W3). The specific gravity was calculated using the formula shown:

Specific gravity = (W3 – W2)

 45

W1 (24)
Where

W3 = weight of container and oil, W2 = weight of empty container, W1= weight of the equal

volume of water.

3.6.9 Determination of refractive index

The refractive indices, η40 D, (RI), of the oils and fat samples were measured using the

Abbe refractometer connected to a thermostatically controlled water bath that maintained the

temperature of the refractometer at 40 ± 0.1ºC as used by Ayo and Agu. (2012). A drop of

the oil was placed on the surface of the refractometer and the reading was taken.

3.6.10 Determination of moisture content

The moisture content of tiger nut oil was determined by the AOAC Official method (2012).

Into dried, and weighed moisture dish (Ms) was added 5 g tiger nut oil. This was heated in

an oven (Memmert, Germany) at 105◦C for 1 hour, cooled in a desiccator containing

phosphorus peroxide and weighed (Mh). This was repeated until a constant weight (Mt) was

obtained.

Loss∈mass on drying
% Moisture = × 100 (25)
Weight of test sample
Ms−Mh
=
Ms−Mt
Where,
Ms = Weight of moisture dish + Sample (g)

Mh = Weight of moisture dish +sample after heating (g)

Mt = Weight of Tare/moisture dish (g)

 46

3.7 Analysis of Fatty Acid Composition of Tiger Nut Oil

About fifty (50) mg of the extracted oil was saponified for 5 min at 95 oC with 3.4 mL of 0.5

M KOH in dry methanol. The mixture was neutralized by 0.7 M HCl. About 3 ml of 14 %

boron trifluoride in methanol was added (AOAC, 2012). The mixture was heated for 5 min

at 90oC to achieve complete methylation process. The fatty methyl esters were thrice

extracted from the mixture with redistilled n-hexane. The content was concentrated to 1 mL

for analysis and 1μL was injected into the injection port of the gas chromatograph (GC-MS).

The fatty acid methyl esters separation was performed on a gas chromatograph of the type

Trace GC Ultra in mode Split, equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) with a

capillary column DB-5 (30m x 0.32 mm ID; ϕ1 μm film thickness (Agilent Technologies,

J&W Scientific Products, USA) at Department of Chemistry Laboratory, South Campus,

Nelson Mandela University, South Africa. Helium was used as the carrier gas at a flow rate

of 1 mL/min. The injector temperature was maintained at 250°C. 1µL of the sample was

injected undiluted in 100:1 split ratio.

3.8 Sensory Evaluation

Unripe Plantain chips samples were fried with tiger nut oil and refined groundnut oil. The

chips were evaluated on the basis of taste, flavor, appearance, texture and overall

acceptability. Twenty (20) panelists were selected among the staff and students of the

Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi.

The plantain chips were evaluated using a nine-point Hedonic scale for sensory scoring

(Iwe, 2002). Samples were served in a randomized manner on a tray.

3.9 Statistical Analysis

 47

All experiment was conducted in duplicate using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using

the statistical package of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. Means separation was done using

Duncan Multiple Range Test at 95 % confidence and significant difference was established at p

< 0.05.

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 The Percentage Yield of the Tiger Nut Oil from Different Cultivars

Results of the percentage yield of tiger nut oil from different cultivars show significant

difference among the samples. The black cultivar yielded 22.19 % while the brown cultivar

yielded 21.90 % and the yellow cultivar yielded 19.05 %. The black cultivar had the highest

value followed by the brown variety while the yellow variety had the least value.

4.2 Proximate Composition of Tiger nut Flours from Different Cultivars

 48

Table 2 shows the proximate composition of tiger nut flours from different cultivars. There

was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the moisture, crude fibre, crude fat and carbohydrate

content of the flour sample while there was no significant (p>0.05) difference in ash and

crude protein content. The moisture, ash, crude fat, crude fiber, crude protein and

carbohydrate content of the samples varied between 4.77 and 4.99 %, 1.95 and 2.05 %, 5.62

and 8.16 %, 19.03 and 22.06 %, 5.62 and 6.23 %, 58.94 and 62.94 % respectively.

4.3 Functional Properties of Tiger nut Flour from Different Cultivars

Table 3 presents the functional properties of different cultivars of tiger nut flour. There was

a significant (p< 0.05) difference in the bulk density, water, and oil absorption capacity and

foam capacity but no significant (p< 0.05) difference exists in the swelling index of the

sample. The bulk density of the flour samples ranged from 0.76 to 0.79 g/ml. The bulk

density of sample C (yellow cultivar) had the highest value followed by sample A (black

cultivar) while sample B (brown cultivar) had the least value.

 49

Table 2: Proximate Composition of Tiger Nut Flour from Different Cultivars

SAMPLES Moisture % Ash % Crude fat % Crude fiber % Crude protein % Carbohydrates %

A 4.99a± 0.09 2.05a± 0.11 19.79b± 0.38 8.16a± 0.13 6.08a± 0.19 58.92b±0.67

B 4.47b± 0.26 2.03a± 0.17 22.06a± 0.31 6.04b± 0.16 6.23a± 0.17 59.18b±0.46

C 4.83a± 0.12 1.95a± 0.96 19.03b± 0.18 5.62b± 0.16 5.62a± 0.22 62.94a±0.23

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Mean values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.

Key:
Sample A= Black tiger nut
Sample B= Brown tiger nut
Sample C= Yellow tiger nut
 50

The swelling index ranged from 2.22 to 2.57g/ml, the swelling capacity of sample B was

significantly (p< 0.05) different from that of sample A and C. The water absorption capacity

ranged from 1.39 to 1.74 ml/g, the water absorption capacity of sample B was significantly

(p< 0.05) different from that of sample of A and C. The oil absorption capacity ranged from

1.43 to 1.79 ml/g. The oil absorption capacity of sample A had the highest value followed

by sample B while sample C had the least value. The foam capacity ranged from 4.72 to

9.90 %, the foam capacity of sample A was significantly (p< 0.05) different from sample B

and C.

4.4 Mineral Compositions of Tiger nut Flour from Different Cultivars.

The mineral content of tiger nut flour is presented in Table 4. The values of Potassium,

sodium, copper, and calcium ranged between 110.70 and 121.95 mg/100g, 99.95 and

105.6mg/100g, 0.20 and 0.50 mg/100g and 84.05 and 93.75 mg/100g respectively. The iron,

magnesium, phosphorus and zinc content of the samples ranged between 3.03 and

4.04mg/100g, 0.23 and 0.48mg/100g, 2.10 and 6.03mg/100g, 6.89 and 10.14mg/100g and

1.67 and 2.14mg/100g respectively. The samples differed significantly (p<0.05) among the

mineral elements.

4.5 Physico ̵ chemical Properties of Tiger nut Oil Extracted from Different Cultivars

Table 5 presents the physicochemical properties of tiger nut oil produced from different

cultivars. The values of the refractive index, specific gravity, acid value, and free fatty acid

ranged between 1.46 and 1.47, 0.89 and 0.90, 0.45 and 1.4, and 0.20 and 0.75 respectively.
 51

Table 3: Functional Properties of Tiger Nut Flour

SAMPLES Bulk density Swelling index Water absorption Oil absorption Foam capacity
(g/ml) (g/ml) capacity (ml/g) capacity (ml/g) %
A 0.77ab± 0.01 2.22a± 0.11 1.65b± 0.03 1.79a± 0.01 9.90a±1.40

B 0.76b± 0.01 2.57a±0.19 1.74a± 0.05 1.75a±0.02 4.72c±1.34

C 0.79a± 0.01 2.33a± 0.00 1.39c± 0.01 1.43b± 0.04 6.00b±2.82

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Mean values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.

Key:
Sample A= Black tiger nut,
Sample B= Brown tiger nut
Sample C= Yellow tiger nut
 52

Table 4: Mineral Content of Flour obtained from Different Cultivars of Tiger Nut

SAMPLES K Na Cu Ca Fe Mn Mg P Zn

A 121.95a± 0.06 105.6a± 1.90 0.50a± 0.01 93.75a± 0.77 4.04a± 0.01 0.48a± 0.02 6.03a± 0.03 10.14a± 0.02 2.14a± 0.01

B 120.98b± 0.08 99.95b± 0.07 0.41b± 0.03 91.19b± 0.54 3.03c± 0.03 0.36b± 0.01 4.18b± 0.01 8.98b± 0.01 1.96b± 0.02

C 110.70c ± 0.14 100.5b± 0.21 0.20c± 0.01 84.05c± 0.07 3.55b± 0.06 0.23c± 0.01 2.10c± 0.01 6.89c± 0.01 1.67c± 0.02

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Mean values down the column followed by different superscripts are significant (p<0.05)
different.

Key:

Sample A: Black tiger nut

Sample B: Brown tiger nut
Sample C: Yellow tiger nut
 53

The peroxide value, saponification value, and iodine value ranged between 3.99 and 4.43,

183.25 and 202.87, 29.69 and 31.74 respectively.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the acid value, free fatty acid, peroxide value,

saponification value, and iodine value while there was no significant (p>0.05) difference in

the refractive index and specific gravity. Sample C (brown cultivar) had the highest

refractive index, followed by sample A (black cultivar) and B (brown cultivar). For the

specific gravity, sample C (yellow cultivar) had the highest value followed by sample A

(black cultivar) while sample C (yellow cultivar) had the least value. The acid value of

sample B (brown cultivar) was higher followed by sample C (yellow cultivar) while sample

A (black cultivar) had the least value. The free fatty acid value of sample B (brown cultivar)

was higher followed by sample C (yellow cultivar) while sample A (black cultivar) had the

least value. The peroxide value of sample B (brown cultivar) had the highest value, followed

by sample C (yellow cultivar) while sample A (black cultivar) had the least value. The

saponification value of sample A (black cultivar) had the highest value followed by sample

C (yellow cultivar) while sample B (brown cultivar) had the least value. The iodine value of

sample C (yellow cultivar) had the highest value.

4.6 Fatty acid Composition of Tiger nut Oil from Different Cultivars

The fatty acid composition of tiger nut oil samples shows a range of C 14:1 to C 24:1 (Table

6). Twelve (12) compounds were identified including saturated, monounsaturated and

polyunsaturated fatty acid. The saturated fatty acids comprised of palmitic acid (16:0),

stearic acid (18:0) and arachidic acid (20:0) while the monounsaturated fatty acid comprised

of three monoenes namely: myristoleic (14:1), palmitoleic acid (16:1), oleic acid (18:1) and
 54

elaidic acid (18:1), gadoleic acid (20:1), erucic (22:1), nervonic (24:1),two polyunsaturated

fatty acid linoleic acid (18:2), dihumo ̵ g ̵ linolenic acid(20:3).

The percentage fatty acid of the black cultivar contained palmitic (16.17 %), stearic (5.8 %),

oleic (77.71 %) and heneicosylic (0.31 %) fatty acids. The brown cultivar contained palmitic

(11.86 %), stearic (6.26), oleic (64.12 %), linoleic (11.87 %), dihumo ̵ g ̵ linolenic (1.71 %).

arachidic (1.87 %), gadoleic (0.90 %), henicosylic (1.87 %), eruvic (0.63 %), nervonic (2.32

%), while the yellow cultivar contained mystrioleic (0.06 %), palmitic (13.33 %),

palmitioleic (0.30 %), stearic (4.46 %), oleic (68.89 %), linoleic (12.77 %), and heneicosylic

(0.18 %) fatty acids. The unsaturated fatty acid of the oil samples from the different cultivars

was higher than the saturated fatty acids.

The highest percentage of oleic acid was present in the black cultivar (77.71 %) followed by

the yellow cultivar (68.89 %) while the brown cultivar (64.12 %) had the least amount. The

highest percentage of linoleic acid was present in the yellow cultivar (12.77 %) followed by

the brown cultivar (11.87 %) but not detected in the black cultivar.

The highest percentage of stearic was present in the brown cultivar (6.26 %) followed by the

black cultivar (5.81 %) while the yellow cultivar (4.46 %) had the least amount. The highest

percentage of heneicosylic was present in the brown cultivar (0.51 %) followed by the black

cultivar (0.31 %) while the yellow cultivar (0.18 %) had the least amount.
 55

Table 5: Physiochemical Properties of Tiger Nut Oil Extracted from Different Cultivars

Sampl RI SG AV FFA PV SV IV
es (mg/g) % (meq/kg) (mg/KOH) (g/l2/g)
A 1.462a± 0.00 0.89a ± 0.00 1.40a±0.14 0.75a±0.07 4.43a±0.03 202.87a±0.55 31.74b±0.24

B 1.462a± 0.00 0.89a± 0.00 0.76b±0.02 0.38b±0.01 4.03b±0.01 183.25b±3.09 29.69c±0.33

C 1.465a± 0.00 0.90a± 0.00 0.45c±0.03 0.20c±0.01 3.99c±0.01 198.24a±0.01 32.79a±0.18

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Mean values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.

Key:
RI ̵ Refractive index, SG ̵ specific gravity, IV ̵Iodine value,
AV ̵ acid value, FFA ̵free fatty acid, PV ̵ Peroxide value, SV ̵ saponification value,
Sample A = Black tiger nut oil,
Sample B =Brown tiger nut oil,
Sample C =Yellow tiger nut oil.
 56

Table 6: Fatty Acid Composition of Tiger Nut Oil from Different Cultivars

Sample %
Lipid Systematic name Trivial name A B C
number

C: 14.1 Cis ̵ 9 ̵ tetradecanoic Myristoleic ND ND 0.06

C:16.0 Hexadecanoic acid Palmitic 16.17 11.86 13.33
C:16.1 Cis ̵ 9 ̵ hexadecenoic Palmitoleic ND ND 0.30
C:18.0 Octadecanonic Stearic 5.81 6.26 4.46
C:18.1 Cis ̵ 9 ̵ octadecanonic Oleic 77.71 64.12 68.89
C:18.2 9 ,12 octadecanonic linoleic acid ND 11.87 12.77
C:20.0 Eicosanoic acid Arachidic ND 0.90 ND
C:20.1 Cis ̵ 11 ̵ eicosenoic Gadoleic ND 1.87 ND
C:20.3 8,11,14 eicosatrienonic dihumo ̵g ̵ linolenic ND 1.71 ND
C:21.0 Heneicosanoic Heneicosylic 0.31 0.50 0.18
C:22.1 Cis ̵ 13 ̵ docosenoic Erucic ND 0.63 ND
C:24.1 Cis ̵15 ̵ tetracosenoic nervonic ND 2.32 ND
SFA 22.78 19.34 17.97
MUFA 77.71 68.94 69.25
PUFA ND 13.58 12.77
Total SFA 22.78 19.34 17.97
Total 77.71 82.52 82.02
USFA
key:

SFA: Saturated fatty acid

MUFA: Monounsaturated fatty acid
PUFA: Polyunsaturated fatty acid
USFA: Unsaturated fatty acid
 57

ND: Not detected

 58

The total unsaturated fatty acid was higher in the brown cultivar (82.05 %), followed by the

yellow cultivar (82.02 %) while the black cultivar had the least value (77.71 %) while the

total saturated fatty acid was higher in the black cultivar (22.78 %) followed by the brown

cultivar (19.34 %) while the brown cultivar had the least value (17.97 %).

4.7 Sensory Properties of Plantain chips fried with Tiger nut oil from Different Cultivars

Table 7 shows the results of the sensory scores of plantain chips fried with oils from

different cultivars of tiger nut and refined groundnut kings’ oil (sample D as control). There

was significant (p<0.05) difference in the appearance, texture and overall acceptability of the

chips samples while there was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the aroma and taste.

The appearance, aroma, taste, texture and overall acceptability of the chips ranged between

6.25 and 7.40, 6.20 and 6.55, 6.30 and 6.45, 6.20 and 6.55 and 6.15 and 6.55 respectively.

Sample A and D (control) were most preferred in terms of appearance, aroma, taste, texture

(crispness) and overall acceptability while sample B and C were least preferred.

4.8 Storage Stability of Tiger nut Oils and Plantain Chips Fried with Tiger nut Oils from

Different Cultivars

Results of the storage stability of tiger nut oil samples and plantain chips fried with the oil

are presented in Table 8. Parameters of Storage stability include free fatty acid (FFA),

thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values, Peroxide values, and moisture content.

4.8.1 Free fatty acid

The result of the effect of storage on free fatty acid of tiger nut oil from different cultivars is

shown in Table 8. The Free fatty acid values of the stored oil for sample A from 0 to 12

weeks ranged between 0.65 and 0.87 %, sample B (0.38 and 0.41 %) while sample C ranged
 59

from 0.19 and 0.22 %. The Free fatty acid values for samples A and B increased during

storage while in sample C, there was an unsteady decrease in free fatty acid during storage.

4.8.2 Thiobarbituric acid

The result of the effect of storage on thiobarbituric acid of tiger nut oil from different

cultivars is shown in Table 9.The thiobarbituric acid values of the stored oil for sample A

from 0 to week 12 ranged between 0.39 and 0.49 malon/mg, sample B ranged from 0.48 and

0.51 malon/mg while sample C ranged between 0.30 and 0.35 malon/mg. The

Thiobarbutuirc acid values for samples A and B increased during storage while in sample C,

there was an unsteady decrease in thiobarbituric acid during storage.

4.8.3 Moisture content of oil

The result of the effect of storage on moisture content of the tiger nut oil is shown in table

10. The moisture content for sample A from 0 to week 12 ranged between 2.33 and 2.46 %,

sample B ranged between 2.48 and 2.71 % while sample C ranged between 2.03 and 2.18 %.

The moisture content of samples A, B, C increased during storage but did not differ (p<0.05)

significantly.
 60

Table 7: Sensory Scores of Plantain Chips Fried with Crude Tiger nut oil and Kings Oil

Samples Appearance Aroma Taste Texture Overall Acceptability

D 6.65b ± 0.59 6.50a±0.51 6.40a±0.59 6.55a± 0.51 6.55a ±0.51

A 7.40a ±0.50 6.25a ±0.44 6.40a±0.50 6.20b ± 0.52 6.30a±0.57

B 6.25b ± 0.64 6.55a±0.76 6.45a±0.51 6.20b±0.41 6.15b.±0.37

C 6.35b ± 0.75 6.20a±0.41 6.30a±0.47 6.55a ± 0.51 6.20b±0.41

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Mean values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p< 0.05)
different.
Key:
Sample A= Black tiger nut oil
B =Brown tiger nut oil
C =Yellow tiger nut oil
D = Control (Kings oil)
 61

4.8.4 Peroxide value

The result of the effect of storage on peroxide value of the tiger nut oil is shown in table 11.

Peroxide value of sample A from 0 to week 12 ranged between 5.50 and 5.77 meq/kg,

sample B ranged between 5.67 and 5.85meq/kg, while sample C ranged between 4.27 and

4.36meq/kg. The peroxide value of the three samples decreased (p<0.05) significantly

during the storage period.

4.8.5 Moisture content of chips

The result of the effect of storage on moisture content of plantain chips fried with tiger nut

oil from different cultivars is shown in table 12. The moisture content of the chips from 0 to

week 12 for sample A ranged between 2.09 and 2.41, 2.09 and 2.80 and 2.08 and 3.48 for

samples B and C respectively. There was increase and decrease among the three samples

during storage.

4.8.6 Thiobarbituric acid of chips

The result of the effect of storage on thiobarbituric acid of the chips fried with tiger nut oil

from different cultivars is shown in table 13.The thiobarbituric acid of the chips from 0 to

week 12 for sample A ranged between 0.19 and 0.21 malon/mg, sample B ranged between

0.27 and 0.36 malon/mg, while sample C ranged between 0.23 and 0.24 malom/mg. There

was unsteady increase and decreased in samples A and B respectively, while sample C

increased during the storage period.

 62

Table 8: Effect of Storage on the Free Fatty Acid of Tiger Nut Oil Extracted from Different Cultivars

Storage time (weeks)

Sampl 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

e
A 0.75a±0.00 0.83a±0.00 0.85a±0.00 0.87a±0.00 0.87a±0.00 0.87a±0.00 0.87a±0.00
B 0.38b±0.01 0.38b±0.00. 0.39b±0.00 0.41b±0.00 0.41b±0.00 0.41b±0.00 0.41b±0.00
C 0.20c±0.02 0.22c±0.00. 0.19c±0.00 0.22c±0.00 0.22c±0.00 0.21c±0.00 0.21c±0.00

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Means values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.

Keys:
Superscripts: Separation of means for samples
Sample A= Black tiger nut
Sample B= Brown tiger nut
Sample C= Yellow tiger nut.
 63

Table 9: Effect of Storage on the Thiobarbituric Acid (malon./mg) of Tiger Nut Oil from Different Cultivars

Storage time (week)

Sample 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
b b b b b b
A 0.39 ±0.00 0.43 ±0.00 0.45 ±0.00 0.45 ±0.00 0.45 ±0.00 0.49 ±0.00 0.49b±0.00
B 0.48a±0.00 0.50a±0.00 0.50a±0.00 0.50a±0.00 0.51a±0.00 0.51a±0.00 0.51a±0.00
C 0.30c±0.00 0.35c±0.00 0.34c±0.00 0.30c±0.00 0.30c±0.01 0.31c±0.00 0.30c±0.01

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Mean values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.
Keys:
Superscripts: Separation of means for samples
Sample A =Black tiger nut
Sample B =Brown tiger nut
Sample C =Yellow tiger nut.
 64

Table 10: Effect of Storage on the Moisture Content (%) of Tiger Nut Oil

Storage time (weeks)

Sample 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
b
A 2.33 ±0.00 2.34b±0.00 2.38b±0.00 2.42b±0.01 2.44b±0.00 2.46b±0.00 2.45b±0.00
B 2.48a±0.02 2.55a±0.01 2.59a±0.00 2.71a±0.00 2.65a±0.02 2.72a±0.03 2.62a±0.02
C 2.03c±0.00 2.09c±0.00 2.15c±0.05 2.18c±0.00 2.18c±0.00 2.16c±0.00 2.08c±0.00

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Means values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different
Keys:
Superscripts: Separation of means for samples
Sample A=Black tiger nut
Sample B =Brown tiger nut,
Sample C =Yellow tiger nut.
 65

Table 11: Effect of Storage on the Peroxide Value (mEq/kg) of Tiger Nut Oil from Different Cultivars

Storage time (weeks)

Samples 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
A 5.76b±0.00 5.77a±0.00 5.73a±0.00 5.53b±0.00 5.50b±0.00 5.50b±0.00 5.50b±0.00
B 5.85a±0.01 5.77a±0.00 5.68b±0.01 5.68a±0.00 5.67a±0.01 5.68a±0.00 5.68a±0.00
C 4.36c±0.01 4.27c±0.02 4.28c±0.01 4.30c±0.00 4.32c±0.00 4.31c±0.00 4.32c±0.00

Values are Means ± standard deviation of duplicate determinations. Means values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p≤0.05)
different.
Keys:
Superscripts: Separation of means for samples
Sample A =Black tiger nut
Sample B =Brown tiger nut
Sample C =Yellow tiger nut.
 66

Table 12: Effect of Storage on the Moisture Content (%) of Plantain Chips with Tiger Nut Oils

Storage time (weeks)

Sample 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
A 2.09b±0.02 2.19c±0.07 2.32b±0.00 2.42b±0.01 2.41b±0.01 2.33b±0.01 2.35b±0.02
B 2.80a±0.04 2.35b±0.05 2.11c±0.01 2.14c±0.00 2.14c±0.00 2.09c±0.01 2.09c±0.04
C 2.08c±0.04 3.48a±0.00 3.04a±0.05 3.01a±0.00 3.02a±0.01 3.02a±0.00 3.02a±0.00

Values are Means ± Standard deviation of triplicate determinations. Means values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.

Keys:

Superscripts: Separation of means for samples

Sample A =Black tiger nut

B =Brown tiger nut

C =Yellow tiger nut.

 67

Table 13: Effect of Storage on the Thiobarbituric Acid (malon/mg) of the Plantain Chips Fried with Tiger Nut Oil

Storage time (weeks)

Samples 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
A 0.19c±0.00 0.21b±0.01 0.21b±0.00 0.20c±0.00 0.21c±0.00 0.21b±0.01 0.21b±0.01
B 0.27a±0.01 0.28a±0.02 0.28a±0.01 0.36a±0.00 0.35a±0.00 0.35a±0.00 0.35a±0.00
C 0.23b±0.01 0.23b±0.00 0.23b±0.00 0.23b±0.00 0.23b±0.00 0.24b±0.00 0.24b±0.00
Values are Means ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations. Means values down the column followed by different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05)
different.
Keys:
Superscripts: Separation of means for samples
Sample A =Black tiger nut
Sample B =Brown tiger nut
Sample C =Yellow tiger nut.
 68

5.0 DISCUSSION

5.1 Proximate Composition of Tiger nut Flour

There was significant (p<0.05) difference in the moisture content of the tiger nut flour

samples as shown in Table 2. The low moisture content observed in all the samples was in

agreement with El-Naggar (2016) who reported moisture content to be below 10 %. Flours

with low moisture content are good in terms of storability (Barber et al., 2017) without

spoilage (Nwodo and Obinna, 2012). The crude fiber of the black cultivar was higher than

the brown and yellow varieties. El-Naggar (2016) reported a fiber content of 6.5 % and the

values obtained in this work are within this range. Tiger nut was observed to be high in

dietary fiber content and as high as 15.47 % as reported by Adel et al. (2015) which could be

effective in the treatment and prevention of many diseases including colon cancer, coronary

heart diseases, obesity, diabetics, and gastrointestinal disorders.

The crude protein of the brown cultivar was higher than that of the black and yellow

cultivar. The protein content was similar to the value reported by El-Naggar (2016) but was

higher than the values observed by Ogunlade et al. (2015) who reported protein content to

be 1.56 and 1.32 respectively, probably due to difference in varieties.

There was no significant (p<0.05) difference among the ash content of the flour samples.

The ash content of the flour samples was higher than the values reported by Ndubuisi,

(2009) who reported lower ash content (0.70 ̵ 1.53 %). According to Okoye and Ojobor

(2016), the increase in ash content implies that the samples are good sources of minerals.
 69

There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in fat content of the flour samples. The fat

content (19.03 to 22.05 %) is relatively high when compared to pearl millet (7.6 %) and

quinoa (6.3 %), Oshodi and Ekperigin (1989), pigeon pea flour (1.80 %) (Okpala and

Mammah, 2001) but low compared to some commonly consumed oil seeds in Nigeria such

as Pentaclethra macrophylla (46.0 %), Telfairia occidentalis (49.2 %) according to Oladele

and Anna (2007).

There was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the carbohydrates content of the flour

samples. The yellow cultivar had the highest carbohydrates content than the black and

brown cultivar. The carbohydrate content in this work was higher than the values reported

by El-Naggar (2016) and Adel et al. (2015) whose carbohydrates content was 47 % and

48.12 % respectively.

5.2 Functional Properties of Tiger nut Flour

The result of the functional properties is as shown in Table 4.2. There was a significant (p <

0.05) difference between the samples. The bulk density of the sample C (yellow cultivar)

were higher than those of sample A (black cultivar) and B (brown cultivar). The bulk density

in this work was higher than the values reported by Oladele and Aina (2007). Nutritionally,

low bulk density promotes digestibility of foods especially in children with immature

digestive systems while high bulk density decreases the caloric and nutrient intake of

children resulting in growth faltering (Olaitan et al., 2014). Low bulk density also implies

that the product can easily be packaged for economic use. According to Nnam (2001) low

bulk density has nutritional and economic significance as more of the products can be eaten

thus leading to high energy and nutritional density.

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There was no significant (p<0.05) difference between the swelling capacity of the tiger nut

flour samples from different varieties. The swelling capacity depends on the size of

particles, a cultivar of crop, processing unit operations or methods (Chandra et al., 2015).

The swelling index determines the amount of water food samples would absorb and the

degree of swelling within a given time. Low swelling index aids in digestibility in infants

(Okwori et al., 2011). The swelling capacity of sample B (brown cultivar) was higher than

those of sample A(black) and C (yellow cultivar) as shown in table 4.2, it was slightly higher

than the swelling capacity as reported by Oladele and Aina (2007) whose values were 2.40

and 2.10 g/cm3 for yellow and brown cultivars, respectively. There was significant (p<0.05)

difference between the water absorption capacity of the flour samples from different

cultivars. Water absorption capacity gives an index of water absorbed or retained. The water

absorption capacity also indicates how cohesive a product is (Osungbaro et al., 2010). High

water absorption is of a disadvantage as it reduces the absorption of nutrients (Olaitan et al.,

2014). According to Oyarekua and Adeyeye (2009) water absorption capacity is desirable

for improving mouthfeel and reducing the viscosity of products. The variation in water

absorption capacity of the composite flour may also be due to the concentration of protein,

degree of interaction with water and conformational characteristics (Menon et al., 2015).

The water absorption capacity of sample B (brown cultivar) was higher than sample A

(black cultivar) and C (yellow cultivar). It was higher than the values reported by Oladele

and Anna (2007) whose values were 1.37 and 1.26 ml/g for yellow and brown cultivars,

respectively.

There was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the oil absorption capacity of the tiger

nut flour samples of different cultivars. The oil absorption capacity of sample B was higher
 71

than samples A and C. It was higher than the values as reported by Oladele and Aina (2007)

whose values were 1.13 and 1.03 ml/g for yellow and brown cultivar respectively. It was

also higher than the values reported Salau et al. (2012) whose values were 0.88 g/cm 3 and

0.91 g/cm3 respectively for yellow and brown cultivars. Oil absorption capacity is the ability

of the flour protein to physically bind fat by capillary attraction and it is of great importance

since fat acts as flavor retainer and also increases the mouth feel of foods respectively

(Onimawo and Akubor, 2005). The lower oil absorption capacity of tiger nut flour might be

due to low hydrophobic proteins which show superior binding of lipids Oladele and Aina

(2007).

There was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the foam capacity of the tiger nut flour

samples. The foam capacity of sample A was higher than samples C and B. It was lower

than the values observed by Oladele and Aina (2007) whose values were 10.28 and 11.07 %,

respectively for yellow and brown varieties. The low foam capacity is often associated with

presence of low protein in the flour (Salau et al., 2012).

5.3 Mineral Composition of Tiger nut Flours from Different Cultivars

Tiger nut is a good source of minerals. There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in all the

samples. The potassium content of the black cultivar was higher than that of the brown and

yellow cultivar. The potassium content reported by Oladele and Aina (2007) was higher than

the values observed in this work. Potassium is needed for the regulation of fluid, muscle

control and normal nerve function (Damian, 2016). Potassium aids nerve impulse

transmission and it is a major cation of intracellular fluid. High potassium too low sodium

ratio of tiger nuts, therefore, may be imperative in diet formulations for patients with high

blood pressure and edema as well (Ndubuisi, 2009). There was significant (p<0.05)
 72

difference in the sodium contents of the samples. The black cultivar had the highest sodium

content than the brown and yellow cultivar.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the copper content of the samples. Copper

aids in iron metabolism. It works with many antioxidants, enzymes especially those involved

in protein metabolism and hormone synthesis Ndubuisi (2009). The copper content of the

black cultivar had the highest value than the brown and yellowcultivar.it was higher than the

values reported by Oladele and Aina (2007).

There was also a significant (p<0.05) difference in the calcium content of the samples. The

black cultivar had the highest calcium content than the brown and yellow cultivar. Calcium

aids in the formation of bones and plays a role in maintaining the working of the heart and

muscles (Yusufu et al., 2015). The calcium content of this work was lower than the values

reported by Oladele and Aina (2007).

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the iron content of the samples. The black

cultivar had the highest iron content than the yellow and brown varieties. Iron is the

functional component of hemoglobin and other key compounds used in respiration, immune

function and cognitive development (Ndubuisi 2009). Iron deficiency negatively influences

normal defense systems against infection. It also serves as a carrier of oxygen to tissues

within cells and is an integral part of important enzyme systems (FAO/WHO, 2000).

According to Oladele and Aina (2007), the iron content which ranged from 0.65 to 0.80 for

yellow and brown cultivar respectively was lower than the values obtained in this work. The

high iron content of tiger nuts could contribute to preventing anemia (Ndubuisi, 2009).
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There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the magnesse content of the samples. The

black cultivar had the highest magnesse content than the brown and yellow cultivar. Oladele

and Aina (2007) reported a higher magnesse content than the values obtained in this work.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the magnesium content of the samples. The

magnesium content of the black cultivar was higher than the brown and yellow cultivar.

Magnesium provides bone strength, aids enzyme, nerve and heart functions (Ndubuisi,

2009). According to Oladele and Aina (2007), the magnesium content of tiger nut flour was

higher than values obtained in this work. There was significant (p<0.05) difference in the

phosphorus content of the samples. The phosphorus content of the black cultivar was higher

than the brown and yellow cultivar. Phosphorus enhances quick release of energy in the

body and may combine with calcium for bone and teeth development (Ndubuisi, 2009).

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the zinc content of the samples. The zinc

content of the black cultivar was higher than the brown and yellow cultivar. The zinc content

in this work was higher than the values obtained by Oladele and Aina (2007). Zinc is an

integral part of hormones and more than nearly 100 different enzymes. Zinc is important in

many metabolic reactions and may play an important role in immunity, alcohol metabolism,

sexual development and reproduction (Ndubuisi, 2009). Deficiency can result in growth

failure, enlarged spleen, and liver (Barber et al., 2017).

5.4 Physicochemical Parameters of Tiger nut Oil Extracted from Different Cultivars

There was no significant (p<0.05) difference in the refractive index of the tiger nut oil

produced from different cultivars. The Refractive Index (RI) is a parameter that relates to

molecular weight, fatty acid chain length, degree of unsaturation and degree of conjugation

(Gunstone, 2002). The refractive index generally sheds light on structural properties such as
 74

average molecular mass and degree of unsaturation of the fatty acids in oils and fats (Adel et

al,.2015). The refractive index of the oils analyzed in this work was within the range

recorded by Amos-Tautua et al. (2013) and also within the standards set by NAFDAC and

CODEX.

There was no significant (p<0.05) difference in the specific gravity of the oils. The specific

gravity observed in this work was within the range reported by El Niggar (2016) for other

edible oils.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the acid values of the oil samples. The acid

value is a measure of the free fatty acid in the oil sample and it can also be used as an

indicator for the age of the oil and as one of important quality attributes measurements

(Muhammad et al. 2011 and Belewu and Belewu, 2007). According to Babatunde and Bello

(2016), acid value of oil suitable for edible purposes should not exceed 4 mg/g. The values

obtained in this work were within this range but higher than the values obtained by

Babatunde and Bello (2016) who reported 0.39 ̵ 0.86 mg KOH/g for groundnut oil and 0.16 ̵

0.60 mg/g KOH/g for palm oil samples.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the free fatty acid values of the oil samples.

Free fatty acids can stimulate oxidative deterioration of oils by enzymatic and / or chemical

oxidation to form off-flavor components. The free fatty acid value is an indication of lipase

activity Oyedele et al. (2014). According to Amos-Tautua et al. (2013), the allowable limit

for free fatty acid for edible oils is 1.0- 3.0 %, the lower the free fatty acid level, the better

the quality of the oil for human consumption. The values obtained in this work were within

this limit but higher than the values obtained by El Niggar (2016).
 75

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the peroxide value of the oil samples.

Peroxide Value is an index of rancidity; thus the high peroxide value of oil indicates a poor

resistance of the oil to peroxidation during storage (Mohammed and Hamza, 2008). The low

peroxide values of the oil samples is an indication that the oils are stable and may not be

susceptible to oxidative rancidity since they are produced from fresh seeds (Eddy et al.,

2011). The peroxide values obtained in this work were within the range reported by

Babatunde and Bello (2016) for groundnut oil and palm oil and also in line with the standard

guidelines set by NAFDAC and CODEX which says that peroxide values should be less

than 10 meq/kg.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the saponification values of the oil samples.

Saponification number is an indication of the molecular weight of triglycerides in oil (EI

Niggar, 2016). The saponification values obtained in this work was lower than the values

reported by (Muhammad et al. 2011) who reported on palm kernel oil (247 mg KOHg-1)

and butterfat (225 mg KOH g-1) but within the range reported by Babatunde and Bello

(2016) for groundnut oil (184.04 ̵ 194.48 mg/KOH/g) and (182.62 195.61 mg/KOH/g) for

palm oil samples. The values obtained are in line with the standard guidelines set by

NAFDAC and CODEX. As reported by Muhammad et al. (2011) oil with higher

saponification values contains high proportion of lower fatty acid.

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the iodine value of the oil samples. The Iodine

value (IV) is a measure of the relative degree of unsaturation in oils and the greater the

iodine value, the more the unsaturation and the higher the susceptibility to oxidation (Amos-

Tautua et al. (2013). According to Sadoudi and Ali (2017), iodine value increases with

increase in unsaturation of oil. Akinola et al. (2010) reported that lowering the iodine value
 76

improves the stability and good yield of the liquid oil. The iodine values in this work were

within the range reported by Babatunde and Bello (2016) for palm oil (26.40 ̵ 30.87 g/l2/g)

and groundnut oil (29.25 ̵ 29.99 g/l2/g).

5.5 Fatty acid Composition of the Tiger nut Oils from Different Cultivars

The fatty acid composition of the tiger nut oil ranged from C 14:1 to C 24:1 (Table 4.5).

Overall, 12 compounds were identified, including saturated, monounsaturated and

polyunsaturated fats. The saturated fatty acids comprised of palmitic acid (16:0), stearic

acid (18:0) and arachidic acid (20:0) while the monounsaturated fatty acid comprised of

three monoenes namely: myristoleic (14:1), palmitoleic acid (16:1), oleic acid (18:1) and

elaidic acid (18:1), gadoleic acid (20:1), erucic (22:1), nervonic (24:1),two polyunsaturated

fatty acid linoleic acid (18:2), dihumo ̵ g ̵ linolenic acid (20:3).

According to Amos-Tautua et al. (2013), the fatty acid composition which is the relative

proportion of different fatty acids in the mixture of triglycerides is a characteristic of each

vegetable oil. The colour, variety and geographical location in which the tubers are grown,

and the harvest season have an impact on the relative proportion of fatty acids present in its

oil (Ezeh et al.,2014). The physiological effects of vegetable oil are also based on their fatty

acid composition. The primary concerns with fatty acid consumption relate to two chronic

Diseases - coronary heart disease (CHD) and cancer (Amos-Tautua et al. (2013). The

monounsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid) of the black cultivar had higher amount than that of

the brown and yellow cultivar and it was in agreement with Codex standards for vegetable

oil. From nutritional viewpoint, the presence of oleic acid in diet is very useful. It has been

shown that oleic acid is effective in lowering total cholesterol (10 %) and Low-Density

Lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol content in blood according to Amos-Tautua et al. (2013).

 77

The monounsaturated fatty acid value obtained in this work was higher than the values

reported by Amos-Tautua et al. (2013) for soybean (29.2) and groundnut oil (26.2 %), corn

oil (23.8 %), sunflower oil (23.6 %).

Tiger nut oil with its high percentage of oleic acid, should be relatively stable and resistant

to oxidation, and with its high oleic acid and low polyunsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid

and linolenic acid), enough to cover daily minimum needs for an adult (around 10 g) and

low acidity, and so is excellent for the skin (Adel et al, 2015). The level of linoleic acid in

the oil samples of this study was higher than the values reported by Amos-Tautua et al,

(2013) for soybean (8.5 %) and groundnut oil (5.5 %), respectively. According to Adel et al,

(2015), the linoleic fatty acids (belonging to the omega-6 family of fatty acids) are

considered essential, as they cannot be synthesized by mammals and must be obtained from

food. Linoleic acid undoubtedly is one of the most important polyunsaturated fatty acids in

human food because of its prevention of distinct heart vascular diseases (Omode et al.

1995). It is well known that dietary fat rich in linoleic acid, apart from preventing

cardiovascular disorders such as coronary heart diseases and atherosclerosis, also prevent

high blood pressure (Vles and Gottenbos,1989). The presence of one of the three essential

fatty acids in the seed oils makes them nutritionally valuable.

Linoleic acid is abundantly present in plant seeds and in the oils, they produce, such as corn,

safflower, cotton, soybean and sunflower oil. The presence of linoleic acid inadequate

contents is essential since it is an essential fatty acid (El-Adawy et al. 2001). According to

Ribarova et al. (2003), polyunsaturated fatty acids must make up 7–10 % of the total energy

ingested for an adequate diet as far the correct ingestion of lipids is concerned. The
 78

Polyunsaturated fatty acid found in the oil samples were higher than the values reported by

Adel et al. (2015) and Amos-Tautua et al. (2013).

The total unsaturated fatty acid (TUFA) in the tiger nut oil is higher than the total saturated

fatty acid (SFA), this agrees with the report by Amos-Tautua et al. (2013) for soybean and

groundnut oils. Nutritionally, the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids in edible oils

and fats is very important. High levels of saturated fatty acids are desirable to increase oil

stability. However, saturated fatty acids (SFA) become nutritionally undesirable because

high levels of saturated fatty acids are considered to increase the concentration of low-

density lipoprotein (LDL), affecting the ratio of LDL too high-density lipoprotein (HDL)

and promoting vascular smooth muscle proliferation (Shahin et al., 2016). The quality and

digestibility of edible vegetable oils are determined by the amount and composition of

unsaturated fatty acids. The presence of linoleic acid inadequate contents is essential since it

is an essential fatty acid (El-Adawye et al., 2001). The ratio of UFA/SFA of the tiger nut oil

is 3.41, 4.27 and 4.56 for the black, brown and yellow cultivars, respectively. Again, the

relationship between saturated (S) and polyunsaturated (P) fatty acid (FA) content is an

important parameter for determination of the nutritional value of oils which is expressed as

P/S index. Oils and fats with a P/S index > 1 are considered to have nutritional value.

Several studies indicate that a higher P/S index means a smaller deposition of lipids in the

body. The P/S index of the tiger nut oils was 0.71 for the brown and yellow varieties

respectively while the black cultivar had none. This favorable fatty acid content of tiger nut

oil, combined with its nutty flavor makes tiger nut oil a very attractive vegetable oil that can

be used in a number of food products.

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5.6 Sensory Properties of Plantain chips Fried with Tiger Nut Oil from Different

Cultivars

Results of the sensory scores of plantain chips fried with oils from different cultivars of tiger

nut and refined groundnut king oil (sample D as control) (Table 7) showed existing

difference between them and the control. However, they were not significantly (P>0.05)

different from their controls for most of the parameters evaluated. There was significant

(p<0.05) difference in the appearance, aroma, texture, flavor and general acceptability of the

chips fried with oil from sample A (black cultivar) and the refined oil (sample D). This

indicates that tiger nut oil has good nutritive value and its good for cooking. Appearance is

an important attribute in food choice and acceptance (Muhimbula et al., 2011). Samples A

and D were preferred in terms of appearance, aroma, flavor, texture and general

acceptability.

Based on the aroma, there was no significant (p > 0.05) difference in all the samples. The

aroma is an integral part of taste and general acceptance of the food before it is put in the

mouth. It is, therefore, an important parameter when testing acceptability of formulated

foods (Muhimbula et al., 2011).

The tastes in all the samples were not significantly (p > 0.05) different based on the

preference of the panelists. Taste is an important parameter when evaluating the sensory

attribute of food. The product might be appealing and having high energy density but

without good taste, such a product is likely to be unacceptable (Muhimbula et al., 2011).

There was no significant (p> 0.05) difference in the texture of samples A (black cultivar)

and B (brown cultivar) while there was no significant (p>0.05) difference in samples D

(control) and C (yellow cultivar). This also could be a result of difference in cultivar. The
 80

overall acceptability was significantly (p<0.05) different in all the samples. Samples A and

D were preferred followed by sample C while sample B was least preferred.

5.7 Storage Stability on Tiger nut Oils from Different Cultivars

5.7.1 Effect of storage on the free fatty acid of the oils

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the free fatty acid value among the samples

down the column and the storage time across the row. Free fatty acids occur in fats as a

result of enzymatic hydrolysis by lipases, metal ions acting as free radicals or at an elevation

of temperature (Gulla and Waghray, 2011). The hydrolytic changes though not

predominant, the formation of free fatty acids was found to increase with increase in time of

storage. The free fatty acid values obtained in this study were in agreement with the values

obtained by Gulla and Waghray (2011) for sesame and rice bran oils and the values were

within the 5.0 % recommended by the CODEX Alimentarius (2013). The increase in content

of free fatty acid should be caused by endemic species of microorganisms that are

introduced into the oil during various stages of processing and transport within the plant

(Almeida et al., 2018). The free fatty acid of sample A (black cultivar) was seen to be on the

higher side than that of sample B (brown cultivar) and C (yellow cultivar), this could be as a

result of difference in cultivars. This may be due to the presence of an active lipase in tiger

nut flour, which upon milling is activated and quickly begins to hydrolyze triglycerides into

free fatty acids, diglycerides and monoglycerides, and the lipase eventually will decompose

all the triglycerides present over a period of several months (Gulla and Waghray, 2011).
 81

5.7.2 Effect of storage on the thiobarbituric acid of tiger nut oil and chips

Thiobarbituric acid measures secondary lipid oxidation products, which are also responsible

for the rancid taste during storage (Decker et al., 2000). This procedure measures the MDA

(malondialdehydes) formed as the split product of an endoperoxide of unsaturated fatty acids

resulting from oxidation of a lipid substrate (Antolovich et al., 2002).

The changes in thiobarbituric acid values of the oils during storage for a period of 3 months

are shown in Table 9. There was a significant (p<0.05) difference between samples A and B

and as storage time increased but for sample C, there was increase and decrease in the

thiobarbituric values as the storage time increased. It seems that the increase and decrease of

thiobarbituric value were as a function of time of heating depends on the number of

malondialdehydes produced. This result was also in agreement with Gulla and Waghray

(2011) who reported storage studies on sesame and rice bran oil.

There was also a significant (p<0.05) difference between the chips samples as storage time

increased. The thiobarbituric acid of the chips increased as the storage time increased.

According to Valde´s et al. (2005), thiobarbituric value usually is more sensitive at the early

stages of oxidation and the oxidation products such as unsaturated fatty acids particularly

linolenic acid is responsible for developing the colour clearly with thiobarbituric and the

major compound formed as a result of the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is

malondialdehydes.

5.7.3 Effect of storage on the moisture content of tiger nut oil

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference between the samples as storage time increased

but the moisture content increased and decreased as the storage time increased. It was also in

agreement with the acceptable limit for moisture content of oil. The moisture content of
 82

food gives an indication of its shelf-life and nutritive value, hence low moisture content is a

requirement for long storage life (Okene and Evbuomwan 2014).

5.7.4 Effect of storage on the peroxide value of tiger nut oil

There was a significant (p<0.05) difference between the samples as storage time increased

but the peroxide value decreased as the storage time increased. The values obtained during

storage did not exceed the limit of 10 meq/kg (SON, 2000). The Peroxide value of an oil or

fat is used as a measurement of the extent to which oxidation reactions have occurred during

processing and storage. Other methods are available but peroxide value is the most widely

used. The best test for autoxidation (oxidative rancidity) is determination of the peroxide

value, as peroxides are intermediates in the autoxidation reaction. Autoxidation is a reaction

involving oxygen that leads to deterioration of fats and oils which form off-flavors and off-

odors. Peroxide value, which is the concentration of peroxide in an oil or fat, is useful for

assessing the extent to which spoilage has occurred (Alhibshi et al., 2016). Peroxide values

of fresh oils are less than 10 milliequivalents/kg when the peroxide value is between 30 and

40 milliequivalents/kg, a rancid taste is noticeable. High peroxide values are a definite

indication of rancid fat, but moderate values may be the result of depletion of peroxides after

reaching high concentrations (Kamsiah et al., 2012).

5.7.5 Effect of storage on the moisture content of plantain chips fried with tiger nut oil from
different cultivars
There was a significant (p<0.05) difference between the samples as storage time increased

According to East African food standards, the maximum moisture level for chips should not

exceed 4.7 % (EAS, 2010).

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The moisture content of chips obtained in this study did not exceed the maximum limit

indicating that chips can be stored up to 5 months. Moisture content is an important shelf life

determinant; the higher the moisture the higher the rate of microbial spoilage of food

products and the faster the breakdown of oils in stored products. The effectiveness of storage

conditions has been assessed in some instances by measuring the moisture content (Alam et

al., 2001).

6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

The result of the study provides information on the nutritional composition, Physico-

chemical and functional properties of tiger nut flour and oil from different cultivars.

Tiger nut flour is a rich source of some useful mineral elements such as potassium,

phosphorus, zinc, sodium, and calcium which are necessary for body growth and

development.
 84

Twelve different individual fatty acids were identified, with 18:1n−9 oleic predominating in

the studied samples. The edible and stable oil obtained from the tuber is said to be superior

oil that compares favorably with olive oil. The results of this study have provided much

justification for the use of tiger nut oil in food products. The high content of oleic acid

makes tiger nut oil a very nutritious and health-enhancing oil. Thus tiger nut oil should be

developed into a commercial product for use in food products. The sensory properties of the

oil used in frying plantain chips showed that the oil is useful for cooking and frying since it

has good taste and aroma.

The effect of storage on some of the physicochemical parameters (thiobarbituric acid TBA,

free fatty acid, Peroxide value, Moisture content) analyzed for both the chips and oil

samples showed that there were changes during storage but they did not exceed the

maximum limits as recommended by CODEX Alimentarius indicating that tiger nut oil is

also a good oil and can play important roles in providing food security, enhancing

livelihoods, improving the nutritional status and social well -being of vulnerable groups.

Tiger nuts and its products could thus, go a long way in aiding to alleviate problems of

malnutrition.

6.2 Recommendations

From the study;

i. Tiger nut oil is very nutritious and health-enhancing oil, thus recommended to be

developed into a commercial product for use in food products.

ii. Tiger nut flour is rich in minerals and other nutrients thus it is recommended for

use in food systems.

85