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    Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits

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    VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULPHIDE DEPOSITS ALAN GALLEY, MARK HANNINGTON AND IAN JONASSON Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, ON, KIA OE8 E-mail: agatley@NRCan.ge.ca Definition Voleanogenie massive sulphide (VMS) deposits are also known as volcanic-associated, voleanic-hosted, and vol- cano-sedimentary-hosted massive sulphide deposits. They ‘ypically occur as lenses of polymetallic massive sulphide that form at or near the seafloor in submarine volcanic envi- ronments. They form from metal-enriched fluids associated with seafloor hydrothermal convection. Their immediate host rocks can be either volcanic or sedimentary. VMS deposits are major sources of Zn, Cu, Pb, Ag and Au, and significant sources for Co, Sn, Se, Mn, Cd, In, Bi, Te, Ga and Ge, Some also contain significant amounts of As, Sb and Hg. Historically, they account for 27% of Canada's Cu pro- duction, 49% ofits Zn, 20% of it’s Pb, 40% of its Ag and 3% Debris Apron &, Metal of its Au, Because of their polymetallic content, VMS deposits continue tobe one af the best deposit types for secu- rity against fluctuating prices of different metals. ‘VMS deposits form at, or near, the seafloor through the focused discharge of hot, metal-rich hydrothermal fluids, For this reason, VMS deposits are classified under the general heading of “exhalative” deposits, which ineludes sedimenta- ry exhalative (SEDEX) and sedimentary nickel deposits (ekstrand eta, 1996), Most VMS deposits have two com ponents (Fig. 1), There is typically a mound-shaped to tabu- lac, stratbound body composed principally of massive (40%) sulphide, quartz and subordinate phyllosiicates and iron oxide minerals and altered silicate wallrock. These stratabound bodies are typically underlain by discordant to semi-concordant stockwork veins and disseminated. sul- hides. The stockwork vein systems, or "pipes", are 100 m———— Collapsed Area FIG 1. Schematic of he modem TAG salphide deposit on the MiAlantc Ride represents a lass cross-section of VMS deposit witha concordant semismasive to massive sulphide lens underlain hy a ison stockork vein sytem and associat alteration hal, of “pipe” Prem Hinton et a (99. Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson Franklin, 1996) Pe 10° termes per 1 rea Gt 400.1000 Hy 1000-10000 HE >10000 Canadian VMS G2 Buse metal clasfeation of worlwide and Canadian VMS deposits is deine frst by Franklin eta (1981) and modified by Lage (1992) 19 inclade th Z-Pb-Cu class. The pepondermce of CZs and 24-Cu VS, deposits in Canada is dac 10 the abundance of Precambrian primitive ‘osu ate stings. Waldwie there a lane propor of Tesch fd, more Pvc continental al continen margin ste stings enveloped in distinctive alteration halos, which may extend into the hanging-vall strata above the VMS deposit YMS deposits are grouped according to base metal con- tent, gold content and host-ock lithology (Figs 2,34). The base metal classification used by Franklin etal. (981) and refined by Large (1992) is perhaps the most common. VMS deposits are divided into Cu-Zn, Zn-Cu_ and. Zn-Pb-Cu groups according to theit contained ratios of these three met- als (Fig 2). The Cu-2n and Zn-Cu categories for Canadian deposits were further refined by Morton and Franklin (1987) into Noranda and Mattabi types respectively, by including the character oftheir host rocks (mafie vs felsic, effusive vs Volcanielastie) and characteristic alteration mineral assem blages (chlorite-sericite-dominated vs. seicte-quartz car- boonatesrich). The Zn-Pb-Cu category was added by Lange (1992) in order to more fully represent the VMS deposits of| Australia (Fig. 2), Poulsen and Hannington (1995) created a sple bimodal definition of “normal” vs. "Ausrich” VMS deposits (Fig. 3). This originally was meant to identify deposits that are transitional between VMS and epithermal deposits (e-, Silltoe eta, 1996) (Fig 4), Further research has inicated'a more complex spectrum of conditions for the generation of Au-rich VMS related 10 water depth, oxidation State, the temperature of the metal-depositing fluids and pos- sible magmatic contributions (eg, Hannington ot al., 1999). In the classification of Poulsen and Hannington (1995) Aucrich VMS deposits are arbitrarily defined as those in which the concentrations of Au in ppm is greater than the combined base metals (Zor+Cu=Pb in wt. %: Fig. 3). A third classification that is gaining popularity in Canada is a five- fold grouping suggested by Barrie and Hannington (1999) (0 indicate dominant host-rock lithology. Host-rock lithologies include stata up 10 3000m below the deposit and up to 500m along strike. The five groups are mafic-dominated, bimodal mafic, bimodal-felsic, siliciclastic-mafic, and bimodal-siliciclastic (Fig. 4). The otder of this. grouping reflects not only a progressive change from a less effusive to ‘a more volcaniclastic-dominated environment, but also one in which felsic voleanic racks become generally more prominent, These lithological groupings generally correlate ‘with different tectonic settings. The groups associated with ‘mafic volcanie and volcaniclastic strata are more common in ‘oceanic ares and spreading centers, whereas the two groups dominated by felsic strata are more common in arc-continent ‘margin and continental are regimes. Geographical Distribution ‘There are close to 800 known VMS deposits worldwide ‘with geological reserves over 200,000 t. They are located in submarine volcanic terranes that range in age from the 3.4 Ga Archean Pilbara Block, Australia, to actively-forming posits in moder seafloor spreading and oceanic are ter- anes (Fig. 5, Table 1), VMS-epithermal hybrids are also forming today in volcanically active shallow submarine (Manus Basin) and lacustrine environments. VMS deposits are recognized on every major continent except Antarctica, although Zn-Pb-Cu deposits are forming in Bransfield Strait ‘on the Antaretic Peninsula (Peterson et al., 2004), Cu and Au have been produced from Tertiaty-age deposits hosted in “ophiolites around the eastern Mediterranean for over 5000 years. Up to 2002, VMS deposits are estimated to have sup- plied over 5 billion t of sulphide ore (Franklin and ‘cuvznePD()| ‘Siver (ppm) FIG 3. Classification of VMS deposits basen thei relative proportions fof CuiznsPh Versi previous meal [Ais AS). Some of Canad Heer own auniferous deposits (underlined) ae compared to international ‘examples. Despite having pried 1701 of Au, the Fan Flo depot nat ‘onsiered an triers VMS deposit under this casifestion, Moi From Hanning etal (19950), YMS Synthesis Massive matoocoy S ei ain Poy. seco Sofie tueornalto manic. suicicuasrie| powiwateD waar fu: 263m fo: 1388 “2M poise part cine in ae a = arcu ri tet ea canes 33 fo tsp Ene, both @ Beret — GD] Spoprich magn QD Pye inst breccia || WH Poy-mgt wansition zone — GD Chert-carbonate-sulfide, Pyrite-quarte breccia Quartz-pyite stockwork || @ Po-py-cpy zone ® Pysph zone Le ee | See Se Eanno gee nee] emonaLwarc con) BIMODAL. wan] PHC vg 830 a SS fog SH Cin are oe en = ica Seen fata Sotas Saorks ie rarer Prion SD Chiorite-sericite 40, S Franery D soto do Dovors cote Sut S Chasen Masse po-20y _||_ QB Chroy vone ee ee HIGH SULFI- sii DATION cuastic- siMoDAL- Fevsic FELSIC Ago fos out ‘an average ode Os8% oo dimen zone Se mel | Stag ' Sonase neers aa. \ dome te 220. 44 | Ditemiontornaion ey Mase ne arto Tipowycoy er BD Wot vontrraion SHOT se Lilo ec carat ‘nguog ang Ma toner Ga ad atrgnte: D Seis, S BRA, Rept ats SE Means) a SE Tcun S Seeacor ate) F Grorasvasvente as Ute ton tmatenG@D Hasse poeeor aD Gee FIG 4. Grape representation ofthe lithological clasication for VMS deposits by Barie and Hanning (1999), with "high slid type am added subipe tothe imo prop. Average ant median sizes for cich type forall Canaan depot slong wth average rade Hannington, 2002). This includes atleast 22% of the world's Zn production, 6% of the world's Cu, 9.7% of the world’s Pb, 8.7% of i's Ag and 2.2% of i's Au (Singer, 1995). ‘Over 350 deposits and major VMS occurrences contain- ing geological reserves >200,000 are known in Canada, of which only 13 are presently producing mines (Figure 6, Table 2). Four ofthese will close in the next two years. VMS deposits are known to occur in every province and territory except Alberta and P.E.I. The largest number of deposit is in Quebec (33%), Manitoba (15%), Newfoundland (12%), British Columbia (10%), Ontario (986), and New Brunswick (9%). The deposits in New Brunswick have had the highest aggregate metal value (Cu+Zn-+Pb), followed by Quebec and then Ontario (Fig. 7) Grade and Tonnage The 800 VMS deposits worldwide range in size from 200,000 t to giant deposits. Among, the largest is Neves Corvo in Spain's Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB), with reserves in excess of 270 Mt 1, with 8.5 million t of contained metals haying a value in 1999 of over 16 billion dollars (US) (Barrie and Hannington, 1999) (Fig. 8, 9a; Table 3). The entire Iberian Pyrite Belt contains 88 deposits, with 7 over 100 Mt, containing an aggregate 1.575 billion tones of ore containing 62.6 Mt Zn+Cu+Pb (Carvalho ct al, 1999). The next largest districts are the Urals and Rudny-Altai of Russia and Kazakhstan with over 70 Mt of contained metals each (Fig. 5). Canada contains 4 giant VMS deposits (Windy Cragey, Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson Table 1. Major World VMS Deposits and Districts New Deposit istict, Count mee 1 Brooks Range, Asks Eg 2 Finlayson Lake, VK 20 3 Winday Cray. BC & Green's Creek, Alaska 300 4 Northern Cordillera. BC 100 5 Myra Falls, BC 35 6 Shast, California 8 7 erome, Aicona 0 5 Comal Mexico 0 9 Tambo Grande 200, 10 Amazonian eriton, Broz ca 11 Slave Province, NWT, NV 30 12 Ratton, MB ss 13. Flin Flom-Snow Lake, MB 1s 14 Geco-Manitouniadge, ON 0 13. Sturgeon Lake, ON 8 16 Ladysmith Rhinelander, Wisconsin 80 17 Abitibi, ON-QC 600 18 Bathurst, NB. 495 19 Dunmage Zone. NF S 20 Iberian Pyrite Bel, Spain & Portal srs 21 Avocs, read "7 22 Trondheim, Norway 100 23. Skellee, Sweden 7 24 Outokunip-Pyhasalmi, Finland 90 25 erglagen-Onjarvi, Sweden & Finland ho 26 Preska, South Attica Troodos, Cyprus 28 Black Sea, Turkey 29° Saudi Arabia 30 Semail, Oman 31 Southern Urals, Rusia 32 Central Urals, Rusia 33 Radny Ala, Kazahhstn 34 Altai-Shan, Mongolia 35 Noth Qin, China 36 Sami China 37 Bawdwin-Laocang, Burma 38 Hokuroko, Japan 39 Besshi, Japan 40 Philipines 41-42 Western Australia 43° Cental Queensland, Australia 444 Lachlan Fold Be, Australia 45 Mt. Read, Tasmania 446 Sino-Koreaa Platform Tumors ert F sre 5; onTage apprONTNS Brunswick No. 12, Kidd Creek and Home), which are defined as being in the upper 1% of the world’s VMS deposits with respect to total original reserves (Fig. 10a). In ‘Canada, the largest VMS mining district is Bathurst, New Brunswick, which contained over 300 Mt of ore containing 30 Mt of combined Zn, Cu and Pb (Fig. 6, 10a). The 128 Mt Brunswick No. 12 deposit alone contained 16.4 Mt of metal (Table 1). This is followed by the 149.3 Mt Kidd Croek deposit containing 12.6 Mt of metal. The largest known Canadian VMS deposit is the 297 Mt Windy Cragey, but it only contains 4.1 Mt of metals. The SO Mt Home deposit contains 2.2 Mt of Zn+CutPb, along with over 330 t of Au, making it also a world-class gold deposit (Fig. 10b). The 55 Mt LaRonde VMS deposit contains 258 t of gold, and because of its high Au/base metal _tatio (Aw ppmiZn+Cu+Pb% = 1.9) it is classified by Agnico-Eagle Inc, as a gold deposit rather than a VMS deposit Determining the mean and median metal concentrations for Canadian VMS deposits is difficult due t© missing or incomplete data for a large number of deposits. Pb grades are known for 34% of Canadian deposits, whereas 35% have known Au grades and 75% have known Ag grades. From the available production data, the mean and median (in brackets) size and grades for known Canadian deposits are 7 306 521 1 grading 4.88% (4.12) Zn, 1.62% (0.70) Cu, 1.639% (1.00) Pb, 63 git (37) Ag and 1.65 git (0.88) Au. Figure 9b shows the more meaningful breakdown of tonnage and grade for each of the five Canadian VMS types as defined by host lithology. Bimodal-mafie deposits aecount for the greatest ‘number and, therefore, the largest aggregate tonnage of the five deposit types, with both siliciclastic types accounting for the largest average tonnage. The malic-siliciclastic deposit types have the highest average tonnage, with the number highly skewed by Windy Craggy. As expected, the three deposits types dominated by mafic volcanic and vol- caniclastic rocks have the highest Cu grades, whereas the two felsie-dominated deposit types contain the highest Pb and Ag. The bimodal-felsic deposit group contains the high- est average gold. Mafic-ultramafic dominated systems can also contain Se, Co and Ni, The presence of immature sedi- ‘ments within the footwall stratigraphy can also influence hydrothermal fluid composition, as is believed to be the ease with the Se-rich Wolverine and KZK deposits in the Finlayson Lake camp (Bradshaw ct al., 2003). Possible con tributions from devolatilizing subvolcanic intrusions may also account for anomalous concentrations of Se, Sn, In, Bi, Te, and possibly Au and Sb (Hannington et al, 1999c; Yang and Scott, 2003; Dubé et al., 2004) Geological Attributes Tectonic Environment ‘The most common feature among all types of VMS. deposits is that they ate formed in extensional tectonic set- tings, including both oceanic seafloor spreading and arc environments (Fig. 11). Moder seafloor VMS deposits are recognized in both oceanic spreading ridge and arc environ- ‘ments (Herzig and Hannington, 1995), but deposits that are still preserved in the geological record formed mainly in ‘oceanic and continental nascent-arc, rifted are and back-are settings (Allen et al. 2002; Franklin ct al. 1998) (Fig. 11), This is because during subduction-driven tectonic activity ‘much of the ancient ocean-floor is subducted, leaving only a few ophiolite suites as remnants of obducted ovean-floor. Examples of these may include the Ordovician Bay of Islands ophiolite in Newfoundland and the Late Triassic- Cache Creek terrane in British Columbia (Bédard and Hébert, 1996; Nelson and Mihalynuk, 2003), Nascent, or early are rifting results trom the initial foundering of older thickened oceanic crust, commonly along transform fault sutures (Bloomer et al., 1995). These carly suprasubduction terranes are most commonly observed in the ancient rock record at the hase of oceanic arc assem- Dlages in which VMS deposits are spatially associated with YMS Synthesis FIG 5. Distribution of ancient and modem VMS deposits, with major district highihted with respect to known aggregate geological eserves. From GSC World Minerals Projet isolated extrusive rhyolite complexes near the top of thick basalt and basaltic andesite successions. The best Canadian example of these bimodal mafic dominated caldera settings is the Paleoproterozoic host succession to the Anderson, Stall and Rod VMS deposits in the Snow Lake camp. Manitoba (Bailes and Galley, 1999), The komatite-basalt- rhyolite setting for the Archean Kidd Creek deposit is inter- preted 0 be an early primitive are setting possibly linked to an underlying mantle plume (Wyman et al., 1999), ora rare example of a non-are VMS setting associated with partial lithospheric melting above a mantle plume (ef. Ieeland). The Ni-rich Potterdoal VMS deposit within the same Kidd- ‘Munro komatiitic assemblage, is another rare example of a komatite-associated VMS deposit (Epp and Crocket, 1999), In the idealized evolutionary stages of are terrane for ‘mation, extension of the prineipal are assemblage is another ‘common period of VMS formation (Fig. 11). This results in the formation of calderas in which bimodal-mafic extrusive successions predominate. This is perhaps the most common are environment for VMS formation in oceanie are settings, Bimodal mafic-dominated VMS-hosting calderas include the Archean Noranda and the Paleoproterozoic Flin Flon ‘mining camps (Gibson and Watkinson, 1990; Syme and Bailes, 1993). Rifting of continental margin arcs, in contrast, results in the development of more voleaniclastie-rich bimodal-felsic extensional settings. Examples ofthis include the Sturgeon Lake camp in the Archean Wabigoon terrane of | Ontario (Morton et al, 1990; Whalen et al, 2004) and the ‘Table 2_ Canadian VMS deposits presently in production. Deposit, Tocation Me cu Zn PD Ag AU Age WO% Wh WE% Btw Kidd Greek ‘Abitibi, Ontario T9328) 636 022 92 005 Archean Brunswick No. 12 Bathurst, N.B. 1373 033 956 356 100 02 Ordovician Selbaie Abitibi, Quebec 473 0.98 1.98 20 09 — Archean LaRonde Abitibi, Quebec 58 033 211 50 4.66 Archean Buttle Lake Wrangellia, B.C 23 19 593 055 55 215 — Devonian Louvicourt Abitibi, Quebec 151367 1.55 29 09 Archean Triple 7 Trans-Hudson Orogen, Manitobs 14.5 2.64 4.98. 31 2.12 Paleoproterozoic Bouchard-Hebert Abitibi, Quebec 102 211 4.79 18 14 Archean Caltinan, Trans-Hudson Orogen, Manitoba 84 129 402 26 2.05 Paleoproterozoic Duck Pond* Central Voleanie Belt, Nfld 39 359 682 LI 71 0 Ordovician Bell Allard Abitibi, Quebec 32 LS 1307 43 08 Archean Chisel North _‘Trans-Hudson Orogen, Manitoba 28 01S 9.36 04 22 04 Paleoproterozoic Eskay Creek Stikine, B.C 4 033 S422 908 26.4 Jurassic Konuto, Trans-Hudson Orogen, Manitoba 19413141 92.07 Paleoproterozoic * In pre-production for 2006; "Includes production and estimated reserves where applicable, From Hannington etal, 1999, Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson Table 3. Examples of Large-Tonnage VMS Deposits of the World (Canadian deposits in red). Deposit Location Mt cu 2 Pb Ag Au Age wits wht _wi% gt pit Giant Deposits 100 MO) Windy Cragey British Columbia 1.38 4 02 Triassic Neves Corvo Portugal 16 1403-30 Carboniferous Aljustret Portugal 08 3 138 08 Carboniferous Rio Tinto (massive) Spain ' 2 130 0.22 Carboniferous La Zarza Spain 07 1s) 0s 4 1 Carboniferous Home (No. § Zone) Quebee ol 07 03° Archean Kidd Creek Ontario 289 636 0.26 92 0.05 Archean. Brunswick No. 12 New Brunswick 0.33 9.56 3.86 100 02 Ordovician Tharsis Spain 0S 27 06 22 0.7 Carboniferous Mi Lyell Tasmania 119 004 0017 0.41 Cambrian Very Large Deposits (50-100 Mt) Rutan Manitoba S28 137 163 00813 0.5 Paleoproterozoic Aznacollar Spain mH 049 214 Lod 4d 0s Los Frailes Spain 7 O34 392 295 63 Masa Valerde Spain mM OS 13 06 38 08. Carboniferous Caribou New Brunswick mM 05 43 16 Ordovician Flin Flon Manitoba 2s 217 413 422.64 Paleoproterozoic Crandon, Wisconsin oll 8600S 1 Paleoproterozoic Geco Ontario S84 186 3451S 50 ‘Archean Sotiel Spain 39906 4D Carboniferous LaRonde Quebee 55033 21 304.66 Archean Matsumine-Shakanai Japan 542 219 2630.76 64 = 0.62 Miocene Hore Mine Quebec S422 13 6.1___Arehean “Large Deposits (25-50 Mt) ML. Morgan Queensland 50 07 6 OL 0056 47 Devonian Lousal Portugal 50 OT 14 OB. Carboniferous Britannia British Columbia HS 19065 7 0.69 Jurassic Migollas, Spain 41608322313 Carboniferous Preiska South Attica 472 0981.98 20 0 Proterozoic Selbaie (all orebadies) Quebec 44 1051.98 30 06 Archean Norita Quebec 316 2174.13 41 2.6 Archean Avoca Ireland 377 Ordovician ‘Aguas Tenidas, Spain 35 Carboniferous Bawdwin Burma 341 048 13 9.09 2320.06 Ordovician Arctic (Brooks Range) Alaska 32.9 458° 08 51 0.02 Devonian Pyhasalmi Finland BLL 095-243 0.0617 02 Proterozoic United Verde USA 300 4B 02 50 137 Proterozoic Madenkoy Turkey 3003943 Cretaceous Besshi Japan 29 26 03 21 07 Jurassic ‘Outokumpu Finland 2% 38 1 001 9 0.08 Proterozoic Hitachi Japan 212 «1406 5 0S Cretaceous Buttle Lake British Columbia 23 19-593 OSS $5 —-2.S_—_Devonian Murgul Turkey 262 2.03 0 Jurassic Scuddles W. Australia| %1 1269S 59 09 Archean Cayeli Turkey 2% 4773 Cretaceous: Mattagami Lake Quebec 256 082 5 2 03° Archean British Columbia 21179 02 O17 Jurassic Norwat 25 1.9 ot 190.20 Ordovician Includes production and estimated reserves where applicable, From Hannington etal, 1999, YMS Synthesis [i Phanorozai cover rocks EZ. wesozoie orogen S] Pateozoe regen [1 Proterozoic caver rocks 21 Middle Proterozoic orogen [Da Eaty Proterozoic orogen TS avchean eraton FIG 6, Distbuton of VMS deposis in Canada by geologic province, Numbers corespand to depois sted inthe atonal VMS database (Appendix 1) Devonian Buttle Lake VMS camp in the Wrangellia Terrane of BC (Barrett and Sherlock, 1996). Outside Canada, the Paleoproterozoic Skellefte mining district in Sweden (Weihed, 1996) and the Cambrian Mount Read VMS district FIG. 7 Histogram ofthe ttl tonnage of hase meals trom known VMS. ‘eposits per province and the numberof depots the sere tonnage ‘et calculate Wom, Tal metal represen ginal geological reserves in Tasmania (Corbett, 1992) are other examples of rifted continental margin arc settings. Continued extension in both ‘oceanic and continental margin are settings results in devel- ‘opment of back-are basins. In oceanic are settings, mature back-are ophiolites also can host VMS deposits. Canadian examples include the Paleoproterozoic Birch-Flexar- Coronation camp on the Saskatchewan side of the Flin Flon mining district (Wyman ct al., 1999) and Betts Cove, Newfoundland (Swinden et al., 1988; Bedard et al, 1998), ‘Well-known examples outside Canada include the Tethyan “ophiolites in Cyprus (Troodos), Oman (Semail) and Turkey (Exgani) (Galley and Koski, 1999, and references therein). ‘Continental back-arc ‘settings contain some of the ‘world’s most economically important VMS districts. These environments are dominated by bimodal siliciclastic rocks iron formation and include the Ordovician Bathurst camp of New Brunswick (van Staal et al., 2003). Examples outside Canada include the Archean Golden Grove camp in Western Australia (Sharpe and Gemmell, 2002), the Paleoproterozoic Bergslagen district of Sweden (Allen et al, 1996), the trict of Queensland Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson ‘Number of Deposits oa 40 60 80 100 120 140 g iced ‘Sze in Milion Metric Tonnes FIG. Woldwie se dntibuion for VMS deposit, with depois over 50 Mi considered "giant, an those over 150 Mk considered "supe [Allants Deep is considered the lrpest moder example of a seaooe mas Sve sulphide depos, with Neves Corvo and Windy Cragay ancient exam. ‘ks of supergian deposi. Modified fom Hantingto ea (1995) (Doyle and McPhie, 2000), the Devono-Mississippian Iberian Pyrite Belt (Carvalho et al, 1999), and parts of the Devonian Southem Urals VMS districts of Russia and Kazakhstan (Herrington et a, 2002). Other extensional environments may form in post- acetetion and/or successor are settings. Crustal thickening of A oe om 4 [Pb int oe a FIG 9 siatistis for VMS deposits grouped by lthlogic clas (Barrie and lanningon, 1999) a) workwvide deposits: b) Canadian depsis groupe! 3 lithotoecas. an acereted ocean-floor-are assemblage can result in modific cation of the angle of descent ofthe subducting slab, cessa- tion of subduction along a section of plate boundary, or a change in the direction of approach of the colliding plates (Ziegler, 1992; Hamilton, 1995), This process results in the generation of strike-slip basins in the older arc assemblages. Magmatism associated with these suecessor are basins may be associated with mineralized porphyry systems (Richards, 2003), and the basins may be infilled with both subaqueous and subaerial bimodal voleanie rocks. This can result in the A on tt ectogical Resources FIG 10. Distbuion of Canadian VMS doposits with repost o aggregate base metal grade versus tonnes (a) and catained Au versus ong omnes (8) ‘most nuifeyaus Au dopoaiscouain > 4 gf AN (gen damonds), Thane ‘omaining ove 1000 tonnes oF Au (yellow damoads) inlude both aunt ‘ous VMS deposits an those with meat Au gades hu arg tonnage. Giant and superiant VMS deposits ae identified by name. From OSC Camas VMS database, formation of multiple mineral deposit types, including epithermal and VMS deposits. A good example ofthis is the Lower Jurassic Hazelton Group in the Todogoone and Sustut regions of BC, the former containing the Eskay Creek Au- rich VMS deposit (Barrett and Sherlock, 1996b, Nelson and Mibalynuk, 2004). When these strike-slip fault systems propagate info a continental margin setting, such as in the ‘modem day Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California, the strike- slip basins begin to infill with terrigenous sediment. They cean host mafic siliciclaste-hosted VMS deposits such as the Triassic Windy Craggy and Green's Creek deposits in BC and Alaska, respectively (Peter and Seott, 1999). These are known as Besshi-type deposits from the type locality in the fore-deep accretionary wedge outboard of the Miocene YMS Synthesis Faia oinaplnt it ae" het Se ee ee ae bes her aol line nal are Buck Ae Conioers) as, Ossen nat ‘conning Feteraten Core Conimratenss $3 Gene anapre Sitcom, 1 ts pnts @ Epon # OnpenisAu Pap Crd sare) FIG. 11. There ae thes principal tectonic environments in which VMS 350°C) hydrothermal sys- tems, whieh in turn can form Cu, Cu-Zn and Zn-Cu- (Pb) VMS deposits with variable Au and Ag contents. Areally extensive, |-Sm thick Fecrich “exhalites” may mark the most prospective VMS horizons (Spry et al., 2000; Peter, 2003) (Fig, 16f, 2). These exhalite deposits form from a combina- tion of fine voleaniclastie material, chert and carbonate, DEP CONVECTION FIG 14. The development and maturation of a generic sub-sclloor hydrothermal sytem favolves tne stages: 1) Relatively deep emplace- ‘ent ofa avocone intrusion Below a nade hd exahlchosnt of Shallow eiculatina, low temperature seawater convection system. This ‘sulin shallow subsoalor alteration and associated formation of chen fea sedimentation. 2) Higher level inrasion of subvoleanic magmas ard ‘resultant generation ofa deepscatedsu>sealor seawater convection sy ‘em in which met gains and losses of elements re diated by sub-hoioon- ‘al others. 3) evelopment of mature large sale hydrothermal sys tem in which subherzonal seers contl he formalin of seco fonmabie hydrothermal aeration assemblages. The high temperature rea ‘on zane next tothe cooling nson i enol Breached du Ses tic activiy or dike emplascment allowing formed uplow of metaich ‘dst the seafloor and formation of VMS deposits, From Galle (1993). ee | FIG. 15, Comparison of eiomal peenschist facies deer alteration in tho Noranda Volenie Comples with previously mapped metamomtie nog (soli ines from Disoth etal. 1983; Powell etal, 1993). The “tbton of greenachnt fies hydrothermal alteration (shaded) sages ‘that interpreted metamorphic zonation is atleast pany apd of early yoni hycthermatpacesses Note hat pide an elon the pre-cauldron sequence are dint from those of the Mine Sequcnce vl “ani rocks, even the they are well within the epdote-actnolite sub ‘es and ave Been metamorphosed atthe same pressure and temperate. Modified from Hansngion et al. 2003). ‘They form during the immature and/or waning stages of regional hydrothermal activity when shallowly circulating seawater sirips Fe, Si and some base metals at <250°C and precipitates them on the seafloor through extensive, but di fuse, hydrothermal venting. Formation of exhalites on a basalt-dominated substrate is commonly accompanied by silicfication and/or chloritization of the underlying 200-500 1m of strata (Fig, 16d, e). Examples of this are observed in the Noranda, Matagami Lake, and Snow Lake VMS camps (Kalogeropoulos and Scott, 1983; Liaghat and MacLean, 1992; Bailes and Galley, 1999). In felsic voleaniclastic-dom- inated terranes the generation of Fe-formation is accompa- nied by extensive K-Mg alteration of the felsic substrate, as recorded in the Bergslagen district of Sweden (Lagerbiad and Gorbatschev, 1985) and in the [PB (Munha and Kerrieh, 1980) Mafic, felsic, and bimodal siliciclastic voleanic assem- blages tend to host volumetrically smaller matic and/or fel- sie sll-dike complexes, and generally contain Zn-Cu-Co and Zn-Po-Cu-Ag VMS deposits, respectively. In deposit set- tings proximal to diserete extrusive complexes more Cu-rich deposits, such as Neves Corvo in the IPB, may also form, The district-seale semiconformable hydrothermal systems ‘consist of low-temperature mineral assemblages, with Mg-K smectite and K-fekdspar alteration and the formation of extensive low-temperature Fe-Si-Mn deposits (ie. type of iron formation). Other types of iron formation are interpret- ‘ed to be products of plume fallout from high-temperature hydrothermal venting in a reduced, stratified water column, ‘or collection of hypersaline brines within fault-controlled ‘depressions on the seafloor (Peter, 2003). Individual units of, iron formation can extend for tens of km, as in the Bathurst VMS camp in New Brunswick (Peter and Goodfellow, 1996a), the Paleoproterozoic Bergslagen district (Allen ot al,, 1996), the Devono-Mississippian IPB in Spain and Portugal (Carvalho et al, 1999) and the Mississippian Fig. 16A) High temperature bydcxmal alteration of mati voleanicas- ‘se ubidite overlain hy astrongly slid mafic dais Now 1200m below the Chisel-Lost Ghost VMS horizon, Stow Lake. This epesets region Alea eaction zane overlain by high temperature zone of sles duping, +B) Strongly sified pillows with pie vesteles filed with actioli, pidote and magnetite, and interpllow fyoloclasite completing replaced bythe same asemblage. Thi slteration facies ditety overs the subvol- ‘nic Moos nasi, Bousgt VMS camp: C) An example ofeiste "pict athe rot zones of VIS hydrothermal upiow zones n whch igh fuidlock ros fas resulted in Teaching of lithopie,chalcophile and LLISE fom heat (Lyn D) Strongly Me altered pillows metamo hosed toc anthophylite-crdiente i the foorall sata fo the Wieson Take 2a-Cu deposit Terace Bay ON; E Silciied baste andesite ofthe Upper Amulet fn, Norunda, as an example of peresive silica damping that occurs in mafic lows diectlyundetying tuflaceous exhale units in ‘many. Precambrian VMS camps: F) Mine Contact Tiff exhalte horton (Geteen white lines) that overs the silted andesteso the Wat, Norands: G) Banded magnottechor! Feformation overlying the Aust Brook massive sulphide depos, Bathurst camp (Petr) H) Chositid- fich zone below the Matai depen, Sturgeon Lake, where Fe-ch liydothrmal Tide corse prviously-formed carbonat-nch regional sition ze Finlayson Lake camp, Yukon (Peter, 2003). Mineralogical variations within these regionally extensive iron formations, fiom oxide through carbonate to sulphide, are indicative of proximity to more focused, higher-temperature hydrother- ‘mal vent complexes and also reflect stratification of the ‘water column in the basin, The mineralogical variations are accompanied by changes in element ratios such as Fe, Mn, B, Pand Zn (exhalative component) versus Al and Ti (detri- tal clastic component) (Peter and Goodfellow, 19960), Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson Granedionto Subvolcani¢ Invusions Granodiorite, quartz monzonite © Bledeiman Bay subvolcanic Gabbro, dota infuse comple Mate velconics @ Pike Lake layered complex Felsle volcanics 4 UMS deposis B [andesterRayolte (Cycle v) Gad Daposite kine Secuence AndestaRtyoite (Cycle Il) JAndesterRiyotie (Cycle | 1) 4 YAS Depeais! Hema Volcanic Sequence Oesurencas id is ‘Sm tremate ruse FIG. 17, Examples of clusters of VMS deposits defining a mining camp Thess inelide- A) the Archean Noranda camp, with 4 bimod-mafic type depots underlain by the Flava Powell subvoleani intrusion (Sontag, 1994): 8) the Paleoproterozoi Fin Fi dist with L7 VMS deposits bose within a ‘eres of black bounded terranes representing diferent stags of oseanc are development. For iis reason the stick contains a wide erty of VMS types {Syme and Bates, 1995; Galley and Jonasson, 2003): C) the Paleoproterozoic Snow Lake camp with to subvoleans inusions (Sneath Lake and Richard Like) inetved in two separate hydrothermal evens that formed 8 bunodal-mafc deposits (todiid fom Bailes and Galle, 1999) apd D) the Ordovician Bathurst camp with 35 deposis dominated bythe bimodal-siciclase deposit type (mele rm ya Sl, 2003). Deposit-scale Environments VMS deposits consist of a massive to semi massive stratabound sulphide lens, and most are underlain by’a st phide-silicate stockwork vein system (Figs.1 and 4). Within this broad framework there is a spectrum of deposit sizes, morphologies and compositions, depending on the nature of | the synvolcanic faulting, footwall and host-rock lithology, water depth, the size and duration of the hydrothermal sys- tem, temperature gradients, and degree of preservation, Individual massive sulphide lenses can be over 100 m thick, tens of meters wide and hundreds of meters in strike length, ‘The 148 Mt Kidd Creek deposit begins atthe present erosion surface and extends for over 2000 m downplunge (original strike length), with the S composite orebodies over $00 m wide and individual lenses up to 100 m thick. The stratabound sulphide mound component of a VMS deposit ray have a number of morphologies and variable internal structure (e-, Figs. and 18). Observations of modem seafloor hydrothermal vent complexes in effusive, flow- dominated terranes indicate thatthe deposits begin to form as.a series of sulphide-silicate-sulfate chimneys (Fig. 18a). ‘These become structurally unstable with continued growth and collapse, and coalesce to form a breccia mound (Fig. 18b.c). Continued circulation of hydrothermal fluids within this breccia mound results in sealing fom seawater by a sil VMS Synthesis Fig. 18. A) Example of a zoned sulphide chirmey fom the Endeavour Ridge Yen Feld (LR. Jonasson: B) Typical textares rom a massive sl pide mound, Main vent field Juan de Fuca Ridge, Banding fom snc ental chigmey grosth wit ovoid representing worm cass. Fragment monte by ltr sulphide growth dnng mound collapse and subseavent lnvasionby hydrothermal Nad (A.G Galle): ©) Sandy sulphige oe fem Cetaoous Aata dposit, Sema opiolite, Oman. Typical texte due to fepested mound collapse das to anhydt dicalation and re-cometing ‘wth ater sulphide (LR. Jonasson): D) Paral replacement of fnely bedded {Ui by massive pytotitechaleopyet at the Ansi deposit Noands (A.C. Galley F) Rhyole cass cemented by pyste-sphalerte rch sulphide proundmass, Lawicout deposit, Val €Or (AG Galley) ) Pyete-apha Ire clas as part ofa proximal debris how, Louicat, Nal €Or (A.C Galley) Gy Cranston tu unt with iepart replacement and in-fling by frst pyritesphalere,folloned by pythositechlcopstit, Anil depos Nora (A'G. Galley H) Welhdsveloped pytholechacepyste vein oskvork zone with iene clone aleration othe role walrock, Asif Jepont, Noranda (A.G Galley. fling of thyolitehyalocastit in ‘mediate fowl 19 the Anil massive slphie Tens, oranda (A.C. Galle) ica, clay, and/or sulfate cap. Progressive deposition of metal sulphides within the mound results in the formation of a complexly textured, semi massive to massive sulphide ‘mound. The flow of hydrothermal fluid through the mound structure commonly results in remobilization of previously deposited metals along a chemical and temperature gradient perpendicular fo the seawater interface (Fig. 19). This process is referred to as zone refining (Eldridge et al., 1983) tnd results ina chaleopyrite-tich core and a sphalerite gale narrich outer zone (Fig. 19). In extreme cases, much of the base and precious metals can he remobilized out of the sul- pphide mound and carried into the seawater column by vent- ing hydrothermal fluids. Massive pyritie cores and thi base- and precious-metal enriched outer margins are a char acteristic of VMS deposits that have had a protracted thermal history (eg., Hannington ct al., 1998; Petersen ct al., 2000). “Riteration pipe FIG. 19-The mineral zonation commonly observed within VMS deposits is lagely a function of bydothennal lid tenyerture and composition emperatur nation result the zing of sulphide minerals within bth dha dcordantsockwork zone andthe conformable sulphide mou From Td (1988. Although many VMS deposits have a clastic compo- nent, this is usually subordinate to the massive sulphide facies. In many cases, such as the HW orebody at Buttle Lake (Barrett and Sherlock, 1996a), British Columbia, Kidd Creek, Ontario (Hannnington et al,, 1999), Louvicourt, Quebec, and Triple 7, Manitoba these subordinate clastic facies contain a mixture of sulphide and host rock fragments, Interbedded sulphide and silicate-rich layers form from ero- sion and periodic collapse of a sulphide mound to form sand to breceia-sized deposits. Examples where these elastic sul- hide components are a dominant part of the deposit include Eskay Creek and Tulsequah Chief, British Columbia (Barret and. Sherlock, 1996a; Scbert and Barrett, 1996), and Buchans, Newfoundiand (Walker and Barbour, 1981). In other cases, finely bedded ore lenses may result from high temperature plume fallout of sulphide particles intermixing ‘with hydrothermal silica, tale and Mg-smectites, plus ambi- cent background pelagic sedimentation (Peter, 2003 and ref- erences therein). Similar finely banded ores can also be a product of dynamic recrystallization of sulphides during regional deformation events. VMS deposits readily accom- modate strain during regional deformation because of the ‘ductile nature of massive sulphide bodies, and ean therefore display much higher degrees of reerystallization and remobi- lization than the surrounding volcanic and sedimentary stra ta In some cases, VMS deposits do not form on the seafloor but develop as a result of shallow sub-seafloor replacement, This occurs when hydrothermal fluids infill primary pore space in either extrusive, autoclastic, voleani- clastic or epiclastic successions below an impermeable cap (Fig. 184, e). At the Ansil deposit in the Archean Noranda VMS camp, a suecession of laminated felsic ash flows/tur- Didites infilied a small fult-bounded rift on the felsic flow complex (Fig. 182). Hydrothermal fuid seepage up the rift ‘margins resulted in unit-by-unit replacement of the laminat- ed volcaniclastic layers by pyrite, sphalerite and silica. Some exceptionally large massive sulphide deposits have formed ‘within voleanie depressions inflled with autoclastic and het- Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson FIG. 20, composite section though «VMS alleation ester inthe Bathurst mining camp a= an example ofa VMS prosimal aeration Zone metamorphosed grenschist grade” miners! assemblages, From CGeodtliow etal. 2003), crolithologic debris flow and talus deposits, These include the Home No. 5 lens (Kerr and Gibson, 1993) Kidd Crock (Hanningion et al,, 1999b), and several orebodies at Buttle Lake (Barrett and Sherlock, 1996a). ‘Most Canadian VMS deposits are characterized by dis- ccordant stockwork vein systems that commonly underlie the massive sulphide lenses, but may also be present in the immediate stratigraphic hanging wall strata, These stock- ‘work vein systems occur at the center of more extensive, dis- cordant alteration zones, They form by interaction between rising hydrothermal fluids, circulating seawater and sub- seafloor rocks, The alteration zones and attendant stockwork vein systems may extend vertically below a deposit for sev- eral hundred meters, Proximal hanging-wall alteration can manifest itself as a semi-conformable halo up to tens of ‘meters thick (Brunswick No 12, Bathurst) or may continue above the deposit for tens to hundreds of meters as a discor- dant alteration zone (Ansil, Noranda), In some cases, the proximal alteration zone and attendant stockwork vein min- eralization connects a series of stacked massive sulphide Tenses (Amulet, Noranda; LaRonde, Bousquet) representing synchronous and/or sequential phases of ore formation dur- ing successive breaks in voleanie activity. In plan view, proximal alteration zones may form a halo ‘up to twice the diameter of the massive sulphide lens (Fig. 20), but with deposits such as Chisel Lake, Snow Lake camp, or Eskay Creek, British Columbia, footwall alteration can be volumetrically extensive and many times the diame~ fer of the massive sulphide lens (Galley et al., 1993), The morphology of proximal alteration zones can vary widely, but generally they tend to widen in proximity to the paleo- seafloor surface suggesting more intensive interaction between shallowly circulating, or connate, seawater and an ascending hydrothermal fluid. The internal mineralogical zonation of the alteration zones is indicative of these mixing phenomena. A. Fe-chlorite-quartz-sulphide:scricitetale ‘mineral assemblage is commonly associated with the core of stockwork vein mineralization, which becomes increasingly quartz and sulphide-rich towards the lower contact of the ‘massive sulphide lens. In some cases tale and/or magnetite ‘occur at the base of the massive sulphide lens and the top of the alteration pipe, as several of the Matagami district VMS deposits the Ansil deposit in the Noranda camp and the Late ‘Triassic Chu Chua deposit in the Slide Mountain terrane of BC. The core zone is cloaked in a wider zone of Fe-Mg-chlo- fe-sericite, including phengite in the part of this zone that encompasses the immediate hanging wall to the massive sul- phide lens. Outboard from this is a zone rich in sericite, phengite, Mg-chlorite, * albite, + carbonate, barite. This ‘outer zone may also encompass a portion of the hanging~ ‘wall strata above, and lateral to the massive sulphide lens. In shallow-water environments (ea, <1,500 m water depth), boiling may have occurred either in the upflow zone or in the immediate sub-seafloor, Depending on the extent of boiling, this can result in vertically extensive pyritic stockwork zones, possibly with widespread and intense sericite-quartz-pyrite alteration. The extensive sericite-rich alteration system that underlies the Eskay Creek auriferous VMS deposit may be a product of extensive sub-surface boiling of hydrothermal fluids, which resulted in the forma- tion of low temperature (<200°C) Sb-Hg-As-Pb sulfosalt- rich ore lenses (Sherlock et al, 1999), More advanced argillic alteration may be produced by acidic magmatic volatiles, and this alteration can lead to distinctive alumi- nosilicato-rich mineral assemblages when metamorphosed to sgreenschist grade. In the case of the LaRonde deposit, Quebec, “classic” mound-type Zn-Cu-Au massive sulphide lenses are associated with extensive zones of metamor- hosed argillic alteration containing pyrite-chalocpyrite-bor- nite-gold stockwork systems. This may be the result of shal- low subsurface boiling and separation of a volatile-rich fluid fo focused input of oxidized magmatic Muids (Dubé et al.. 2004), In less extreme cases, distal, low-temperature hydrothermal alteration assemblages associated with VMS may be difficult to distinguish from regional greenschist- facies metamorphic mineral assemblages. When both proxi- ‘mal and regional semiconformable alteration zones are affected by amphibolite grade regional or contact metamor- phism, the originally strongly hydrated alteration mineral assemblages change into a coarse-grained quartz-phyllosili- ceate-aluminosilicate assemblages that are very distinct from the surrounding unaltered strata (Fig. 21). It then becomes possible to use the systematic variations in these coarse- gtained metamorphic mineral assemblages as vectors towards the core of the proximal alteration system or upsec= tion towards the paleo-seafloor (Hodges and Manojlovie, 1993), ssive suptige rs Site Ryaie FIG 21. A stylized cross section through he proximal aeration zone atthe ise deposit Snow Lake mining camp, lusting the changes in mines fl asemblages thar cocur fen the ‘erine undergoes lower 10 middle amphibolite grade repional metamorphism, From Galley eta. 1993). YMS Synth Genetic/Exploration Models Exploration models for VMS systems have several com- mon themes despite the large variety of submarine environ- iments in which the deposits can form. The generation of a \VMS-hosting volcanic eomplex isa response to focused heat flow caused by tectonic extension, mantle depressurization, and the resultant formation of highstemperature mantle melts, crustal partial melts, and common bimodal voleanie suecession. The large majority of VMS deposits in Canada form in either bimodal-matic or bimodal-felsic voleanic ter- ranes dominated by basalt-basaltc andesite and rhyolite-rhy- odacite. Prospective VMS-hosting are terranes are character- ized by bimodal volcanic successions that have a tholeiitic to transitional tholeiitie-cale alkaline composition, The felsic volcanics are characterized by low Zr/Y (<7) and low (La/Yb)s (<6), with elevated high field strength element contents (Zr >200 ppm, Y >30 ppm, and elevated LREE and HREE,) typical of high-temperature, reduced magmas derived from partially hydrated crust (Barrie et al., 1993; Barrie, 1995; Lentz, 1998). The lower viscosities ofthe high- temperature felsic magmas result in rapid ascent with mini mal heat loss into sub-scafloor settings where hydrothermal convection can be initiated, For this reason, most prospective ‘VMS environments are characterized by high-level sill-dike swarms, discrete felsic extrusive centers and large (=15 km Jong and 2000 m thick) subvoleanic composite intrusions. The absence of substantial subvolcanic intrusions in some camps may be due to poor preservation asa result of folding and faulting, ‘The interaction of large volumes of volean strata with seawater within these high-heat extensional environments results in the formation of distrit-scale alteration zones that extend over the strike length of the VMS-hosting extension- al feature (spreading ridge, rift, caldera), Stacked alteration zones can have an aggregate thickness of 2000-3000 m, and may be intruded by resurgent phases of the underlying sub- volcanic intrusion. Subvoleanic intrusions themselves. can display textural features indicating high-level devolatiliza- tion and high-temperature magmatic-hydrothermal alteration (quartz-epidote-magnetite-ferroactinolite-sulphides). In some eases this devolatiization may contribute metals tothe overlying convective hydrothermal system (Lydon, 1996; Large et al,, 1996; Galley, 2003, and references therein). Regional semiconformable alteration systems resemble regional metamorphic zones (zeolite, greenschist, amphibo- lite), with increasing grade towards the heat source. Most Canadian VMS districts have been affected by regional ‘metamorphism, which has resulted in ecrystallization of the original alteration minerals to greenschist and/or amphibo- lite assemblages. In camps such as Noranda, Bousquet, Sturgeon Lake, Manitouwadge, Snow Lake, Leaf Rapids and the western Stikine (Tulsequah Chief), regional metamor- phism or local contact metamorphism of alteration minerals has. produced distinctive coarse-grained mineral assem- Dlages characterized by such minerals as. phlogopite, cordierite, anthophyllite, muscovite, staurolite, gamet, andalusite and kyanite, The metamorphosed alteration can be distinguished from essentially isochemical regional meta- ‘morphic mineral assemblages by the losses and gains of var- ious elements during fluid-rock interactions (Fig. 15). Submarine voleanic stratigraphy that is prospective for ‘VMS mineralization commonly contains ferruginous exhala- tive horizons as an indication of sub-sealloor hydrothermal activity. Precambrian VMS-related exhalites are commonly ‘composed of finely bedded sulphide-rich tuffaceous materi- al, More extensive Algoma-type oxide facies Fe-formations are also common in VMS-prospective back-arc enviton- ‘ments of all ages. Both types of exhalite may form proximal to massive sulphide deposits or extend for strike lengths of several kilometers to fens of kilometers (Spry et al., 2000; Peter, 2003). Proximity to a hydrothermal source in these formations is indicated by positive inter-element correlation between hydrothermal components (Eu, Fe, Ma, Pb, Zn, Cd, ‘Au, Ca, St, Ba, P, CO) versus clastic components (Si, Ti, Al, Mg, K, and Zr), increasing chondrite normalized Eu (hydrothermal input), and decreasing CelCe* (seawater input) towards the source (Peter and Goodfellow, 1996, Peter and Goodfellow, 2003a,b). Vertical and horizontal facies variations fom oxide through silicate t0 carbonate, ‘which in some cases, also may reflect proximity to focused hydrothermal activity (Peter, 2003). Key Exploration Criteria The following are the major exploration criteria for Canadian VMS deposits and key atibutes of VMS-hosting volcanic complexes 1) The deposits occur in volcanic belts from Late Archean to ocene in which extension i indicated by relatively prim- itive (Qholeitic to transitional bimodal voleanism in nascent are, rifled are and back-are environments. Some obducted sealloor spreading centers and sifted continental margins are also prospective. 2) _VMS formation occurs daring periods of major ocean- closing and terrane aceretion, This includes the Late Archean (2.8-2.69 Ga), Paleoprotezoic (192-187 Ga), Cambro- Ordovician (500-450 Ma), Devono-Mississippian (370-340 Ma), and Early Jurassic (200-180 Ma) 3). In effusive flow-dominated settings in oceanic are and Continental margin ares, VMS can be associated with 15-25 Xm-long mafic to composite synvoleanie intrusions. These intrusions are Na-rih and depleted in low field sienath ele- ‘ments and have low airborne radiometric responses but com- monly show magnetic halos due to surrounding zones of high-temperature fluid interaction. Exploration should be focused up to 3000 m upsection in he comaamatie volcan suites inthe hanging wall ofthe intrusions. Rhyolites with high Zr (300 ppm), negative chondrite-normalized Eu anomalies, (La/Yb)v=7, (Gd/Yb)s<2 and Yizre 7 define high-temperature (900°C) felsic volcanic environments favourable for VMS formation, The presence of synvolcanic dike swarms and exhalite horizons ae indicative of areas of high pateo-heat flow 4) In continental back ar, bimodal silcielastic-dominated settings aeromagnetic surveys ean be used to identify areal ly extensive Fe-formations to target hydrothermally active paleo-seafloor horizons. Variations in the mineralogy ofthe tron formations and varying element ratios can serve as vec- tors toward high-temperature hydrothermal centers. ‘Volumetrically minor sill-dike complexes also may identify Alan Galley, Mark Hannington and fan Jonasson higher temperature hydrothermal centers. 5) _In upper greenschist-amphibolite metamorphic terranes distinctive, coarse-grained mineral suites commonly define ‘VMS alteration zones. These include chloritoid, garnet, stau- rolite, kyanite, andalusite, phlogopite and gahmite. More alu- ‘minous mineral assemblages commonly occur closer to a ‘high temperature alteration pipe. Metamorphic mineral chemistry, such as Fe/Zn ratio of staurolit, is also a vector tw ore. These largely refractory minerals have a high survival rate in surficial sediments, and can be used through heavy ‘mineral separation as further exploration guides in tll-cov ered areas, 6) Mineralogy and chemistry can be used to identify large- scale hydrothermal alteration systems in which clusters of VMS deposits may form. Broad zones of semiconformable alteration will show inereases in Ca-Si (epidotization-silii fication), Ca-Si-Fe _(actinolite-clinozoisite-magnetite), Na (spilitization), or K-Mg (mixed chlorite-sericiteK-spar), Proximal alteration associated with discordant sulphide-sili cate stockwork vein systems includes chlorite-quartz-sul- phide- or serivite-quartz-pyrite aluminosilicate-rich assem- blages and is typically strongly depleted in Na and Ca due to high-temperature feldspar destruction. In addition to geo- chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction, PIMA and oxygen iso- tope analysis can assist i vectoring towards higher-temper- ature proximal alteration zones and associated VMS miner- alization. Although PIMA has been used most effectively on alteration systems that contain minerals with a high reflec- tive index, there has been some suecess in identifying green schist facies minerals within Precambrian VMS hydrother- ‘mal systems (Thompson et al, 1999) Knowledge Gaps Researchers have gathered an impressive amount of knowledge over the last ten years with respect to how, and where, VMS deposits form within various geodynamic regimes. This is due to a combination of studies of modern seafloor environments and detailed and regional-scale stud- ies of ancient VMS environments. These studies have allowed us to place VMS depositional environments within the context of diverse supra-subduction settings that can be identified in deformed and metamorphosed terranes through lithostratigraphie facies evaluation and lithogeochemical analyses. Prospective settings for sub-scafloor hydrothermal systems ean now be determined through identification of synvolcanic intrusions that trigger the systems, geochemical variations in altered rocks and chemical sedimentary hori- zons, and the use of mineralogy, geochemistry and isotope geology. The fundamental ingredient for the efficient use of these tools is an appropriate level of understanding of the architecture of the volcanic_terranes. Mapping at 1:20K scale and complimentary geochronological studies of the Flin Flon, Snow Lake, Leaf Rapids and Bathurst mining camps were key to understanding the evolution of the var fous VMS-hosting arc assemblages and at what period of time in this evolution the deposits formed. Detaled lithos- tratigraphie mapping was essential in unraveling deforma- tion histories and understanding the structural repetitions of prospective ore horizons. At larger scales we still need a bet- ter understanding of the longevity of hydrothermal systems and the character and scale of fluid flow into both voleani and sedimentary hanging wall strata, We also need a better ‘understanding of how to prospect for VMS environments through thick drift cover using novel heavy mineral analysis and selective leach methods. Successful exploration under cover requites improved understanding of the processes of secondary and tertiary remobilization of metals and trace elements from a VMS deposit and its associated alteration system, Some Areas of High eral Potential in Canada ‘+ The recognition of new classes of high-sulfidation and shallow-water VMS deposits and their genetic association ‘with differentiated magmatic suites in both cale-alkaline and alkaline volcanic ares opens up new terranes and voleani cenrvironments to exploration that were previously consid- cered non-prospective for VMS. These environments include are fronts and successor magmatic ares in addition to primi- tive rifted are and back-are terranes. Cale-alkaline to alkaline terranes such as the Triassic Nicola Group and the Lower Jurassic Hazelton Group in BC should be revisited for atyp- ical VMS deposits, Evolved pars of Archean greenstone ter= ranes, in particular >2.8 Ga terranes, in which there was involvement of early sialic crust, should also be considered in this context; ie. Frotet-Troilus domain, Grand Nond, North Caribou, and western Slave subprovinces. ‘+ Incipient rift environments ofthe Paleoproterozoic Trans- Hudson Orogen. The presence of large volumes of iran for= ration and associated VMS mineralization in the Labrador Trough is evidence of extensive hydrothermal systems gen- crated in these 2.1 to 2.0 Ga rift systems on both margins of | the orogen. Why did these not develop large VMS deposits as in other Fe-formation rich environments (e.g., Manitouwadgey? + Intrusions associated with Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization rep- resent large volumes of magma commonly emplaced at shal- low erustal levels as part of voleano-plutonie complexes. If emplaced in a subaqueous environment, these terranes should be highly prospective for mafic silicilastie or mafic: dominated VMS deposits. These may include the submarine volcanic stratigraphy above the Fox River and Bird River sills in Manitoba and possibly the Bad Vermilion anorthositie complex in southwestern Ontario. ‘+ Intra-continental back-are environments have been recog nized as highly prospective for VMS. Where are the conti- rental back-arc environments in the Superior, Slave and Greaville provinces? Have we explored enough in the +2.8 Ga or < 1.5 Ga terranes? + Terranes affected by thin-skinned fold-thrust tectonics present special challenges for exploration but are also high- ly prospective for VMS. The potential for new exploration targets in areas such as the Central Volcanic Belt of ‘Newfoundland is high, and the lessons learned in the Iberian Pyrite Belt with respect to exploring in such terranes can be applied in these and other similar terranes in Canada, YMS Synthesis + The so-called oceanic terranes of BC, such as the Triassic Slide Mountain and Cache Creek terrane, should be reevalu- ated for their VMS potential in light of the possibility that they represent back are and not ocean basin environments. The presence of boninite and subvoleanic tonalite-trond- hjemite intrusions. rhyolites in these terranes would be key indicators of possible arc-back-are systems. 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