QNL Piezo-Electric Electro-Acoustic Transducers

Microtechnology and MEMS
Valeriy Sharapov
Zhanna Sotula
Larisa Kunickaya
Piezo-Electric
Electro-Acoustic
Transducers
Microtechnology and MEMS
Series Editors
Professor Dr. Hiroyuki Fujita
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Professor Dr. Dorian Liepmann

Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkley, USA
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Valeriy Sharapov Zhanna Sotula
•
Larisa Kunickaya
Piezo-Electric Electro-
Acoustic Transducers
123
Valeriy Sharapov
Zhanna Sotula
Larisa Kunickaya
Department of Instrument-Making
Cherkasy State Technological University
Cherkasy
Ukraine
ISSN 1615-8326
ISBN 978-3-319-01197-4 ISBN 978-3-319-01198-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01198-1
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013947377
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

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Preface
This book presents the latest and complete information about piezoelectric electro-
acoustic transducers.
Electro-acoustic transducer (EAT) is a device which transforms electrical
energy to energy of acoustic fluctuations. Principles of action, the designs of
known transducers for work in air, water, for nondestructive control are described
in the book. These transducers are based on back piezoelectric effects that are used
in electro-acoustics, the hydroacoustics, and nondestructive control.
Offered to «Springer» the book consists of five semantic (sense, meaning) parts:
The general information about PEAT, terms and definitions, materials, the
description of piezoelements, etc.
The description of known designs PEAT for work in air, water, and with firm
bodies.
New methods and devices electrophysical and circuit engineering designing
(synthesis, creation) of piezoelectric electro-acoustic transducers and sensors are
described. Application of these methods allows to create from one piezoelement
tens (!) variants of transducers and sensors of the given type with various,
including, improved characteristics.
New methods and devices for improvement of characteristics PEAT are
described: reduction of working frequency that is equivalent to increase range of
action (range of detection of sea objects), increases in sound pressure and pass-
band expansion (for underwater communication), etc. These methods allow to
create transducers with unique properties.
This book is written not only for specialists in electro-acoustics, hydroacoustics,
nondestructive control, measuring technique, sensors for automatic control, but
also for graduate students.
The authors are thankful to Senior Editor Springer Dr. Claus Ascheron for the
qualified consideration of the manuscript, benevolent support of authors, and
patience at work with them.
Cherkasy, Ukraine Valeriy Sharapov

Zhanna Sotula
Larisa Kunickaya
v
Contents
1 General Information About Electro-Acoustic Transducers. . . . . . . 1

1.1 Terms and Definitions. Classification EAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basic Characteristics PEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Materials for PEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Piezoceramic Elements for PEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 13

2.1 Fluctuations of Piezoceramic Disk Polarised on a Thickness. . . . 13
2.2 The Fluctuations of Radially Polarised Cylinder . ........ . . . 18
2.3 Piezoelectric Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 21
2.4 Piezoceramic Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 23
2.5 Bimorph and Trimorph Piezoelements . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 40
3 Electro-Acoustic Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 General Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Chladni Figures and Transducers Directional Diagrams . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Electro-Acoustic Transducers in Active Oscillators Schemes . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 Hydroacoustic Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 57

4.1 Classification and Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 57
4.2 Ratios of Electromechanical Transformations . . . . . . . ..... . . 59
4.3 Cylindrical Piezoceramic Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 60
4.4 Lamellar and Spherical Piezoceramic Transducers. . . . ..... . . 61
4.5 Basic Requirements to Transducers Projected . . . . . . . ..... . . 63
4.6 Selection of Energy Transformation Method and Mode Shape . . 64
4.7 Certain Transducers Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 70
vii
viii Contents
5 Transducers with Non-Destructive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.1 Classification of Methods of Non-Destructive Control . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Acoustic Methods of Non-Destructive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Piezoelectric Transducers for Non-Destructive Control. . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6 The Technologies of PEAT Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 91

6.1 Spatial Energy: Force Structure of Piezoceramic Element ..... 91
6.2 Spatial Arrangement and Conjunction Piezoelement
Electrodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 Spatial Electromechanical Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.4 Inclusion of Piezoelements in Schemes of Electric Filters . . . . . 104
6.5 Technology of Additional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.6 Technology of Synthesis of the Transducers, Considering
Electric signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 110
6.7 The Combined Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 111
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 111
7 Methods of Low-Frequency Acoustic Vibrations Creation . ...... 115

7.1 Method of Beating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 116
7.2 Piezoelectric Adders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 121
7.3 Creating of Low Frequency Oscillations by Means
of Peak Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 127
7.4 Method of Additional Oscillatory Contour . . . . . . . . . . ...... 129
7.5 Creation of LF Acoustic Fluctuations with the Help
of Monomorph Piezoelements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 133
7.6 Creation of LF Fluctuations with Help Bimorph
and Trimorph Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 137
7.7 Application of Volume Resonators in Electro-Acoustic
Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 139
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 145
8 Methods of Increasing Sound Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 147

8.1 Method of Additional Oscillatory Contour . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 147
8.2 Internal Friction in Piezoceramic Elements
of Electro-Acoustic Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 149
8.3 Piezoelectric Projectors of a Sound on a Basis of Bimorph
and Trimorph Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.3.1 Decrease of Resonant Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.3.2 Increase of Sound Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Contents ix
9 Methods of Expansion of Pass-Band PEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

9.1 Decrease of Quality of Transducer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.2 Connected Contours. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.3 Volume Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10 Sensors with Piezoelements in Shemes Electric Filters . . . . . . . . . . 173

10.1 Schemes of Electric Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
10.2 Sensors with Piezoelements in Low-Pass Filters Schemes . . . . . 180
10.3 Sensors with Piezoelements in High-Pass Filters Schemes . . . . . 181
10.4 Sensors with Piezotransformers in Electric Filters Schemes . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11 Devices to Control and Diagnose Bimorph Piezoelements . . . . . . . 191

11.1 Defects of Bimorph Piezoelements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.2 Defects Diagnostics by AFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11.3 Diagnostics of Defects by Pulse Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
11.4 Diagnostics of Defects by Transitive Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.5 Devices Based on Active Oscillator Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Authors’ Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Chapter 1
General Information About Electro-Acoustic
Transducers
Abstract The general data about electro-acoustic transducers are resulted in this
chapter. Their classification, basic characteristics, materials which are used for man-
ufacturing of such transducers are described.
1.1 Terms and Definitions. Classification EAT
Electro-acoustic transducers (EAT) are intended for transformation of electric energy

into acoustic signal and back [1–7]. Depending on a transformation direction there
are distinguish strictly EAT (projectors) and sound receivers (sensors) (Fig. 1.1).
Electro-acoustic transducers widely use for radiation and sound reception in
communication technics and sound reproduction, for radiation and reception of elas-
tic fluctuations in the ultrasonic technics (not destructive control), in hydroacoustics
(a hydrolocation, underwater communication, sound «lighting» underwater situa-
tion, etc.), in acoustoelectronics (transducers of physical sizes, electric filters etc.), in
medicine (ultrasonic introscopy), in systems of safety, security devices etc. (Fig. 1.2).
In majority EAT double transformation of energy takes place: electromechanical
transformation in which result the part of electric energy brought to the transducers
passes in energy of fluctuations of some mechanical system, and Mechanoacoustic
transformation at which for the account of fluctuations of mechanical system in the
environment the sound field is created (Fig. 1.3).
The most widespread EAT are linear, i.e. satisfy to the requirement of not distorted
signal transmission, and are reversible, i.e. can work both as a radiator and as the
receiver, and submit to a reciprocity principle.
There are, however, EAT, not having mechanical oscillatory system and creating
fluctuations in direct in the environment, for example the electrospark projector
raising intensive sound fluctuations as a result of the electric discharge in a liquid,
a radiator which action is based on electroctriction liquids. These projectors are
irreversible and are applied rarely. Sound receivers (also irreversible) based on change
V. Sharapov et al., Piezo-Electric Electro-Acoustic Transducers, 1

Microtechnology and MEMS, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-01198-1_1,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
2 1 General Information About Electro-Acoustic Transducers
Fig. 1.1 Classification of

Electro-acoustic
transducers by carried out
transducers
function
Projectors Receivers
(radiators) (sensors)
Fig. 1.2 Use of electro-

Use of electro-acoustic
acoustic transducers
transducers
Sound reproduction Hydroacoustics
Technics of Non-destructive control

communication
Acousticelectronics Sensors of physical sizes
Ultrasonic introscopy Safety systems
Ultrasonic devices Security devices
Fig. 1.3 Energy transforma- 1 2 3

tion in EAT
U, i F, υ P, υ
( ) ( )
of electric resistance of a sensitive element under the influence of sound pressure,

for example coal a microphone or semi-conductor receivers in which used so-called
tensity resistive effect—dependence of resistance of semiconductors on mechanical
pressure.
By the form the physical effect laying in their basis (an action principle), reversible
EAT can be into following groups:
• electrodynamic transducers, which action it is based on electrodynamic effect
(radiators);
• electromagnetic induction receivers, for example loudspeakers, microphones;
• electrostatic which action is based on change of force of an attraction of facings at
change of pressure and on charge or voltage change at relative moving of facings
of the condenser (loudspeakers, microphones);
• piezoelectric transducers, wich is based on direct and returnpiezoeffect;
• electromagnetic transducers is based on fluctuations of a ferromagnetic anchor
in a variable magnetic field and change of a magnetic stream at movement of an
1.1 Terms and Definitions. Classification EAT 3
Fig. 1.4 Classification EAT

Electro-acoustic
by an action principle (physi- transducers
cal effect)
electrodynamic Electrostatic
(loudspeakers) (loudspeakers, microphones)
Electromagnetic
Induction (microphones) Electromagnetic
Piezoelectric
(radiators and receivers) Magnetostrictive
Fig. 1.5 Classification EAT Electro-acoustic

on Environment in which they transducers
work
Transducers Hydroacoustic
for work in air transducers
Transducers Transducers for non-

for medicine destructive control
anchor; magnetostrictive transducers, using a straight line and a boomerang effect

magnetostriction (Fig. 1.4).
On environment in which works EAT, they can be divided on EAT for work
in air (Chap. 3), in water (hydroacoustic transducers, Chap. 4) and for creation of
acoustic fluctuations in firm bodies (transducers for non-destructive control, Chap. 5).
In separate group it is possible to allocate the transducers wich used in medicine for
ultrasonic introscopy (ultrasonic). This transducers are not described in given book.
The given book is devoted piezoelectric electro-acoustic transducers (PEAT),
working on radiation and reception in air and water (Fig. 1.5).
1.2 Basic Characteristics PEAT
Transducers-radiators are evaluated by the following work quality indicators.

Acoustic power PA —a quantity of sound energy, radiated by the transducer in
a certain amount of time. Value PA referred to the emitting area, is called specific
acoustic power PA. SP .
Electro-acoustic efficiency coefficient η E A —the ratio of radiated acoustic power
to active electric power PE consumed by the transducer from the excitation generator.
Input electric resistance Z—the ratio of voltage applied U to current I in the

projector chain.
Directional characteristic estimates spatial field distribution. It is represented
by the ratio of acoustic pressure, created by the radiator in the distant field, to the
maximum value, depending on angular coordinates of the observation point.
Directivity factor K a is determined by the ratio of acoustic intensity, created by
the radiator in the principal maximum direction in a distant field point, to the intensity
of non-directional projector with the same radiated power at the same distance.
Transducers-receivers are characterized by the following work indicators.
Sensitivity M determines the ratio of open-circuit (no-load, idle) voltage on the
transducer output to acoustic pressure, influencing on it in the undistorted free field
of the plane wave.
Electric resistance Z establishes the ratio of voltage, developed on the receiver
output, to current in its chain.
Directional characteristic is normalized angular distribution of the receiver sen-
sitivity in the relation to the maximum.
Concentration coefficient K 0 —the relation of a square of sensitivity in the max-
imum direction to an average square of sensitivity in all directions. For reversible
transducers concentration factors in radiation and reception modes are numerically
equal.
Efficiency of the receiver also estimate elongation sensitivity Msp = M/ Z i
(where M—sensitivity of idling; |Z i |—module of internal (target) resistance of the
receiver), characterising its noise stability to noise of electric chains.
All listed parametres of transducers depend on frequency.
1.3 Materials for PEAT
The principle of action of piezoelectric sensors is based on use of direct or return

piezoelectric effects. The essence of direct piezoelectric effect consists in electric
polarisation of a certain class dielectrics, named piezoelectric materials (a ferroelec-
tric material), at action mechanical pressure in their material. The return piezoelec-
tric effect is characterised by that electric polarisation causes mechanical pressure
in piezomaterial or change of the geometrical sizes of piezoelements.
On another it is possible to tell, that the direct piezoelectric effect consists in
formation of electric charges in a piezoelectric material at action to it of mechani-
cal force, and return piezoeffect—in beginning of fluctuations at piezoelement at
connection to a source of electric voltage.
Feature piezoeffect is sign-sensitivite, i.e. a charge sign changes when stretching
charges by pressure.
It is necessary to distinguish the phenomenon of piezoelectricity and the phe-
nomenon electrostriction. The essence of the last consists also in polarisation of
dielectric under the influence of the enclosed external force, however at electrostric-
1.3 Materials for PEAT 5
tion polarisation is proportional to a square of the enclosed mechanical pressure and

does not change a sign at change of a sign on the enclosed force. Electrostriction is
shown usually considerably less than piezoelectricity at which presence electrostric-
tion possible to neglect [5, 6, 8].
To related these physical effects is pyroelectrysity which essence consists in
polarisation owing to heating. At designing and use of piezoelectric materials with
the phenomenon pyroelectrysity it is necessary to be considered. For some modern
piezoelectric ceramics, for example, PZT (in Russian WTC), polarisation as a result
of temperature change can be a source of considerable errors.
Anisotropy of Piezoceramic Materials Characteristics
Many properties of crystal substances are vector or tensor. They vary in different
crystallographic directions. Among them are the following: coefficient of linear
thermal dilatation, diffusion, heat conductivity, elasticity module, specific electric
resistance, refractive index or dielectric permeability values. Anisotropy character
of these properties is connected with the symmetry of crystal lattice [6].
Polycrystalline ceramics, consisting of numerous randomly oriented small crystal
grains, should be isotropic. Textured ceramics can have anisotropy of properties in
which crystal phase grains are preferably oriented. Ferroelectric ceramics of bar-
ium titanate, zirconate lead titanate PZT and other similar substances, preliminary
polarized by heating in electric field, is also anisotropic.
Barium titanate, a common piezoceramic material, is considered as an example.
Perovskite structure, shown in Fig. 1.6., is a crystal structure of barium titanate.
The structure is cubic, with ions of Ba++ in the cube angles, ions of O2− in the faces
centers of sides and an ion of Ti++++ in the cube centre. The fact that the titan ion
is surrounded by six ions of oxygen, forming an octahedron, is of a great importance
[5, 6, 8].
Fig. 1.6 Barium titanate

structure
Octahedron TiO6 has the symmetry centre above Curie temperature, as a result,
dipole moment equals zero. The octahedron will have its dipole moment only when
the positive ion of titan displaces relative to a negative oxygen ion.
Existence of ferroelectricity in BaTiO3 is a consequence of polarization “acci-
dent”. Then the electric field, created in polarization, increases faster, than elastic
restoring forces between ions.
Cluster compounds, including the central atom of metal and ligands (metal or
covalent connected groups of atoms) are always characterized by degeneration of
the basic electronic condition or close excited states.
The problem of nuclei movement if electronic degeneration is available is solved
by Yahn-Teller theorem [8]. Yahn-Teller pseudo-effect is more often realized in low
symmetry ceramics. A complicated system of vibronic equations should be solved
in this case. This demands the information on adiabatic potentials [5, 6].
There are many yahn-teller centers, i.e. clusters of transition metals (Ti, Zr, etc.),
in ferroelectric materials with perovskite structure. The following is important for
our purposes. These centers are in electron-degenerative (more precisely—pseudo-
expressed) state, i.e. they have adiabatic potentials.
These ferroelectric materials have a highly symmetrical crystal lattice. These
symmetric structures have no dipole moments. However, dipoles appear in the process
of ferroelectric phase transition. Then the whole crystal or its separate domains
(ceramics) is strongly electrically polarized.
As the clusters of titan coordinated atoms are strongly interconnected by gen-
eral atoms of oxygen in ferroelectric crystal with perovskite structure, Yahn-Teller
cooperative pseudo-effect can be considered. Introducing an additional vibronic con-
nection inter-cluster parameter at the expense of phonons, structural phase transition
in crystal macro-polarized state can be explained. This can be reached if the cer-
tain temperature (ferroelectricity) is selected, necessary phonons are activated, or if
external electric field (ceramics polarization) is applied. The group of Yahn-Teller
clusters, interconnected by vibronic connection, forms a domain. Alignment of polar-
ized domains gives the effect known..
The knowledge of polarization nature in the domain allows understanding of
sharply anisotropic conductance mechanism in ceramics.
Domains are polarized and aligned by voltage, as it is shown in Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7 Domain structure -E

of piezocemic
+ + +
– – –
+ + + X
– – –
+ + +
– – –
+E
The inter-domain medium is a crystal solid solution. Its atoms are photon-
connected of the type, different from the domain type. There is no vibronic cor-
relation of Yahn-Teller centers in this medium. However, this medium can be also
conductive if there is an electric field of polarized domains.
Electrons are injected in the substrate electrode medium and are transferred from
one cluster to the other, similar to semi-conductor conductivity, amplified by the
domains field. Electrons transfer along the atoms train of crystal lattice to domains
clusters is easy. But its further advancement in the domain should be slowed down
because of polarization in the domain. However, the problem is solved, as soon as
the character of chemical and physical interactions, which lead to ferroelectricity
creation in the domain, is considered. Displacement of atoms, which caused dipole
instability, is connected with vibronic mixing of ground and excited states inside
the clusters. It is physically equivalent to mixing of valence and conductivity zones
inside the whole domain.
Delocalized character of chemical bonds in each cluster and no characteristic
oscillations in chemical bonds, vibronic activity of the “smeared” oscillations in and
between clusters in the domain assure free migration of an electron inside the cluster.
Thus, electron transport along axis X, marked by an arrow in Fig. 1.7, should be
much easier, than in perpendicular direction when voltage is applied to lateral (a)
faces of the crystal.
From piezoelectric materials produce the piezoelements which are sensitive ele-
ments of sensors.
As piezoelectric materials are used:
• monocrystal materials (quartz, niobium lithium, etc.);
• polycrystalline materials (piezoceramic).
Advantage of quartz is firmness to temperature and humidity influences, mechan-
ical durability. Quartz has insignificant factor of linear expansion, it piezomodul
practically does not depend on temperature to 200 ◦ C, and in a range 200−500
wasps change slightly, specific electric resistance—an order 1016 Ohm/m, how-
ever it strongly depends on temperature and has unequal value in a direction
of the various oceQ. Values of piezomoduls quartz di j 10−12 KNL the following:
d21 = −d11 = 2.31; d25 = −d14 = 0.67; d26 = 4.62, the others piezomoduls are
equal to zero.
Now to manufacturing of sensors are most widely applied piezoceramic materials.
Piezoceramic it is synthesised for the first time in the USSR in 1944 [1, 6].
Piezoelectric ceramic materials (PCM) present ferroelectric connections or firm
solutions received by synthesizing various oxides and salts—Table. 1.1 [9].
Modern PCM is made with solid solutions like titanat-tsirkonat lead (PZT), which
has been modified by various components and additives. PCM based on titanat bar-
ium, titanat bismuth, titanat lead, niobat lead are also issued. The basic properties in
PCM, as revealed on standard ceramic test pieces, are:
• high values of dielectric permeability,
• presence of spontaneous polarization in separate areas (domains),
Table 1.1 Parameters of piezoceramics materials
8
Material Electromechanical Relative dielectric per- Density, Π, Piezomoduls, 10−12 Kl/N Sensitivity in a recep-
communication coeffi- T /σ
mittivity, σ33 0 103 Kg/m3 tion mode, 10−3 B · m/N
cient K p
d31 d33 d15 g31 g33 g15
WTC-19 0.6 1750 7.5 160 330 400 10,4 21.4 30.6
WTC-19 0.65 2200 7.5 210 430 – 10.7 22.0
(WN)
WTC-21 0.3 500 7.6 40 100 120 9.1 22.6 –
WTC-23 0.5 1000 7.5 120 240 365 13.6 27.1 –
WTC-26 0.62 1750 7.6 160 330 400 10.4 21.4 –
WTC-26M 0.62 1750 7.6 160 330 – 10.4 21.4 –
WTC-35 0.45 1000 7.5 100 200 – – – –
WTC-35c 0.48 800 7.5 85 190 – – – –
WTC-36 0.57 670 7.7 90 220 440 15.4 38.0 –
WTC-38 0.3 460 7.5 40 70 – – – –
WTC-39 0.38 720 7.5 60 100 – – – –
WTC-40 0.48 1350 7.5 80 150 – – – –
WTCC – 1400 7.4 130 275 – 10.5 22.2 –
N-3
WTCCT-3 0.55 1400 7.7 140 260 – 11.3 21.0 –
(WN)
WT 0.45 2300 7.25 134 286 – 7.8 16 23.8
<C-3
WT 0.54 1600 7.5 140 330 575 9.6 23.1
<C-7
HWTC-2 0.65 5700 7.8 310 650 – 7.9 12.9 –
THaB-1 – 140 6.9 – 16 – – 12.9 –
THaB-1M – 130 6.6 – 22 – – 19.2 –
THB-1 – 100 7.2 – 7 – – 7.9 –
1 General Information About Electro-Acoustic Transducers
(Continued)
Table 1.1 (Continued)
Material Relative deviation Tangent of a corner of Water The Yung’s Electric Temperature of Speed of a Good mechani-
of frequency in the dielectric losses, tgΘ, 10−2 absorption, W, module Y1E , durability, E np , Kjuri T , ◦ C sound, κ1 , cal quality, Q M
R
range of %, no more 10−11 H/M 2 106 B/M 103 M/C
temperatures −60
to +85 ◦ C, Θ f ∂ / fr ,
%
Weak field Strong field
1.3 Materials for PEAT
WTC-19 0.8 2.8 - 0.2 0.7 3.0 300 3.0 80

WTC-19(WN) – 2.0 – – – – 300 2.6 60
WTC-21 1.5 2.0 – 0.2 0.9 4.0 400 3.7 150
WTC-23 – 0.7 3.0 0.09 0.65–0.85 3.0 280 3.3 300
WTC-26 1.0 2.0 – – – – 350 3.0 80
WTC-26M – 2.0 – – – – 350 3.0 80
WTC-35 0.4 2.0 – 0.2 0.75 1 300 3.45 700
WTC-35c – 2.5 – – – – 290 3.5 650
WTC-36 3.0 3.0 – – – – 350 3.3 80
WTC-38 0.2 1.0 – – – – 330 3.5 1700
WTC-39 0.25 1.0 – – – – 290 3.5 1150
WTC-40 0.4 1.0 – – – – 240 3.45 600
WTCCN-3 – – – 0.15 – – – – 900
WTCCT-3(WN) – 0.7 3.0 – – – 280 3.0 300
WT<C-3 – 1.2 3.5 0.1 ≥ 0.7 3.0 180 3.4–3.6 200
WT<C-7 – 0.8 3.5 – – – 220 3.3 300
HWTC-2 – 3.0 – – – – 140 2.6 50
THaB-1 – 0.5 – – – – 660 – 4000
THaB-1M – 0.8 – – – – 630 – –
THB-1 – 0.8 – – – – 920 – –
9
• presence of hysteresis loops in dependences, e.g. polarization-electric fields and

deformation-electric fields,
• growth of dielectric permeability when temperatures rise,
• presence of Kjuri temperature point without curve dependence of dielectric
permeability-temperatures above ferroelectric properties,
• residual polarization occurrence and double cake-like electric layer on the sur-
face after constant electric field influence, causing display possibilities by the
piezoelectric effect body (transforming mechanical energy in the electrical and/or
on the contrary).
Depending on their basic purpose, PCMs are subdivided as follows:
1. ^Ferrosoft& PCM can be applied to high-sensitivity transducer manufacturing,
working without rigid requirements on parameter stability to influence destabi-
lizing factors (raised temperatures and electric or mechanical fields).
General purpose PCMs for materials WTC-19 (PZT) and WTC-19 (WN).
WTC-19 (WN) (PZT) is the updated WTC-19 (PZT) with raised values of piezo-
electric modules (dik ). This increaseis reached at the expense of replacement of
raw components oRcBLa zirconium and oxide the titan on specially developed
highly active raw materials—titanium zirconium.
PCM has a lowered dielectric permeability and high reception sensitivity (gik ).
Material WTC-36 (PZT) is usually used in hot-extrusion blocks and is intended,
mainly, for manufacturing transducers with ultrasonic lines of a delay.
PCM has raised values of dielectric permeability and piezomodul (HWTC-2 PZT).
These materials are intended for use in telephone devices with hypersensibility.
2. ^Ferro-stiffness& PCM is applied to transducers manufacturing working in a
reception and/or radiation when strong electric fields and/or mechanical pressure
influence the conditions. They utilize WTC-23, WTCCN-3, and WT<C-7 materials.
Materials WTC-23 and WTCN-3 are well proven in ignition and hydroacoustics
piezoelements systems. It is possible to recommend WTCCN-3 and WT<C-7 for
manufacturing piezotransformers and ultrasonic radiators of a raised capacity.
3. PCM, for frequency-selective devices, is applied to piezoelement manufacturing
because it possesses characteristics that can cope with raised temperatures and
time stability frequency. Frequency-selective devices are for volume and super-
ficial acoustic waves (PEAHENS).
Materials forfrequency-selective devices for volume waves of planar fluctua-
tions are applied when creating filters on discrete piezoelements, the materials
used include WTC-38, WTC-39, and WTC-40.
Materials for frequency-selective devices with volume waves of a compression-
stretching fluctuation (thickness) are in subgroups WTC-35 and WTC-35O.
In hot compacting blocks WTC-35O is issued.
Materials for frequency-selective devices with volume waves of a shift thick-
ness fluctuation are represented by a subgroup material WTC-35. Materials in sub-
groups 3.2 and 3.3 are used to create monolithic filters for frequency-modulated
signals on frequencies to 10 MHz.
Materials for frequency-selective devices for superficial acoustic waves include

WTC-33, produced in hot compacting blocks. It is applied by setting filters to
40 MHz frequencies.
4. High-temperature PCM is used for piezoelement manufacturing in devices
that work at temperatures not less 250 ◦ C, which includes materials WTC-21,
WTC-26, THaB-1, and THB-1. For piezoelements with working temperatures of
250–750 ◦ C, material WTC-26 was developed. For increased temperature stabil-
ity, utilize piezomodul (d33 ), THaB-1, WTC-26M, and THaB-lM.
References
1. V. Domarkas, R.-J. Kazys, Piezoelectric Transducers for Measuring Devices (Mintis, Vilnus,
1974), 258 P (in Russian)
2. A.P. Evtyutov, A.E. Eolesnikov, E.A. Rorepin et al., Reference Book on Hydroacoustics
(Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1988) 552 p (in Russian)
3. I.P. Golyamina (ed.), Ultrasound (Small Encyclopedia) (Soviet Encyclopedia, Mascow, 1979),
400 P (in Russian)
4. V.M. Sharapov et al., Piezoceramic Transformers and Sensors (Vertical, Cherkasy, 2010), 278
p (in Russian)
5. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic Sensors (Springer, Berlin, 2011), 498 p
6. V.M. Sharapov, M.P. Musienko, E.V. Sharapova, in Piezoelectric Sensors, ed. by V.M. Sharapov
(Technosphera, Moscow, 2006) 632 p (in Russian)
7. V.S. Didkovskiy, A.G. Leyko, V.G. Savin, Electroacoustics Piezoceramic Transducers (Imex
LTD, Rirovograd, 2006) 448 p (in ukranian)
8. I.V. Bersuker, Yahn-Teller eEffect and Vibronic Interactions in Modern Chemistry (Nauka,
Mascow, 1987) 344 p
9. Piezoceramic materials. Test methods. Standart of USSR 12370–80. - Mascow 1980 (in Russian)
Chapter 2
Piezoceramic Elements for PEAT
Abstract Mathematical models of fluctuations, which arise in piezoceramic

elements of various forms and designs are are resulted in this chapter. Work principle
and requirements to piezoelectric resonators and transformers, and also designs of
bimorph and trimorph piezoelements are described in this chapter.
The industry makes a significant number of standard sized piezoceramic elements
from various materials [1–7]. Some are shown in Fig. 2.1.
In the given work transducers with piezoelements in the form of a disk polarised
on a thickness, and in the form of the hollow cylinder polarised on radius are studied.
At studying of piezoelements we can consider them from the different points of
view. For example, we can consider a piezoelement as the electromechanical system
fluctuating on resonant frequency under the influence of electric voltage (radiator) or
in pre-resonance of area and on resonant frequency under the influence of mechanical
pressure (receiver).
We can consider also a piezoelement with two electrodes as the resonator, and
with three and more electrodes—as the piezoelectric transformer.
If to a piezoelement or two piezoelements to paste a metal plate (bimorph or tri-
morph element), characteristics of this oscillatory system will essentially differ from
characteristics of monomorph piezoelement. Therefore such devices are considered
by us separately.
2.1 Fluctuations of Piezoceramic Disk Polarised on a Thickness
The analysis of fluctuations of thin piezoceramic disk is executed by N.A. Shulga

and A.M. Bolkisev [8].
Let’s consider a piezoelectric disk, radius R which considerably surpasses its
thickness (Fig. 2.2). Fluctuations are raised by potential difference AV enclosed to
electrodes, located on face surfaces. Let’s admit, that the thickness of a disk is so
small, that change of pressure along axis Z can be neglected. We come to a problem

14 2 Piezoceramic Elements for PEAT
Fig. 2.1 Piezoceramic elements for PEAT
Fig. 2.2 Piezoelement in the

Z
form of disk
~ΔV R
h
r
P
about a flat intense condition, in which
σzz = σr z = σΠ z = 0.
Other components of pressure and movings to disk planes do not depend from r.
Besides, from axial symmetry follows u Π = 0, and then geometrical parities can be
written down in a kind
∂u r 1 ∂u z
Θrr = , ΘΠΠ = u r , Θzz = , Θr z = Θr Π = ΘΠ z = 0 (2.1)
∂r r ∂z
2.1 Fluctuations of Piezoceramic Disk Polarised on a Thickness 15
As the thin plate is concluded between two equipotential surfaces electric field along
radius is considered by the homogeneous. Thus, the condition equation is chosen in
shape
Θrr = s11
E
σrr + s12
E
σΠΠ + d31 E z ,
ΘΠΠ = s12rr
E
+ s11
E
σΠΠ + d01 E z ,
Θzz = s13
E
(σrr + σΠΠ ) + d33 E z , (2.2)
Dz = d31 (σrr + σΠΠ ) + Θ33
T
Ez ,
The third equation of system (2.2) appears superfluous and can be used for defi-
nition of displacement on a thickness.
The planar factor of electromechanical communication k p is defined by a share
of electric energy from the full entrance energy created by system of pressure σrr =
σΠΠ = p0 , σzz = 0. Under the influence of such system of pressure in a disk there
are deformations and electric field:

2
2d31
E
Θrr = ΘΠΠ = s (1 − κ) 1 − E p0
11 s11 (1 − κ)Θ33
T
2d31
Ez = − p0
Θ33
T
where κ = −s12 E /s E —Puasson’s coefficient. The density of reserved electric energy

11
is calculated under the formula

2
2d31
1 T
Wel = Θ33 1 − E E z2 (2.3)
2 s11 (1 − κ)Θ33
T
The density of brought mechanical energy is defined as

2d 2
1
Wmech = E Θrr
2
= s11
E
(1 − κ) 1 − E 31
p02
s11 (1 − κ) s11 (1 − κ)Θ33
T
Considering (2.3), for planar coefficient of communication is received
Wel 2 d2
k 2p = = · E 31T
Wmech + Wel 1 − κ s11 Θ33
Radial fluctuations of a disk are described by the movement equation
∂σkk 1
− (σrr − σΠΠ ) + ηω2 u r = 0. (2.4)
∂r r
To substitute parities (2.2) in the movement equation, it is necessary to express

components of mechanical pressure through components of deformations. Taking
into consideration (2.1), we receive

1 du r 1 d31
σrr = E (1 − κ 2 )
+ κ u r − E Ez , (2.5)
S11 dr r S11 (1 − κ)

1 du r 1 d31
σΠΠ = E κ + ur − E Ez
S11 (1 − κ )
2 dr r S11 (1 − κ)
The Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5)

can be reduced to an initial form of Bessel equation,
entering a variable z 1 = ηs11
E (1 − κ 2 )ωr :

d 2 ur 1 du r 1
+ + 1 − u r = 0. (2.6)
dz 12 z 1 dz 1 z1
The common decision (2.6) is a linear combination of Bessel functions of the first
and second sort
u r = A J1 (kr ) + BY1 (kr ), (2.7)
where k 2 = ηω2 s11

E (1−κ 2 ). Any constants A, B are defined from boundary conditions
u r = 0, r = 0, σrr = 0, r = R. (2.8)
As at r = 0 function Y1 ◦ −≥, that B = 0. From the second condition (2.8) it is

received
(1 + κ)d31 E z R
A= ,
τ J0 (τ ) − (1 − κ)J1 (τ )

d31 E z τ J0 (kr ) − (1 − κ) Rr J1 (kr )
σrr = E −1 , (2.9)
s11 (1 − κ) τ J0 (τ ) − (1 − κ)J1 (τ )

d31 E z τ κ J0 (kr ) − (1 − κ) Rr J1 (kr )
σΠΠ = E −1 ,
s11 (1 − κ) τ J0 (τ ) − (1 − κ)J1 (τ )

where τ = ω R ηs11 E (1 − κ 2 )—dimensionless frequency. Following step of the
decision is definition of full conductivity of a disk. For this purpose we will integrate
a physical parity (2.2) for Dz on the electrode area. From (2.9), considering, that
V = E z h, we find

2ξ Rd31 A ξ R2 2
2d31
I = iω E J1 (τ ) + iω Θ33
T
−
V.
s11 (1 − κ) h E (1 − κ)
s11
2.1 Fluctuations of Piezoceramic Disk Polarised on a Thickness 17
Thus, full conductivity of a disk on a radial mode is defined under formula

ξ R 2 Θ33
T
21+κ
Y6 = iω 1 − kp + kp
2
J1 (τ ) . (2.10)
h
Here
= τ J0 (τ ) − (1 − κ)J1 (τ )—the frequency equation, which roots define
values of resonant frequencies. As we see, resonant frequencies depend on pliability
E and Puasson’s coefficient.
s11
These two parameters of piezoceramic material can be defined on measurements
of two resonant frequencies.
First four dimensionless resonant frequenciesτ enough a thin disk (h/R < 0, 1)
have the values concerning approximately as 2,05:5,40:8,58:11,73, Whereas the basic
fashion thickness fluctuations τ ≈ 20. Hence, on the several first resonances the
assumptions made at the decision of a problem about radial fluctuations, will hold
good.
The relation of the basic frequency to frequency overtone τr 0 /τr 1 = fr 0 / fr 1
does not depend on a pliability s11 E . Having constructed on the frequency equation
dependence τr 0 /τr 1 from Puasson’s coefficient, we will define it on measurement

fr 0 / fr 1 . Further the pliability coefficient is calculated under the formula
E
s11 = τr20 /4ξ 2 η(1 − κ 2 )R 2 fr20 . (2.11)
The decision of a problem on disk fluctuations can be generalised on a problem

about radial fluctuations of a ring with thickness polarisation for which the general
decision also looks like (2.7), and constants A, B are defined from boundary conditions
σrr = 0, r = r1 , r2 , (2.12)
where r1 and r2 —internal and external radiuses of a ring. The particular decision
satisfying (2.12), looks like
(1 + κ)d31 E z r2
u r (r ) = {[τ1
2 (τ2 ) − τ2
2 (τ1 )] J1 (kr ) + [τ2
1 (τ1 ) − τ1
1 (τ2 )] Y1 (kr )} ,

k
(2.13)
where
τ1 = kr1 , τ2 = kr2 ,
1 (τ ) = τ J0 (τ ) − (1 − κ)J1 (τ ),

2 (τ ) = τ Y0 (τ ) − (1 − κ)Y1 (τ );
=
1 (τ1 )
2 (τ2 ) −
1 (τ2 )
2 (τ1 )—frequency equation. The analysis of last
equation shows, that frequency of the basic fashion at increase r1 /r2 decreases,
frequencies of the first and second overtones at first decrease, and then increase, i.e.
at 0.05 < r1 /r2 < 0.3 there is a minimum. Influence of Puasson’s coefficient on
roots of the frequency equation for a disk with a small aperture (r1 /r2 ≤ 0.4) It
appears essential (an order 2 %). At the expense of a corresponding choice of the
geometrical sizes efficiency of transformation of energy on an overtone of the basic

fashion can be increased. Let’s define conductivity of a ring on radial fashions.
Having integrated a physical parity (2.2) for Dz on the electrode area, we will
receive a displacement current
2ξ d31
I = iω E (1 − κ)
{A [r2 J1 (τ2 ) − r1 J1 (τ1 )] + B [r2 Y1 (τ2 ) − r1 Y1 (τ1 )]}
s11

2
2d31
+ iωξ Θ33 − E
T
(r22 − r12 ).
s11 (1 − κ)
The relation of a current to brought potential difference E 2 h gives full conductivity

of a ring
⎧ ⎫
⎪ (1 + κ)k 2p ⎪
⎪
⎪ 1 − k 2
+ ⎪
⎪
T ⎨ p ⎬
SΘ33
k 2 (r22 r12 )
Y7 = iω (2.14)
h ⎪ ⎪ ×
(τ ) − τ
(τ )) · (τ (τ ) − τ (τ )) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ [(τ 1 2 2 2 1 2 J1 2 1 J1 ⎪
⎭
+(τ2
1 (τ1 ) − τ1
1 (τ2 )) · (τ2 Y1 (τ2 ) − τ1 Y1 (τ1 ))]
where S—electrode area.
2.2 The Fluctuations of Radially Polarised Cylinder
Let’s consider the fluctuations of the cylinder raised by external harmonious loadings.
Electrical field or mechanical efforts, for example pressure from an environment on
cylindrical surfaces can be such (Fig. 2.3).
According to character loading and consequently, kind of regional conditions
conveniently resolving system of the equations is present in the mixed kind. Let’s
choose as independent functions variables u z , σrr , σr z , u r , ϕ, Dr . After simple
transformations we will lead resolving system to the form [9]:

∂u z ∂u r 1 ∂ϕ
=− + E σr z − e15 ,
∂r ∂z c55 ∂z

∂σrr 1 E
2 ∂u z 1
4
= c12 + − 1− σrr
∂r r
1 ∂z r
1

∂σr z 1
2 1
3
− − ηω2 − 2 c11 E
+ ur + Dr ,
∂z r
1 r
1
2
∂σr z
2 ∂ u r
4 ∂σrr 1
= −ηω2 u 2 − c11 E
+ − − σr z (2.15)
∂r
1 ∂z 2
1 ∂z r
2.2 The Fluctuations of Radially Polarised Cylinder 19
Fig. 2.3 Radially polarised

cylinder

1 E
2 ∂u r
3 ∂ Dr
− c12 + − ,
r
1 ∂z
1 ∂z

∂ϕ 1 ∂u z 1
= −
3 + Θ33
S
σrr −
4 u r + e33 Dr ,
∂r
1 ∂z r

∂ϕ 1 ∂u z 1
= −
3 + e33 σrr −
3 u r − c33
E
Dr ,
∂r
1 ∂z r

∂ Dr 1 ∂σr z ∂ ϕ
2 1
= E −e31 +
5 2 − Dr.
∂r c55 ∂z ∂z r
Here designations are used
1 = e33
2
+ c33
E S
Θ33 ;
2 = c33
E 2
e31 + 2c13
E
e31 e33 − c13
2 S
Θ33 ;
3 = c13
E
e33 − c33
E
e31 ;

4 = c13
E S
Θ33 + e31 e33 ;
5 = e15
2
+ c55
E S
Θ11 ;
Let’s enter systems of basic functions 1, cos α, cos 2 α, ..., cos nα, ... and sin α,
sin 2 α, ..., sin nα, ... If to accept
≥

{u z (r, z) ; σr z (r, z)} = u (n) (n)
z (r ) , σr z (r ) cos x n z,
n=0
{σrr (z, z); u r (r, z) ; ϕ (r, z) ; Dr (r, z)}

≥
(n)
= σrr (r ); u r(n) (r ); Dr(n) (r ) sin xn z,
n=0
xn = nξ/l,
boundary conditions
σzz (r ) |z = 0,l = u r (r ) |z = 0,l = 0,

ϕ(r ) |z = 0,l = 0,
Dz (r ) |z = 0,l = 0.
Will be satisfied precisely, and in system (2.15) Division of variables is possible.

(n)
To formulate regional conditions on cylindrical surfaces concerning functions u z ,
(n) (n) (n) (n)
σrr (r ), σr z (r ), φ (r ), Dr (r ), subject to search, external power factors also are
necessary for spreading out on basic functions. So, the electric potential set on lateral
surfaces φ(z)|r =r o±h = ± 21 V0 will become
1 nξ
ϕ (z) |r0 ±h = ±2V0 sin z, n = 1, 3, 5, . . . (2.16)
n
nξ l
Thus, the decision problems about the compelled fluctuations of radially polarised
cylinder at electric loading and homogeneous conditions at end faces is reduced to
the decision of infinite sequence of systems of the ordinary differential equations
1 (n)
(n)
du z
= −x n u r(n) + E
σ rz − x n e15 ϕ (n)
,
dr c55
(n)
dσrr 1
2 (n) 1
4 (n)
= − xn c12 + E
uz − 1− σrr
dr r
1 r
1

(n) 1
2 1
3 (n)
+ xn σr z − ηω − 2 c11 +
2 E
u r(n) + D ,
r
1 r
1 r
(n)
dσr z
2
4 (n)
= −ηω + xn c11 +
2 2 E
u (n)
z − xn σ
dr
1
1 rr

1 xr
2
3 (n)
− σr(n) − E
c12 + u r(n) − xn D ,
r z r
1
1 r
(n)
du r 1
4 (n)
= xn
4 u (n)
z + Θ S (n)
σ
33 rr − u + e D
33 r
(n)
,
dr
1 r r

dϕ (n) 1 (n) (n)
3 (n) E (n)
= xn
3 u z + e33 σrr − u − c33 Dr ,
dr
1 r r
d Dr(n) xr 1
= E e15 σr(n) z − x 2

n 5 ϕ (n)
− Dr(n) (2.17)
dr c55 r
with boundary conditions

2.2 The Fluctuations of Radially Polarised Cylinder 21
Fig. 2.4 a Equivalent electric (a) (b)

scheme of the resonator. b Rc
Typical frequency character-
L
istic C0
R
C Rp
0 fp fa f
2V0 (n)
ϕ (n) |r0 ± 0 h = ± , σrr (r ) = σr(n)
z (r ) |r0 ±h = 0.
nξ
In decomposition (2.16) composed with the even n are equal to zero, therefore even
harmonics are not raised and systems (2.17) is necessary to solve at n = 1, 3, 5, ...
Conductivity of piezocylinder will be defined as

2ξ (r0 + h) i
Y = iω Dr(n) (r )|r =r0 +h dz.
V0 0
Using expression for a radial component of a vector of an induction through basic

functions (2.15), we receive a parity for conductivity definition
(r0 + h) 1 (n)
Y = 4iω D , n = 1, 3, 5, . . . (2.18)
V0 n
n r
Series (2.18) is not harmonious, and sign-alternating, therefore it is convergent.

Though the potential difference also enters into this parity V0, conductivity will not
depend on it, as the private decision is proportional V0 , that follows from a boundary
condition (2.16). Conductivity has purely jet character and has a pole and a zero
on frequencies of a resonance and an antiresonance without taking into account
dissipation.
2.3 Piezoelectric Resonators
Piezoelements with two electrodes are named ‘resonators’.

When the frequency voltage (or pressure) is coincided to the piezoelement fluctu-
ation own (natural) frequency, there is a electromechanical resonance phenomenon.
For systems with the distributed parametres, what piezoelements are, resonance
is characterised by that in a direction of distribution of waves the integer number of
half waves must indine.
For the elementary equivalent electric circuit of the resonator—series-parallel
contour (Fig. 2.4)—it means equality of inductive and capacitor resistance.
Various fluctuation types can be raised in a piezoelement: longitudinal, fluctu-

ations on thickness, radial, torsion, curving, and shift. Physically the resonance is
characterized by a directional distribution of waves. At the resonator simultaneously,
there are some kinds of interconnected fluctuations that create hindrances to the fluc-
tuations in the basic direction; therefore it is necessary to create conditions so one
kind of fluctuation prevails.
Most often met ‘resonance frequencies’ are fluctuations under formulas:
longitudinal fluctuations:
n Y
fp = ; (2.19)
2l η
shift fluctuations on a thickness:

n Y 1−δ
fp = ; (2.20)
2a η (1 + δ)(1 − 2δ)
radial fluctuations:
zn Y
fp = , (2.21)
2ξr η(1 − δ)2
where
Y—Young’s module
η—density of piezoelement material
δ—Puasson’s coefficient
n—harmonic number
l, a, r—length, thickness, piezoelement radius
zn—parameter defined through Bessel functions
For longitudinal fluctuation resonant frequency definition use approached formula::
c
fp ≈ , (2.22)
2l
where c—speed of a sound in the piezoelement material
l—resonant size;
200
fp ≈ , kHz
l
or
Resonance frequency of a disk’s radial fluctuations [10]
1, 35c
fp ≈ , (2.23)
4r
For piezoelectric resonator with continuous resonant electrodes and anti-resonant
frequencies, it is possible to express parameters of the equivalent scheme (Fig. 2.4).
2.3 Piezoelectric Resonators 23
⎫
fp = 1
√ ; ⎪
⎬
2ξ LC
; (2.24)
fa = 1
LCC0
.⎪
⎭
2ξ C+C0
A good quality piezorezonator is defined by expression:
2ξ f p L
Q= , (2.25)
R
Piezorezonator’s equivalent schemes, considering electrophysical and mechanical
parameters, and also methods of calculation of resonators, are resulted in [5].
2.4 Piezoceramic Transformers
The piezoelectric transformer, conditionally name a piezoelectric element with three

and more electrodes connected to one or several sources of an electric signal and
loadings [2, 5]. In the elementary case the piezoelectric transformer represents a
piezoelement with three electrodes, forming two system of electrodes. The part of
the piezoelectric transformer connected to a source of an electric signal, name the
activator, and a part connected to loading,—the generator.
In the activator the variable electric signal at the expense of the return piezoef-
fect will be transformed to energy of acoustic waves which, arising on borders of
electrodes, extend on all volume of the transformer. On the frequency equal to one
of resonant mechanical frequencies of the transformer, the standing wave with the
maximum amplitude of fluctuations is formed. In the generator of the piezoelectric
transformer mechanical pressure at the expense of direct piezoeffect will be trans-
formed to an electric signal. On resonant frequencies the transformation factor has
the maximum value [11–14].
On a way of transformation of energy in the activator and the generator piezoelec-
tric transformers can be classified as transverse-transverse, longitudinal-longitudinal,
transverse-longitudinal, longitudinal-transverse.
As fluctuations piezoelectric transformers subdivide into transformers with exci-
tation of fluctuations longitudinal, radial, shift and a bend.
The basic designs of piezoelectric transformers are shown in Fig. 2.5 [2]. The trans-
former with longitudinal polarization of the activator and the generator (Fig. 2.5a) is
called as the transformer of ring type, and with transverse-longitudinal and transverse
polarization (Fig. 2.5b, c)—the transformer of transverse type. The disk transformer
(Fig. 2.5d), also is the transformer of transverse type, but has some features of work,
therefore disk transformers allocate in separate group.
Longitudinal-longitudinal and transverse-transverse transformers are symmetric.
Their factor of transformation does not depend on the geometrical sizes and reaches
several tens and even hundreds units.
b a/
P P UIN P P
UIN UOUT a b UOUT
Activator Generator l l/ /
(a) (b)
UIN UOUT UIN UOUT

P P
P
(c) (d)
Fig. 2.5 Designs of piezoelectric transformers
RZ CM LM RM n :1
∼ C02
C01 RH
Fig. 2.6 Equivalent scheme disk piezoelectric transformer
The transverse-longitudinal transformer is asymmetrical, and its coefficient of

transformation depends on a parity of the geometrical sizes. This design of the trans-
former represents the greatest practical interest. The coefficient of transformation of
the transverse-longitudinal transformer can reach several thousand [2].
Coefficient of transformation of the disk transformer above, than at the transverse.
At excitation on a radial fashion fluctuation the energy stream through a cylindrical
surface remains invariable for any radius, and, hence, in the disk centre there is a
concentration of energy. If generating section of the transformer to arrange in the disk
centre, there is an additional increase of coefficient of transformation at the expense
of concentration of energy [2].
Reduction of a thickness of the transformer leads to increase in factor of transfor-
mation. Input and output impedances are defined mainly by capacities of systems of
electrodes.
The analysis of work of piezoelectric transformers, as well as piezoelectric res-
onators, can be spent by means of equivalent schemes. The equivalent scheme of
the piezoelectric transformer turns out from equivalent schemes of two piezoelec-
tric resonators, one of which is the activator, another—the generator and for disk
piezotransformer looks like, shown in Fig. 2.6 [2].
Expression for transformation coefficient on the voltage, the transformer expressed
through parametres:
for transverse-longitudinal
2.4 Piezoceramic Transformers 25
Fig. 2.7 Equivalent scheme 1 L2C2 2

piezoelectric transformer
Cd C
L1 L3
C1 C3
1' 2'
Eg d
4Q M Y33 33 31 l
K u0 = ; (2.26)
ξ 2 1 − k33
2 a
for longitudinal-longitudinal
2
4Q M k33 4Q M g33 d33 Y3
K u0 = = ; (2.27)
ξ 2 ξ2
for transverse-transverse
2
4Q M k31 4Q M g31 d31 Y3
K u0 = = . (2.28)
ξ 1 − k31
2 2 ξ2 ξ2
As it was specified above, the maximum coefficient of transformation has the

transverse-longitudinal piezoelectric transformer. If to assume, that the sizes l ◦
≥, a ◦ ≥, K u0 ◦ ≥. However the sizes are defined by admissible overall
dimensions, complexity of technology of their performance and losses. If to consider,
that the length l should not exceed 100 mm, and the thickness should not be less than
0,25 mm, geometry coefficient N G = al = 200. To this limit for the transformer
from piezoceramic WTC-23 (PZT) there corresponds the coefficient of transformation
equal 7,000 [15]. In practice this size is much less [2].
The model of a disk piezoelement with electrodes in the form of a ring and a
disk is investigated in [6, 15–17], on the basis of what the equivalent scheme of
piezoelectric transformer is constructed (Fig. 2.7).
Reception of such scheme is represented quite obvious of consideration of physics
of processes, occurring in piezoelectric transformer. Really, at excitation of fluctu-
ations in piezoelectric transformer the input section can be considered as a part
resonance a fluctuating disk with parameters Cd , L1 , C1 , output section—also as a
part resonance a fluctuating disk with parameters CR , L3 , C3 .
Communication between sections is carried out by one more part of a disk with
parameters L2 , C2 .
The received scheme is fair as for the frequencies close to resonant, and for pre-
resonance area.
One more variant of the electric equivalent scheme of disk piezoelectric trans-
former is shown in Fig. 2.8.
Fig. 2.8 Equivalent scheme C сoup

piezoelectric transformer with
the coupling capasity Ccoup
1 L C 2
Cd C
1' 2'
1:n
In this case the known scheme of voltage transfer of on an exit of piezoelectric

transformer is used by means of the ideal transformer, however the coupling capacity
is in addition entered Ccoup between an input and output.
This capacity is real capacity, representing consecutive connection Cd and CR .
Such communication (elastic) is carried out on a material piezoelectric transformer
(L2 , C2 ) as follows from Fig. 2.8.
The understanding of physics of processes allows to operate characteristics piezo-
electric transformer with means of additional condensers and inductance, included
between an input and output [6].
2.5 Bimorph and Trimorph Piezoelements
Bimorph piezoelements (BPE) consist of two parts—two interconnected piezoele-

ments or a piezoelement and a metal plate, soldered or glued to each other by epoxy
compound.
Bimorph elements, consisting of two piezoelements, are named symmetric.
Bimorph elements, consisting of a piezoelement and a metal plate, are named asym-
metric [5, 6].
Elements, consisting of two piezoelements and a metal plate, are called trimorph
[9].
It is necessary to note, that joining of two piezoelements or a piezoelement and
a metal plate in one design leads to essential change of sensor characteristics. For
example, minimal resonant frequency of WTC-19 piezoceramic piezoelement (30 mm
in diameter and 0.3 mm thick) is ∼70 kHz (radial vibrations). Its sensitivity to the
sound field at the frequency of 100 Hz is ∼a 1 mV/Pa, for example. Joining of these
two piezoelements in a symmetric bimorph leads to occurrence of resonant frequen-
cies ∼2.5 and 3.5 kHz (flexural vibrations). Its sensitivity increases to 20–30 mV/Pa
under the same conditions. Thus, it increases not in two, but in 20–30 times.
2.5 Bimorph and Trimorph Piezoelements 27
Fig. 2.9 Fluctuations of (a) (b)

bimorph elements: a rigid
fastening on the forming, b
free arrangement
Fig. 2.10 Communication

(a) (b)
diagrams of piezoelements in + F F
symmetric bimorph transduc- +
ers: a series, b parallel
− −
+
−
−
+
At the same time, joining of piezoceramic and metal (amorphous) plates in an

asymmetric bimorph increases sensitivity in 10–20 times. [5, 6].
Piezoelements in symmetric BPE and piezoelement and a metal plate in the asym-
metric BPE Incorporate among themselves usually to the help epoxy compound or
a fusible alloy or solder. The technology glueing together is described in [5, 6].
Occurrence of curving fluctuations in BPE is caused by anisotropy of mechanical
properties of a piezoelement, a metal plate and glutinous connection.
Two basic resonances fluctuations of curving for BPE in the form of disk exists,
at least (Fig. 2.9).
BPE is fixed on the forming in first case (Fig. 2.9a). It is the lowest resonant
frequency for BPE the given size. BPE is located freely in the second case (Fig. 2.9b).
In this case the basic resonant frequency approximately in 1.4 times above, than for
the first case.
Symmetric Bimorph Piezoelements
Two schemes of piezoelements communication are known: series and parallel
(Fig. 2.10a, b, accordingly) [5].
Traditionally these transducers are made of identical-dimensioned plates. Their
thickness is also identical. This is very important (Fig. 2.10). This assures maximal
sensitivity. However, it is necessary to remark if dimensions of piezoelements are
identical sensitivity of the voltage sensor in parallel circuit and its own resistance
is four times smaller than the corresponding characteristics of the sensor in series
communication circuit.
Static electromechanical coupling coefficients (EMCC) are quantitative effective-
ness measure of the homogeneous deformations coordination discussed. Homoge-
neous planar deformation occurs in electric field of the single-layered plate, polarized
along its thickness. Static EMCC C P for this deformation type is a table value. It has
different values for various compositions of piezoceramics [18].
V
Fig. 2.11 Symmetric
bimorph transducer with iden-
tically thick piezoelements
2h
V
Z
Dynamic (effective) EMCC is introduced to consider the efficiency of electro-

mechanical energy transformation under oscillatory deformations. It is calculated
by simple formulas [17] for homogeneous deformation. For inhomogeneous defor-
mation the effective EMCC is found by solution of electroelasticity boundary-value
problem and with the help of “energetic theory” (Fig. 2.11).
The bimorph plate deformation is generally flexural. However, it is synthesized
from two opposed planar (homogeneous) rigidly connected single-layer (mono-
morph) plates. It is offered in [18] to evaluate the effective EMCC value of round
bimorph flexural vibrations K D . The bimorph consists of identically thick plates in
comparison with the static EMCC value of each plate planar deformation C P . It
should also be compared with the effective EMCC theoretical value of the bimorph
element. This value is found in accordance with “energetic theory” [18].
The analysis of vibrations and effective EMCC expression for a symmetric
bimorph piezoelement are received in [18].
The flexural vibrations problem of a round bimorph plate with radius r = a under
the action of mechanical force, changing according to harmonious law, is considered.
Voltages U1 and U2 of the same frequency occurred on the piezoelements electrodes.
The flexural vibrations equation of the piezoceramic plate, relative to inflection
function of middle surface, looks like this:
ηh ∂ 2 W q
∇2∇2 W + = (2.29)
D̃ ∂t 2
D̃

h3 K 2p
where D̃ = E (1−κ̃ 2 ) 1 + 1+κ
8 1−K 2 —rigidity under cylindrical bending of
12S11 p
piezoceramic plate;
K 2p
κ+ 1+κ
8 1−K 2p
κ̃ = K 2p
—reduced Poisson coefficient;
1+ 1+κ
8 1−K 2
p
d312
K 2p = 2
1−κ S E Θ T —static planar EMCC;
11 33
q—lateral distributed load;
W (x, y, z)—inflection function;
h—thickness of the plates;
η—density of plates material.
The solution of this equation for a bimorph round plate looks like this [26]:
with open electrodes:
1 2
AOPEN = ξβ D̃ (βa)2 (A J1 (βa) − B I1 (βa))2 + (A J1 (βa) − B I1 (βa))2 ,
2
(2.30)
with short-circuited electrodes:

1 2
A S H −C I R = ξβ D̃ × (βa)2 (A J0 (βa) − B I0 (βa))2
2
+ ( A J1 (βa) − B I1 (βa))2 (2.31)
Then the effective EMCC expression C D will look like this:

where UO P E N —the energy reserved in a plate at bends in case of opened electrodes;
β = 4 ηω h — coefficient, introduced to simplify the calculations;
2
D̃
a = r —radius of the bimorph
plates;
h 2 d31 a V0 I 1 (βa) (βa)
A=−4 E 1

and B = −A JI11(βa) – constants, with J1 (z) =
S11 (1−κ) β D̃
h
− ddzJ0 ; J1 (z) = − ddzJ0 ;I1 (z) = ddzI0 ; J0 (βr ) constants, with I0 (βr ) – Bessel functions.
This is the value for piezoceramics WTC-19 composition:κ = 0, 33; K 2p =
(0, 58)2 = 0, 34.
To compare the effective EMCC value for flexural (inhomogeneous) deformations
with the value of static planar EMCC C 2p one should proceed from vibrations to static
deformations, i.e. to consider C D 2 when vibrations frequency tends to zero. Then
3 2
2
lim K D = 0, 252 ≈ K . (2.32)
βa◦0 4 p
This result conforms to EMCC theoretical value for inhomogeneous deformation

of the bimorph element, received in [17]:
AOPEN − ASH-CIR 3 2
K2 = = R p = 0, 255. (2.33)
AOPEN 4
The constants values for WTC-19 piezoceramics are:

E = 12, 3 · 10−12 m2 , Θ T = 1300 · 8, 85 · 10−12 F , d = −5, 2 Kl , accord-
S11 N 33 m 31 m2
ingly.
Then after numerical search [19] of the first three ωa and ωr values, corresponding
to roots of antiresonance and resonance equations (first three main vibration modes),
when changes βa with 0, 1 step in 0…10 interval, the corresponding values are found
by Mason formula K D 2 : R2 = 0, 23, R2 = 0, 12, R2 = 0, 06.
D1 D2 D3
Fig. 2.12 Asymmetric Z

bimorph piezosensor
z2 = z0 + hm
hm
z0 hp
r
R
Asymmetric Bimorph Piezoelements

Asymmetric bimorph piezoelements are more mechanically durable. They consist
of a metal plate and a flat piezoelement, polarized along its thickness.
Idle sensitivity is an important characteristic of sensors, working in recep-
tion/radiation mode. A mathematical model of this transducer type should be con-
structed to estimate the sensitivity and other dynamic characteristics of bimorph
pressure sensors.
A sensor, consisting of glued to each other round metal and thickness-polarized
piezoceramic plates with radius R and r, accordingly, is considered (Fig. 2.12). Their
thicknesses are denoted h m and h p , accordingly. A cylindrical system of coordinates
r, Π and z is used. Its axis OZ coincides with two-layer disk axis. z = 0 relative
to the reduction surface. Its position is determined lower. Coordinates of interface
(separation surface), piezoelement lower surface and metal plate top surface are
denoted z 0 ; z 1 = z 0 − h p ; z 2 = z 0 + h m , accordingly.
Potential difference Ux e jωt is generated on open piezoelement electrodes under
the harmonious load (sound pressure) influence pe jωt ( p = const), normally
applied to the flat surface of the metal plate. The thickness of electrodes, cover-
ing flat surfaces of the piezoceramic disk and glued joint between the plates, are
neglected. The mathematical model of this transducer is constructed by A.N. Shulga
and other scientists [8]. Kinematic hypotheses are used to construct a mathematical
axially symmetric model of asymmetric bimorph vibrations.
u r (r, z) = u(r ) + zψ (r ) ; u z (r,z) = (r ) (2.34)
Here u and —tangential and normal displacement of initial surface, ψ—rotation

angle of the normal; time factor (multiplier) eiωt is always omitted. These are expres-
sions for deformation tensor components:
err = Θr + zτr ; eΠΠ = ΘΠ + zτΠ ; er z = Θr z ; (2.35)

ezz = 0,
In which:
du u dψ ψ
Θr = ; ΘΠ = ; τr = ; τ0 = ; (2.36)
dr r dr r
d
2Θr z = + ψ.
dr
Hypotheses (2.34), mastering the law of movement variation along the two-layer
plate thickness, are expanded by the hypothesis of electric potential change along
the piezoceramic disk thickness. Quadratic approximation is used as this hypothesis.
It was used in the theory of homogeneous covers piezoceramic [8] with electrodes
on lateral surfaces
Ux 3 4z̄ 2
ϕ (r, z̄) = z̄ + 1 − 2 Φ (r ) (2.37)
hp 2 hp
Here Ux —amplitude of an unknown potential difference on the open electrodes.

In expression (2.37) z̄—the co-ordinate, calculated from the middle surface of the
piezoceramic disk. The distance between this surface and the initial bimorph surface
is denoted b = z 0 − h p /2. Formula (2.37) is rewritten in the system of coordinates.
The latter is normally connected with the initial surface:

Ux 3 4 (z − b)2
ϕ (r, z̄) = (z − b) + 1− Φ (r ) . (2.38)
hp 2 h 2p
Then these are the expressions for components of the electric field intensity vector
in the piezoceramic disk:
Er (r, z) = f (z) Er(0) (r ) ; Er (r, z) = Er(0) (r ) + (z − b) E z(1) (r ) ;

3 4(z − b)2
f (z) = 1− , (2.39)
2 h 2p
In which:
dΦ Vx 12
Er(0) = − ; E z(0) = − ; E z(1) = − Φ. (2.40)
dr hp h 2p
Generalized Hamilton principle is applied for derivation of vibrations, electrosta-

tics and natural boundary conditions equations [8]. Considering axially symmetric
bimorph stationary vibrations, we will start with the functional stationarity condition
⎧
⎪
⎨R z 2
δu p u z ϕ (σrr err + σΠΠ eΠΠ + σzz ezz + 2σr z er z ) r dr dz
⎪
⎩
0 z1
⎫
R z 0 R z 2 R ⎪
⎬
ω2
− (Dr Er + Dz E z ) r dr dz − η (z) u r2 + u 2z r dr dz − pu z r dr =0
2 ⎪
⎭
0 z1 0 z1 0
(2.41)
Here η (z)—piecewise constant function of density. The densities of ceramic and

metal plates are denoted η p and ηm , accordingly.
After consideration of intense condition integrated characteristics of the two-layer
plate:
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
Nr (Π) = σrr (ΠΠ ) dz; Mr (Π) = σrr (ΠΠ ) zdz; Qr = σr z dz, (2.42)
Z1 Z1 Z1
and electric condition of the piezoceramic plate:
Z 0 Z 0 Z 0
12
D̂r = Dr f (z) dz; D̂z(0) = Dz dz, D̂z(1) = 2 Dr (z − b) dz, (2.43)
hp
Z1 Z1 Z1
considering dependences (2.35) and (2.36), variation equation (2.41) can be re-
arranged like this:
R
{Nr δΘr + NΠ δΘΠ + Mr δτr + MΠ δτΠ + 2Q r δΘr z
0
h 2p
− D̂r δ Er(0) − D̂z(0) δ E z(0) − D̂z(1) δ E z(1) .
12
−ω2 [η1 (uδu + δ ) + η̄(uδψ + ψδu) + η2 ψδψ] − pδ r dr = 0,
(2.44)
where z 03 − z 13 z 3 − z 03
η1 = η p h p + ηm h m ; η2 = η p + ηm 2 ;
2 2
z 02 − z 12 z 2 − z 02
η̄ = η p + ηm 2 .
2 2
Vibration equations follow from variation equation (2.44) where independent

variations δu, δ , δψ, δΦ and δUx are considered:
d Nr 1
+ (Nr − NΠ ) + η1 ω2 u + η̄ω2 ψ = 0; (2.45)
dr r
d Qr 1
+ Q r + η1 ω2 + p = 0;
dr r
d Mr 1
+ (Mr − MΠ ) − Q r + η2 ω2 ψ + η̄ω2 u = 0,
dr r
electrostatics equation:
d
r D̂r − r D̂z(1) = 0, (2.46)
dr
integral relation:
R
D̂z(0)r dr = 0. (2.47)
0
The fact that displacement current equals zero is the physical sense of condition
(2.47). It is accurate within multiplier 2ξiω through the middle piezoelement sur-
face. This integral relation is additional for unambiguous determination of potential
difference on equipotential surfaces of the piezoceramic disk.
Natural boundary conditions follow from the equality:
r =R
Nr δu + Mr δψ + Q r δ + D̂δΦ = 0,
r =0
which follows from (2.44).

Electroelasticity ratios of asymmetric bimorph are received by integration, using
formulas (2.42) and (2.43) of three-dimensional state equations, simplified according
to assumptions of the thin plates theory. Forces and the moments are written in the
following way:
Nr = C1 Θr + C2 ΘΠ + B1 τr + B2 τΠ − N E L ;
NΠ = C2 Θr + C1 ΘΠ + B2 τr + B1 τΠ − N E L ; (2.48)
Mr = B1 Θr + B2 ΘΠ + D1 τr + D2 τΠ − M E L ;
MΠ = B2 Θr + B1 ΘΠ + D2 τr + D1 τΠ − M E L .
Rigid characteristics and the electric components N E L and M E L from correlations

(2.48) are determined by the equalities:
z0 z0
d31 d31
NE L = p E z dz; ME L = p E z zdz; (2.49)
S11 (1 − κ p ) z1 S11 (1 − κ p ) z1
p p
C1 = h p c11 + h m c11
m
; C2 = h p κ p c11 + h m κm c11
m
;
z 02 − z 12 p z 2 − z 02 m z 2 − z 12 p z 2 − z 02
B1 = c11 + 2 c11 ; B2 = 0 c11 κ p + 2 κm c11
m
;
2 2 2 2
z 3 − z 13 p z 3 − z 03 m
D1 = 0 c11 + 2 c11 ; (2.50)
3 3
z 3 − z 13 p z 3 − z 03
D1 = 0 κ p c11 + 2 κm c11
m
.
3 3
p
In equalities (2.49) d31 is a piezomodule; s11 and κ p -compliance and Poisson
coefficient of the piezoceramic disk. These are the notations, introduced to equalities
(2.50):
p 1 1
c11 = and m
c11 = .
p
s11 1 − κ 2p
m
s11 1 − κm2
In the theory of homogeneous elastic (electroelastic) plates and covers the simplest
connection of forces and moments with middle surface deformations is established
by selection of the middle surface, used as the reduction surface. The forces depend
only on tangential, and the moments—only on flexural deformations [8]. Correlations
(2.48) give more complicated connection between the specified characteristics of the
stressed and deformed states. This additional connection (coupling) from homoge-
neous plates view point is fulfilled by rigid characteristics B1 and B2 . The expressions
analysis for these characteristics shows that if Poisson coefficients of both plates are
considered equal conditions B1 = B2 = 0 are met by the corresponding choice of
the initial surface. Then dependences (2.48) will be as simple as for homogeneous
problem. This simplification is reached only if Poisson coefficients of layers material
are equal [8].
The position of reduction surface is determined from condition B1 = B2 = 0
(withκ p = κm ) by the dependences:
z 0 = h p γ0 ; z 1 = h p (γ0 − 1) ; z 2 = h p (γ0 + β) ;
1 α − β2
γ0 = , (2.51)
2 α+β
m
s11 hm
in which α = p
s11
and β = hp .
Special case β = 0 (h p = 0) corresponds to the single-layer piezoceramic plate
with middle initial surface. In case α = 1 (β = 0) the initial surface coincides with
the middle surface of the two-layer package.
Thus, under condition κm = κ p = κ material correlations for bimorph can be
written like this:
Nr = C11 (Θr + κΘΠ ) − e31 h p E z(0) ; NΠ = C11 (κΘr + ΘΠ ) − e31 h p E z(0)

1 h p (1)
Mr = D11 (τr + κτΠ ) − e31 h 2p E z(0) γ0 − + Ez ;
2 12

1 h p (1)
MΠ = D11 (κτr + τΠ ) − e31 h 2p E z(0) γ0 − + Ez ; (2.52)
2 12
Q r = C44 2Θr z − e15 h p Er(0) ; D̂r = Θ11 h p Er(0) − e15 h p 2Θr z ;

D̂z(0) = Θ33 h p E z(0) + e31 h p (Θr + ΘΠ ) + e31 h 2p (γ0 − 1/2)(τr + τΠ );

D̂z(1) = Θ33 h p E z(1) + e31 h p (τr + τΠ ).
These notations are offered:

hp β hp β d31
C11 = p 1 + ; C 44 = p 1 + ; e31 = p ;
s11 (1 − κ 2 ) α s44 α s11 (1 − κ)

d15 h 3p γ 3 − γ3
e15 = p ; D11 = p γ03 − γ13 + 2 1
; (2.53)
s44 s11 (1 − κ 2 ) α

Θ33 = Θ33
T
1 − K 2p ; Θ11 = Θ11 T
1 − K 15
2
,
p p
in which s11 , s44 —compliances if electric field is constant; d31 , d15 —piezomodules;
T , Θ T —dielectric permeability under constant voltage; K , K —planar and shear
Θ11 33 p 15
factors of electromechanical coupling.
Vibration (2.45) and electrostatics (2.52) equations, dependences (2.36), (2.39),
material correlations (2.52) and integral condition (2.47) are a closed equations sys-
tem of axially symmetric bimorph transducer vibrations. The transducer type is
metal—piezoceramics with decreased shear rigidity of layers.
The simplified variant of the represented above equations should be used to eval-
uate dynamic characteristics of a thin bimorph with a high shear rigidity of layers.
Kirchhoff—Love model is considered below. It is assumed that lateral shear defor-
mation equals zero (Θr z = 0) and shear rigidity is infinite (C44 = ≥). Overcut force,
reaching its final value in the limit, can be determined from the third equation of
the system. Inertial members are not considered. The rotation angle of the normal is
dependent. It is connected with the inflection by equality ψ = − d dr .
The equation is further simplified, assuming that:
D̂z(1) = 0. (2.54)
From the obvious equality:
1 (0) z − b (1)
Dz (r, z) = D̂ (r ) + D̂z (r )
hp z hp
It is clear that acceptance of additional restriction (2.54) indicates the transition

to a more rigid hypothesis [6]. It is about normal component constancy of electric
induction vector along the piezoelement thickness. Using equality (2.54) in (2.52),
(1)
linear correction of electric field E z intensity can be done by curvature change
parameters of the initial surface:
1 K 2p
E z(1) = − (τr + τΠ ) ,
2d31 1 − K 2p
and to exclude it from equations in this way (2.52). Electrostatics equation (2.46)
considering (2.54) becomes simpler D̂r = const r and, obviously, is satisfied if there
are no charges on the cylindrical surface of the piezoceramic disk.
Simplifications, connected with transition to more rigid mechanical and electric
hypotheses, lead to a simpler electromechanical model and a smaller number of the
unknown. The rotation angle and function F are now functions of the initial surface
inflection.
Material correlations (2.52), simplified according to the discussed above ideas
and by use of these correlations (2.35) and (2.40), can be written in the form of
equalities:

du u du u
Nr = C11 +κ + e31 Ux ; NΠ = C11 κ + + e31 Ux ;
dr r dr r
2
d 1 d 1
Mr = − D̄11 + κ̄ + e31 h p γ0 − Ux ; (2.55)
dr 2 r dr 2
2
d 1 d 1
MΠ = − D̄11 κ̄ 2 + + e31 h p γ0 − Ux ;
dr r dr 2
2
du u 1 d 1 d
D̂z(0) = −Θ33 Ux + e31 h p + − h p γ0 − + .
dr r 2 dr 2 r dr
(2.56)
There are reduced flexural rigidity and Poisson coefficient in the ratios for the
moments
h 3p 8gκ + K
D̄11 = p d; κ̄ = ,
S11 (1 − κ )
2 8g + K
where
8g + K (1 + κ)K 2p γ23 − γ13
d= ; K = ; g = γ03 − γ13 + .
24 1− K 2p α
The expression for unknown potential difference can be found from this integral
condition (2.55). The result after integration is

1 K 2p h p 1
Ux = u (R) − h p γ0 − (R) . (2.57)

d31 1 − K 2p R 2
Thus, the output potential difference is expressed by tangential displacement val-

ues of the initial surface and the rotation angle on the plate edge (r = R). Evidently,
if the edge is built in (rigidly fastened) there is no potential difference.
Substituting correlations (2.57) in system (2.45) the vibration equations in move-
ments are received. Small inertial members of squared / cubed bimorph thickness
are not considered.

1
Δu + λ2 − 2 u = 0, (2.58)
x
ΔΔ − μ4 = q. (2.59)
The following notations are introduced:

2
operator Δ = ddx 2 + x1 ddx ;
x = R —dimensionless coordinate;
r
u and —dimensionless movements, divided by radius; and dimensionless

values:
p R3
p
λ2 = α1 Ω 2 ; μ4 = α2 Ω 2 ; q = ; Ω 2 = ω2 R 2 η p s11 1 − κ 2
D̄11
1 + ηβ 1 + ηβ ηm hp
α1 = α ; α2 = ; η= ; Θ= .
α+β Θ2 d ηp R
Planar and flexural equations of bimorph vibrations (2.58) and (2.59) look similar
to analogous equations for a homogeneous isotropic plate. These equations can be
solved by functions Jn and modified Bessel functions In . Radial displacement, equal
zero, and finiteness of the inflection in the plate center are considered:
q
u = A1 J1 (λx) ; = A2 J0 (μx) + A3 I0 (μx) − . (2.60)
μ4
Using (2.60), equality (2.57) is written like this:

K2 1
U= Θ A1 J1 (λ) + Θ γ0 − {A2 J0 (λ) + A3 I0 (λ)} , (2.61)
1+κ 2
where U = Ux dR31 —dimensionless potential. To determine unknown U and integra-

tion constants A1 , A2 and A3 equality (2.61) is complemented by boundary condi-
tions.
An algebraic system to determine unknown constants is received from boundary
conditions:
u (1) = 0; (1) = 0; Mx (1) = 0 (2.62)
and equalities (2.61) if the edge is (hinged) merely supported. Obviously, A1 = 0 and
the following expression is received for output voltage if bimorph vibrates (flexural
vibrations):

q K Θ2 γ0 − 21
U OU T =
(1 + κ) μ
I0 (μ) J1 (μ) − J0 (μ) I1 (μ)
× 2
K γ0 − 21
−2μ2 J0 (μ) I0 (μ) + μ 1 − κ̄ − d [I0 (μ) J1 (μ) − J0 (μ) I1 (μ)]
(2.63)
If case the edge is for freely supported:
N x (1) = 0; (1) = 0; Mx (1) = 0, (2.64)
Constants A1 and A2 , A3 cannot be determined independently, as there are also

planar vibrations, and (2.61) is dependent. A system of algebraic equations is received
from boundary conditions (2.64), using (2.61). Its determinant equals zero. It is an
equation of own (resonant) frequencies.
[λJ0 (λ) + (κ1 − 1) J1 (λ)]

× −2μ2 I0 (μ) J0 (μ) + μ (1 − κ2 ) {I0 (μ) J1 (μ) + I1 (μ) J0 (μ)}
− K̄ J1 (λ) μ [J1 (μ) I0 (μ) + I1 (μ) J0 (μ)] = 0, (2.65)
2
K γ0 − 21 K 2 α γ0 − 21
Kα
where κ1 = κ + β+α ; κ2 = κ̄ + d ; K̄ = (β+α)d .
In the specific case β = 0 (γ0 = 1/2) the equation (2.39) is disintegrated into inde-
pendent frequency equations of piezoceramic disk radial vibrations. Its electrodes
are open:
λJ0 (λ) + (κ − 1 + K ) J1 (λ) = 0, (2.66)
and own frequencies equations of flexural vibrations:
− 2μ2 J0 (μ) I0 (μ) + μ (1 − κ̄) [J1 (μ) I0 (μ) + I1 (μ) J0 (μ)] = 0. (2.67)
Generally β = 0 planar and flexural vibrations are related. Vibrations connected-

ness is shown as a result of inverse piezoeffect only if the electrodes are open. In the
equations this relatedness is realized by dependence (2.61) if boundary conditions
are met (2.64).
Correlation (2.61) is not considered in case potential difference on the piezoele-
ment electrodes is given. As a result, planar and flexural vibrations won’t be con-
nected.
The dependence of dimensionless sensitivity is shown in Fig. 2.13:
Fig. 2.13 Dependence of M

dimensionless sensitivity M̄
on β = h m / h p Ratio
0,4
hp=const
0,3
0,2
0,1
0 1,0 2,0 β
Ux d31
M̄ = p (2.68)
p Rs11 (1 − κ 2 )
It depends on the ratio of metal and piezoceramic disks thicknesses β for (hinged)
merely supported (a continuous line) and freely supported (a dashed line) bimorph.
The calculations are made in below resonance range at dimensionless frequency
of Ω = 0,0179 for following physical-mechanical and geometrical parameters of the
transducer:
m2 m2 m2
s11 = 15, 2 × 10−12 ; s12 = −5, 8 × 10−12 = 9, 9 × 10−12
p p
; s11
m
;
N N N

F Rl
Θ33
T
= 1540Θ0 Θ0 = 8, 854 × 10−12 ; d31 = −100 × 10−12 ;
m N
kg kg
η p = 7, 74 × 103 3 ; ηm = 8, 3 × 103 3 ; R = 9 × 103 m.
m m
The sensitivity dependence on dimensionless parameter β is constructed for the
fixed thickness of the piezoceramic element h p = 3×10−4 m (Fig. 2.13). As it is seen
from the diagram there are values β ∗ with which the sensitivity maximum is reached
(β ∗ ≈ 0, 4). Consequently, the thickness of the metal plate should be selected from
(h m ≈ 0, 4h p ) condition to assure the highest sensitivity of the transducer.
Trimorph Piezoelements
Some variants of performance trimorph elements are possible (Fig. 2.14).
Adding one more piezoelement to the asymmetric bimorph element, increases the
rigidity of the vibratory system and resonant frequency. Simultaneously sensitivity
decreases. Placing of a neutral plane plays the important role for bimorph and tri-
morph elements. Placing of this plane between the basic and additional piezoelement
is ideal case. For asymmetric trimorph element to reach it there is difficultly.
(a) 1 2 (b) 2
1
3
Fig. 2.14 Trimorph piezoelements: a asymmetric, b—symmetric: 1, 2—piezoelements, 3—metal

membrane
Design of symmetric trimorph piezoelement (concerning a neutral plane) satisfies

quite to these requirements (Fig. 2.14b).
References
1. A.A. Harkevich, The Theory of Transducers (Gosenergoizdat, Moscow, 1948). (in Russian)
2. V.V. Lavrinenko, Piezoelectric Transformer (Moscow, Energiya, 1975), p. 112 (in Russian)
3. Piezoceramic materials. Test methods. Standart of USSR 12370–80. M., (1980) (in Russian)
4. S.I. Pugachev, (ed.), Piezoelectric Ceramics Transducers: Reference Book (Leningrad,
Sudostroenie, 1984), p. 256 (in Russian)
5. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic Sensors (Springer Verlag, 2011), p. 498
6. V.M. Sharapov, M.P. Musienko, E.V. Sharapova, Piezoelectric Sensors, ed. by V.M. Sharapov
(Moscow, Technosphera, 2006), p. 632 (in Russian)
7. G.M. Sverdlin, Applied Hydro-Acoustics (Leningrad, Sudostroenie, 1976). (in Russian)
8. N.A. Shulga, A.M. Bolkisev, Fluctuations of Piezoelectric Bodies. AS USSR. Mechanics insti-
tute (Riev, Naukova dumka, 1990), p. 228 (in Russian)
9. V.M. Sharapov et al., Piezoceramic Transformers and Sensors (Cherkasy, Vertical, 2010),
p. 278 (in Russian)
10. E.C. Munk, The equivalent electrical circuit for radial modes of a piezoelectric ceramic disk
with concentric electrodes. Philips Res. Repts. 20(2), 170–189 (1965)
11. V. Domarkas, R.-J. Kazys, in Control Piezoelectric Transducers (Vilnius, Mintis, 1975), p. 255
(in Russian)
12. I.N. Ermolov, in The Theory and Practice of the Ultrasonic Control (Moscow, Mashinostroenie,
1981), p. 240 (in Russian)
13. R.-J. Kazys, in Ultrasonic Information Measuring Systems (Vilnus, Mokslas, 1986), p. 216
(in Russian)
14. M.V. Korolev, A.E. Karpelson, in Broadband Ultrasonic (Moscow, Mashinostroenie, 1982),
p. 160 (in Russian)
15. N.A. Shulga, V.M. Sharapov, S.I. Rudnitskiy, Vibrations of disk bimorph the transducer of
metal-piezoceramics type. Appl. mech. T. 26(10), 64–72 (1990) (in Russian)
16. A.P. Evtyutov, A.E. Rolesnikov, E.A. Eorepin et al., Reference Book on Hydroacoustics
(Leningrad, Sudostroenie, 1988), p. 552 (in Russian)
17. R. Holland, The equivalent circuit of a symmetric N-electrode piezoelectric disk. IEEE Tans.
Son. Ultrason. (1967). SU-14.-P.21-23
18. Y.M. Difuchin, Electromechanical oscillations of bimorph round plates. Bull. Cherkasy state
technol. inst. (1), 39–45 (1998) (in Ukrainian)
19. V.V. Bogorodskiy (ed.), Underwater Electro-Acoustic Transducers: The Directory ( Leningrad,
Sudostroenie, 1983), p. 248 (in Russian)
Chapter 3
Electro-Acoustic Transducers
Abstract Electro-acoustic transducers for work in air are described in this chapter.
Their designs, equivalent electric schemes described. Chladni figures and dia-
grammes of an orientation transducers, which define spatial efficiency of their electro-
acoustic transformation are presented.
3.1 General Information
Electro-acoustic transducers (EAT) are intended for transformation of electric voltage

into acoustic signal.
EAT can work in gaseous medium [1], in water (hydroacoustic transducers, see
Chap. 4), and also can be used for creation of an acoustic signal in the firm medium
(transducers for non-destructive control, see Chap. 5) [2, 3].
Electro-acoustic transducers (radiators) work complete with receivers of an
acoustic signal (sensors) [4].
EAT elaboration is based on various physical principles.
There are mechanical, electrodynamic, magnetostrictive, electrostatic, piezoelec-
tric EAT [1]. Now piezoelectric transducers are most commonly used.
Piezoceramic, as well as magnetostrictive, transducers, working on longitudinal
vibrations, have rather small displacement amplitudes on the work surface [5]. Dis-
placement amplitudes increase can be reached by introduction of additional matching
liquid or air layer [4, 6, 7] between the transducer surface and air [8, 9]. This addi-
tional layer should be separated from work medium by a thin acoustically transparent
membrane. These transducers are narrowband because of matching layers resonant
properties. However, transfer coefficient of these transducers can be increased up
to 9 times in comparison with the transducers, working on longitudinal vibrations
without the matching layers. Displacement amplitude increase can be reached by
using ultrasonic concentrators [4].

42 3 Electro-Acoustic Transducers
Use of flexural vibrations in EAT is the most effective: acoustic impedance of

the transducers in this case is considerably smaller, than when other kinds of vibra-
tions are used. These transducers have a rather high coefficient of electro-acoustic
transformation. They allow receiving bigger displacement amplitudes.
Flexural vibrations can be easily created in asymmetric bimorph piezoceramic
transducers.
Some EAT (buzzers, piezoringers) are shown in Fig. 3.1.
EAT is connected to the oscillations generator or include into the active oscillator
scheme. They can be used as phones, buzzers, sirens, etc.
Transducer Pσ−1 has two bimorph elements, soldered to each other. The trans-
ducer is meant for sound pressure level increase. It is also used in active oscillator
schemes.
This design has a low sound pressure level for two bimorph elements.
In transducer ZP−19 the bimorph element is rigidly fastened in the plastic housing
(case), which represents modified Gelmgolts resonator.
As the experiments showed, the given transducer creates sound pressure approx-
imately 4.6 dB higher than Pσ−1 [10]. The equivalent electric scheme of the trans-
1 2
(a) 3 (b)
2
3
1
(c) (d)
3 2 1
1 2
4
Fig. 3.1 Design of electro-acoustic transducers (buzzers, piezoringers): a Pσ − 1; b Pσ − 2;

c Pσ − 19; d CB 35BBR (by “Taiyo Yuden Co, LTD” [11]): 1 piezoelement; 2 membrane; 3
ledge; 4 housing (case); 5, 6 electrodes
3.1 General Information 43
Fig. 3.2 Equivalent electric C0

scheme of transducer Pσ − 19
L1 C1 R1
L2 R2
C2
ducer, received as a result of electromechanical analogies method, is shown in Fig. 3.2

[4]. In this scheme the following elements correspond to each other: consecutive
(oscillatory circuit, vibration contour) L 1 , C1 , R1 to bimorph piezoelement, induc-
tance L 2 —to air mass between the housing (case) and the bimorph element, C2 —to
air elasticity in this volume and finally, R2 resistance—to losses when air passes
through the aperture. C0 —static capacitance between the piezoelement electrodes.
There is an additional electrode 6 on the piezoelement in CB35BBK transducer,
produced by “Taiyo Yuden Co, LTD” [11, 12]. This allows switching of this trans-
ducer in the active oscillator scheme.
Common drawbacks of electro-acoustic transducers are a comparatively low level
of sound pressure created (i.e. their sensitivity), and also a narrow range of frequencies
reproduced.
In addition, transmission coefficient of a bimorph piezoelectric transformer and
resistance value of the piezoelectric transformer output section are important for
transducers with an additional electrode.
EAT are based on asymmetric bimorph piezoceramic transducers. Such transduc-
ers can be described by electro-elasticity theory methods [13]. In the general case a
piezoelectric element is described by the system of twenty two differential equations.
It is a well-known fact that the exact solution of this task is practically impossible
[13]. It is possible only for special cases.
Transfer functions of electro-acoustic transducers can be simply described if
each transducer layer is considered a quadripole. A transfer function calculation of
mechanically damped piezoelectric projector with an arbitrary number of transitive
layers (m-layer piezoelectric system) can be found in literature [14].
Methods of calculation symmetric and asymmetric bimorph transducers are
resulted in [7, 4].
3.2 Chladni Figures and Transducers Directional Diagrams
Directional diagram (DD), determining the spatial efficiency of electro-acoustic

transformation, is the major EAT characteristic.
Electro-acoustic projectors’ DD is usually characterized by many features. The
most important among them are: sharpness of directional operation; maximum
Fig. 3.3 Directional diagram

and its parameters: 1 basic θ0
and 2 additional lobes (of
maxima); Π0 and Πd —angles,
characterizing directional Aα
1 θd
operation sharpness and width
of the first additional max-
imum accordingly; AΘ — 2
current DD value in Θ direc-
tion
sharpness; amount, directions and values of additional maxima; and amount and
directions of complementary maxima. The following parameters are also important:
concentration, amplification, interference immunity factors; the effective area of the
radiator aperture and utilization coefficient of the aperture area [15]. DD in polar
system of coordinates and some of its important parameters are shown in Fig. 3.3.
It is known that acoustic radiation DD depends on the radiative signal frequency
[13, 16]. The transducer is deformed differently under various conditions. As a
result, sound front, determining the directional characteristic, is formed. Analytical
dependences, describing acoustic directivity, are offered in [15].
The acoustic pressure, created by the transducer [14, 17, 18]:
e ∂ x jkx sin Π
p= A cos (N − 1) e dx, (3.1)
2 l
−l
where N—amount of nodal lines; l—the transducer width; k—propagation constant

of a flexural wave, k = 2∂/κ, κ—wavelength in the medium; Π —opening angle of
DD basic lobe; A—a constant, depending on voltage on the transducer clips (clamps,
binders) and on transducer parameters.
After integration and normalization (3.1) relative to pmax = 1 we receive expres-
sion for the transducer directional diagram:
(N − 1)∂ cos η
R= , (3.2)
∂ 2 (N −1)2
4 − η2
where η = kl sin Π .
Directional diagrams are measured by the unit, represented in Fig. 3.4 [19].
Measuring the radiator sound pressure level, the measuring device microphone
should be positioned in the spherical radiation area (Fraunhofer diffraction region)
[15, 20], i.e.:
l ≥ 2d 2 κ−1 ,
where d—the biggest linear dimension of the transducer.

3.2 Chladni Figures and Transducers Directional Diagrams 45
Fig. 3.4 Scheme of unit

for transducers directional
diagram measurement: 1 3
transducer; 2 rotary device;
3 microphone; l—distance
between transducer and micro-
phone 1
l
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
(i) (j) (k) (l)

Fig. 3.5 Chladni figures for round transducer: a–d (2.25, 4, 6.85; 8.6 kHz)—when the transducer is
loose; e–h (2.3, 3.84, 7.1, 8.9 kHz)—fastened in three points; i–l (1.19, 4.7, 6.3, 7.5 kHz)—fastened
in six points
The pattern of antinode nodal distributions in the transducer plane is determined

by Chladni figures method [21].
EAT with round bimorph elements are most widely used [4, 22, 23]. However, in
some cases transducers of rectangular and triangular form [4, 23–27] are applied.
Chladni figures for round bimorph transducer with a metal plate (made of semi-
firm brass R63 40 mm in diameter, 0.3 mm thick) and WTC-19 (PZT-19) piezoceramic
disk piezoelement (27 mm in diameter and 0.3 mm thick), rigidly connected to each
other by epoxy adhesive BB-20, are shown in Fig. 3.5.
As it is seen from Fig. 3.5, nodal distribution on the transducer surface
considerably changes, depending on the way of fastening.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 3.6 Directional diagrams of round transducer: a, b (3.9, 6.8 kHz)—when the transducer is
loose; c, d (2.32, 7.27 kHz)—fastened in three points; e, f (1.78, 9.55 kHz)—fastened in six points
Directional diagrams of this transducer are shown in Fig. 3.6. As it is seen from
the Figure, various DD forms can be received, depending on the way of fastening
and driving frequency.
The number of lateral lobes in the diagram increases with the transducer fastening
rigidity increase.
Two and more bimorph transducers should be connected together in a row of
technical uses. It is necessary for formation of the required DD in distance and level
meters, etc. [1, 4, 14, 17, 28, 29].
Rectangular and triangular transducers are most suitable for this. A. Petrauskas,
V. Domarkas, R. Kazhis, A. Vladishauskas, etc. studied rectangular transducers with
rectangular piezoelements [17, 24, 28–30]. V.M.Sharapov and S.V. Rotte studied
rectangular and triangular transducers with round piezoelements [4, 25, 26, 31, 32].
Chladni figures for rectangular and triangular transducers are shown in Figs. 3.7
and 3.9; directional diagrams—in Figs. 3.8 and 3.10 accordingly.
DD equation of planar rectangular antenna looks like:
∂b
sin κ sin Θ sin ω sin ∂aκ sin Θ sin ω
R p (Θ, ω) = ∂b ∂a , (3.3)
κ sin Θ sin ω κ sin Θ sin ω
where Θ—angle between the radiation direction and the perpendicular to the radiator
plane; ω—angle between the secant plane and the radiation direction; a, b —radiator
dimensions.
A triangular antenna can be considered rectangular with a side degenerated into
a point.
We should also mention that when triangular radiators had the central maximum,
lateral lobes in DD in comparison with the rectangular samples were considerably
smaller. As a result, triangular radiators should be used in narrow-band radiation
equipment.
3.2 Chladni Figures and Transducers Directional Diagrams 47
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k) (l)
(m) (n) (o)

Fig. 3.7 Nodal distribution when rectangular transducer vibrates: a–f (0.42, 1.64, 1.96, 3, 5.2,
6.9 kHz)—transducer is loose; g–k (1.64, 3.2, 5.15, 7.35, 8.4 kHz)—fastened in four points; l–o
(2.1, 3, 4.8, 8.7 kHz)—fastened in eight points
As it is seen from Fig. 3.10, comparatively narrow central DD lobes can be received
for triangular transducers.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k) (l)

Fig. 3.8 Directional diagrams of rectangular transducer: a–d (1.95, 3.7, 5.03, 6.62 kHz)—
transducer is loose; e–i (2.42, 3.3, 5.55, 7.8, 8.6 kHz)—fastened in four points; j–l (2.2, 3.18,
7.55 kHz)—fastened in eight points
Volume transducers, made on the basis of rectangular and triangular transducers,

are shown in Fig. 3.11, and their OD—in Fig. 3.12. As it is seen from Fig. 3.12, the
central lobe of volume transducers DD is even narrower.
3.3 Electro-Acoustic Transducers in Active Oscillators Schemes

In this case narrow-band EAT, activated at resonant frequency, can be used.
Some schemes of transducers activation are shown in Fig. 3.13. Among these
schemes Colpitts schemes, known for their simplicity and efficiency, are of the great-
est interest (Fig. 3.13a, c).
3.3 Electro-Acoustic Transducers in Active Oscillators Schemes 49
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(k) (l) (m)

Fig. 3.9 Chladni figures for triangular sample with 40 mm side: a–f—transducer is loose (1.72, 3.1,
4.1, 5.2, 5.85 B 9.2 kHz); g–j—fastened in three points (2.95, 4.35, 6.3, 9 kHz); k—m—fastened
in six points (4.9, 6.7, 7.5 kHz)
The choice of bimorph piezotransformer dimensions and form is important for

Colpitts transformer scheme [4].
As it is known, for active oscillator activation the following condition should be
observed
K AM K F B ≥ 1,
where K AM , K F B —complex coefficients of amplifier transfer and feedback circuit,

K R E V i.e. of the bimorph piezotransformer.
K R E V transfer coefficient increase is desirable. This enhances the transitional
process, allows the amplifier scheme simplification and decreases power inputs.
Bimorph piezotransformers consist of a piezotransformer and a metal plate. Disk
piezoelements with two systems of electrodes are used in most cases. A disk electrode
is positioned from one piezoelement side, while a ring and a disk—from the other
(Fig. 3.14). Flexural vibrations are created in bimorph piezotransformers [33].
K R E V dependence on d/D relation of the bimorph piezotransformer (Fig. 3.14)
is shown in Fig. 3.15. As it is seen from this Figure, the greatest transfer coefficient
is received when the piezotransformer is activated from the ring electrode (curve 1)
and the disk electrode d diameter—the outside diameter D ratio equals d/D = 0.5.
If the bimorph piezotransformer is activated from the disk electrode K R E V is almost
twice lower, than in the previous case [33].
Piezotransformer idling is obviously desired for an active oscillator with a piezo-
transformer in feedback circuit (FC). This assures minimal power inputs in FC, i.e.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k) (l)

Fig. 3.10 Directional diagrams of triangular transducer: a–f (2.96, 4.05, 6.21, 6.6, 7.2, 8.62 kHz)—
transducer is loose; g–i (2.95, 4.35, 5.6 kHz)—fastened in three points; (Completion) Directional
Diagram of Triangular Transducer: j–l (2.34, 2.65, 3.46 kHz)—fastened in six points
minimum expenses of energy in FC (i.e. minimum energy consumption, not con-

nected with the transducer acoustic radiation).
It can be reached by increase of the amplifier input resistance or by decrease of
piezotransformer output resistance.
However, we should mention here that to reach maximum sound pressure the
known condition should be observed: the amplifier output resistance should equal
the transducer input resistance.
As it is experimentally established [4], these contradictory requirements can be
satisfied if electrodes from a piezoelement side are symmetric. There should be
ledges on the central part of each electrode. These ledges should enter the hollows
of the second electrode (Fig. 3.16). A disk-shaped electrode should be attached to
the other piezoelement side. These electrodes position allows the reception of the
maximum transfer coefficient if the capacitances of input and output electrodes are
equal. For example, the transfer coefficient of this transducer in a transformer mode is
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 3.11 Volume transducers, made on the basis of bimorph piezoceramic transducers, connected
among themselves as: two rectangular (a) and triangular (b) transducers; trihedral (c) and tetrahedral
(d) pyramids; prisms (e)
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 3.12 Directional diagrams of volume transducers, shaped as: two rectangular (a) (11.65 kHz)
and triangular (b) (11.03 kHz) transducers; trihedral (c) (11 kHz) and tetrahedral (d) (11.5 kHz)
pyramids; prisms (e) (11.6 kHz); Π—opening angle of the basic lobe
approximately (sample of 30 transducers) three times higher, than of the transducer

with semi-disk-shaped electrodes. It approximately equals the transfer coefficient
of CB 35BBR transducer, made by “Taiyo Yuden Co, Ltd” [11, 12] (Fig. 3.1d); it
should be activated from the bigger electrode. However, the output resistance of the
(a) (b)
PE PE
VT VT
C1 C2 L1 L2
(c)
R1 R3
R2
VT
PE
Fig. 3.13 Schemes of electro-acoustic transducers activation: a Colpitts scheme; b Hartley scheme;
c Colpitts transformer scheme
Fig. 3.14 Bimorph piezo- D

transformer: 1 disk piezo-
transformer; 2 metal plate; 3 d 1
disk-shaped bottom electrode;
4 ring electrode; 5 disk elec- 5 4
3
trode
2
Fig. 3.15 Dependence of REV

bimorph piezotransformer 1
E R E V transfer coefficient on 2.0
d/D Ratio: 1 generator con-
nected to the ring electrode;
2 generator connected to the 1.6
disk electrode
1.2
2
0. 8
0. 4
0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 d/D

1 2
(a) (b)
3 4
3
4
D D
Fig. 3.16 Electro-acoustic transducer with piezoelement with separate electrodes: 1 piezoelement;
2 membrane; 3, 4 electrodes
transducer developed is approximately 10 times less, than the similar characteristic

of CB 35BBR transducer.
This transducer design allows effective activation of practically 100 % of trans-
ducers, despite their parameters spread at serial production.
We should also notice that because of piezoelement diameter-thickness ratio
importance for effective introduction of positive feedback along the whole piezoele-
ment, electrodes topology on the piezoelement should be made as concentric circles,
combs and spirals (Fig. 3.17). In conclusion of the given section we will consider cer-
tain designs of bimorph piezotransformers, assuring high transformation coefficient,
and also their schemes of switching an active oscillator. The first design (Fig. 3.18)
consists of a membrane and a disk piezotransformer with disk—and ring-shaped
electrodes from one side and disk electrode—from the other. However, the amplifier
output of the active oscillator is connected to the big disk electrode, the amplifier
input—to the small diameter disk electrode, and the amplifier common wire—to the
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.17 Topology of piezotransformer electrodes when flexural vibrations are created: a concen-
tric circles- and a disk-shaped; b combs-shaped; c spirals-shaped
Fig. 3.18 Switching of

bimorph transducer in active
oscillator scheme
Fig. 3.19 Dependence of

tr / tr.max
relative transfer coefficient on
d/D for transducer in Fig. 3.18
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 d/D
Fig. 3.20 Switching of

bimorph transducer in active
oscillator scheme
d1
d3
d2
disk electrode. Thus, transfer coefficient of the piezotransformer was approximately

1,3 times increased. As the experiments showed, there is also an optimum d/D values
ratio for this case (Fig. 3.19) [4].
Even bigger transfer coefficient is received for the transducer, represented in
Fig. 3.20. There are electrodes’ sizes correlations when the transfer coefficient
reaches its maximum (Figs. 3.21 and 3.22).
Fig. 3.21 Dependence of tr / tr.max d3

relative transfer coefficient for = 0.57
transducers: in Fig. 3.20 on 0.8 d2
d1 /d2 ration with d3 /d2 = 0.57
0.6
0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 d1/d3
Fig. 3.22 Dependence of tr/ tr.max d1

relative transfer coefficient for = 0,8
0,8 d2
transducers: in Fig. 3.20 on
d3 /d2 Ratio with d1 /d2 = 0, 8
0,6
0,4
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 d 3 /d 2
References
1. A.A. Gorbatov, G.E. Rudashevskiy, Acoustic Methods of Distances Measurement and Control
(Energoizdat, Moscow, 1981), p. 208 (in Russian)
2. www.avrora.vlink.ru
3. www.sktbelpa.ru
4. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic Sensors (Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2011), p. 498
5. P.E. Randyba, P.G. Pozdnyakov (eds.), Quartz Resonators (Energoizdat, Moscow, 1989),
p. 374 (in Russian)
6. V.B. Aranovich, I.A. Prudov, Patent of USSR 251970. Ultrasonic Radiator (in Russian)
7. I.P. Golyamina (ed.), Ultrasound (Small Encyclopedia) (The Soviet Encyclopedia, Moscow,
1979), p. 400 (in Russian)
8. I.A. Prudov, G.A. Shehovtsov, Acoustic radar profilograph PσP-2H for shooting of inaccessible
steeply falling rooms., Nonferrous metallurgy, vol. 8, p. 301 (1966) (in Russian)
9. L.C. Lynnworth, Ultrasonic impedance matching from solids to gases. IEEE Trans. sonics
ultrason. SU-12(2), pp. 37–48 (1965)
10. V.M. Sharapov et al., Electro-acoustic Transducer, Patent of RF, vol. 2003238, pp. N41–42
(1993) pp. N41–42 (in Russian)
11. www.t-yuden.com
12. www.micros.com.pl
13. V.M. Sharapov et al., Expansion of a strip of reproduced frequencies of electro-acoustic trans-
ducers (Visnyk ChDTU, Special issue, 2007). (in Russian)
14. V. Domarkas, R.-J. Kazys, Piezoelectric Transducers for Measuring Devices (Mintis, Vilnius,
1974), p. 258 (in Russian)
15. A.P. Evtyutov, V.B. Mitko, Engineering Calculations in Hydroacoustics (Sudostroenie,
Leningrad, 1988), p. 234 (in Russian)
16. N.A. Shulga, A.M. Bolkisev, Vibrations of Piezoelectric Solids (Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1990),
pp. 64–72 (in Russian)
17. V. Domarkas, A. Majonas, A. Petrauskas, Study of Directional Characteristics of Piezotransduc-

ers Flexural Vibrations, Proceedings of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic Educational,
Institutions Ultrasound, vol. 15, pp. 48–51 (1983) (in Russian)
18. V.V. Malov, Piezoresonant Sensors (Energoizdat, Mascow, 1989), p. 272 (in Russian)
19. R.G. Dzagupov, A.A. Erofeev, Piezoelectronic Devices of Computing Machinery, Monitoring
Systems and Control (Politechnika, St. Petersburg, 1994), p. 608 (in Russian)
20. A.E. Rolesnikov, Acoustic Measurements (Standards Publishing House, Mascow, 1983),
p. 292 (in Russian)
21. A.P. Evtyutov, A.E. Rolesnikov, E.A. Rorepin et al., Hydroacoustics Handbook (Sudostroenie,
22. R. Thurstor, Effect of electrical and mechanical terminating resistacts on loss and bandwidth
according to the conditional equivalent cirait of a piezoelectric transducer. IRE Trans. Ultrason.
Eng. 1 (1960)
(Technosphera, Moscow, 2006), p. 632 (in Russian)
24. A. Vladisauskas, Study of Flexural Vibrations of Piezotransducers with Variable Cross-section,
Proceedings of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic Educational, Institutions Ultrasound,
12, pp. 89–96, 1980
25. V.M. Sharapov, et al., Study of round and oval asymmetric bimorph piezoelectric transducers.
Visnyk ChITI. 1 45–49 (2001) (in Russian)
26. V.M. Sharapov, et al., Study of rectangular asymmetric bimorph piezoelectric transducers.
Visnyk ChITI. 2 18–22 (2001) (in Russian)
27. V.M. Sharapov et al., Study of triangular asymmetric bimorph piezoelectric transducers. Visnyk
ChITI. 4 39–43 (2000) (in Russian)
28. V. Domarkas, A. Petrauskas, Bimorph Piezoceramic Transducers for Measurements in Gas
Environments, Proceedings of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic Educational, Institu-
tions Ultrasound, vol. 10, pp. 55–64 (1978) (in Russian)
29. A. Petrauskas, V. Domarkas, Designs of Ultrasonic Bimorph Transducers (Abstracts of XX II
Scientific-Technical and Scientifically-Methodological Conference of Taganrog Radio Engi-
neering Institute, Taganrog, 1972). (in Russian)
30. S.I. Rudnitskiy, V.M. Sharapov, N.A. Shulga, Vibrations of disk bimorph transducer of metal-
piezoceramic type. App. mech. T26(10), 64–72 (1990) (in Russian)
31. V.M. Sharapov, S.V. Rotte, Piezoelectric Sensor, Patent of Ukraine 53211 (2003) (in Ukrainian)
32. V.M. Sharapov, S.V. Rotte, Piezoelectric Sensor, Patent of Ukraine 53953 (2003) (in Ukrainian)
33. V.M. Sharapov et al., Calculation of transfer functions of electro-acoustic converters. Visnyk
ChDTU. 4 23–26 (2003) (in Russian)
Chapter 4
Hydroacoustic Transducers
Abstract Classification of hydroacoustic transducers are resulted in this chapter.

Designs of transducers and their characteristics are resulted.
4.1 Classification and Characteristics
Transducers which are applied in hydroacoustics, name hydroacoustic transducers

traditionally [1–8].
A hydroacoustic transducer (HAT) is a vibration system created for reception of
radiation and acoustic signals in water environment [2].
Depending on their functions, transducers are divided into radiators, receivers and
reversible transducers. Depending on energy transformation principle, transducers
can be piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, electrodynamic, electromagnetic and electro-
static.
Transducers can bar (rod), lamellar, cylindrical and spherical, depending on the
oscillatory system structure.
Depending on constructive performance, there are power and compensated trans-
ducers.
Monomorph and bimorph piezoelements are used for HAT manufacturing.
Bar (rod) systems have a free electromechanically active bar (Fig. 4.1a) or a bar
from one side (Fig. 4.1b), with two overlays (Fig. 4.1c) or with some number of
layers from a passive material. Longitudinal vibrations are created in such systems
along the axis bar with certain distribution of amplitudes and elastic stress. These
oscillations are considered piston.
Lamellar systems are made in the form of a rectangular (Fig. 4.1d) or a round
(Fig. 4.1e) plate, vibrating along the thickness. They are also made in the form of
plates, supported by two opposite sides (Fig. 4.1f) or by the circumference (Fig. 4.1g),
performing lateral flexural vibrations.

58 4 Hydroacoustic Transducers
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
(i) (k) (l)
Fig. 4.1 Typical oscillatory (vibrating) systems: (a) electromechanically active bar; (b) a bar from
one side; (c) with two overlays; (d) in the form of a rectangular; (e) a round plate; (f) in the form of
plates, supported by two opposite sides; (g) in the form of plates, supported by circumference; (h)
radial pulsing vibrations; (i) oscillating vibrations; (k) flexures with four knots along the circum-
ference; (l) a spherical system is a thin homogeneous spherical cover
Fig. 4.2 Load-bearing (a) (a) (b)

and compensated (b) units: 1 1
1—work overlay; 2—active 7
2 2
element; 3—internal cavity;
4—case; 5—pressure equaliz- 3 3
ing aperture; 6—compensator; 5
4 4
7—acoustic element
6
In cylindrical systems, forming active material rings, radial pulsing vibrations

(Fig. 4.1h), oscillating (Fig. 4.1i) and flexures with four knots along the circumference
(Fig. 4.1k) can be created.
A spherical system is a thin homogeneous spherical cover (Fig. 4.1l), performing
practically radial pulsing vibrations.
Because of mechanical transformation in load-bearing units (Fig. 4.2a) overboard
hydrostatic pressure causes unilateral stress (compression) in active element 2 as the
internal volume of case 4 is filled by air if atmospheric pressure is normal.
4.1 Classification and Characteristics 59
In the compensated units (Fig. 4.2b) the active element experiences even uniform
compression, equal to overboard hydrostatic pressure as internal volume 3 is filled
by gas or liquid if pressure is the same [2].
4.2 Ratios of Electromechanical Transformations
Linear reversible and passive hydro-acoustic transducer can be possibly represented

in the form of a generalized quadripole with electric and mechanical sides [1, 2,
9]. Force F and vibrational speed σ, characterizing the mechanical side condition,
voltage U and current I, characterizing the electrical side condition, satisfy electro-
mechanical reciprocity relations. The greatest practical application belongs to the
following relations [5, 10]:

I F I F
= = NU,σ ; = = N F,I , (4.1)
σ U =0 U σ=0 σ F=0 U I =0
named electromechanical transformation coefficients. The indexes mean: U = 0—

short circuit; I = 0—idling (open-circuit) of the electric side; σ = 0 and F = 0—
hindered and free mechanical sides. Transducer intrinsic resistance: electric Z 0 =
U/I if σ = 0; mechanical Z I = F/σ if I = 0 and Z U = F/σ if U = 0.
An equivalent scheme of a transducer-radiator (Fig. 4.3) consists of excitation
generator with electromotive force E G and internal resistance Z H , electric chain—
resistance Z 0 in the form of parallel connection R L and ±i X 0 , the electromechani-
cal transformer and mechanical chain—constituents of intrinsic and load resistance
(contact K is closed). Component x is inertial and elastic resistance of the transducer;
x S —inertial resistance of co-vibrating mass m S . Values R L , r L , r S reflect energy
losses in the electric chain, the mechanical part (mainly—in the design elements)
and for radiation.
Condition x + x S = x M = 0 determines resonance of mechanical vibrating
system. Resonating, the radiator consumes active power PE = U 2 /R L + U 2 /R M =
PL + PM , where PL —electric loss power; PM —mechanical power, R M = (rΠ +
r S )/N 2 . Mechanical power
ZG 1 :N
RP ix rS ixS
FEQV
±iX0 Rn z zH
EG U Z0 F
Fig. 4.3 Equivalent electromechanical scheme of radiator and receiver

U2 U2
PM = R S + R M.L = PA + PM.L ,
R 2M R 2M
where PA —radiated acoustic power; PM.P —mechanical loss power.

According to the stages of energy (transmitted to the radiator) transformation, the
following efficiency coefficient is considered Θ E = PM /PE —electromechanical;
Θ AM = PA /PM —acoustical-mechanical; Θ E A = Θ E M /Θ AM = PA /PE —electro-
acoustic. Acoustical-mechanical efficiency coefficient of sound underwater radiators
with resonance Θ AM = 0.5 . . . 0.8.
In some cases radiator efficiency is evaluated by sound pressure p, created by the
radiator in a point on the acoustic axis if distance r and voltage U (or current I) on
the electric input is unit. Relation pr/U = S is called voltage radiator sensitivity. It
is measured in Pa m/V. Relation pr/I = S is called current radiator sensitivity. It is
measured in Pa m/A.
A transducer-receiver equivalent scheme (see Fig. 4.3) consists of a sound field
energy source with emf FE QV (contact K is open), mechanical resistance Z H and Z,
electromechanical transformer and electric resistance Z 0 and Z H load is not shown).
If pressure p, caused by sound field, is evenly distributed along the transducer recep-
tion surface (which occurs when wave surface area is small), electromotive force
equals FEQV = pS. Generally, FEQV = k D pS, where k D —diffraction coefficient,
depending on the receiver wave sizes, its form and incident wave direction.
Energy transformation is also evaluated by electromechanical coupling factor.
Energy electromechanical coupling factor (EMCF) is determined by the relation
of mechanical (electric) energy, generated by an active element, to total electric
(mechanical) energy, reserved in it. It serves as an effectiveness measure of electro-
mechanical transformation in the active material (k 2M ) and in transducers (kC2 ). In
static mode, practically—with frequencies considerably lower the principal reso-
nance, EMCF depends only on the active material properties. In dynamic mode
transducer kC2 EMCF depends on the type of vibrations and elastic stress distribution
along the active element volume. It is called effective EMCF, and kC2 ◦ k 2M . Value
kC2 is connected with resonance f p and anti-resonance f a frequencies by the reduced
correlation
kC2 ≥ 1 − ( f p / f a ). (4.2)
4.3 Cylindrical Piezoceramic Transducers
Below we will consider formulas to calculate piezoceramic thin and short ring (thick-
ness and depth (height) are considerably smaller than the mean radius), performing
radial pulsing (zero mode) and oscillating (first mode) (Fig. 4.4) [2, 3, 6, 7].
In the final case distribution of vibrations in radial direction is described by the
function v(∂) = v0 cos ∂, in tangential direction—v(∂) = v0 sin ∂, where σ0 —
4.3 Cylindrical Piezoceramic Transducers 61
(a) (b) (c)

+ –
–
+ - - + + - -+
+ +- -
– + --
+ ϕ + + r +
r ϕ r - ϕ +-
- -
+ +
+- +
-
- -
++ +
-- -+
+ d +-
+ +-
- + +- - +
+ –
Fig. 4.4 Piezoceramic ring: a continuous pulsing; b continuous oscillating; c sectioned pulsing
amplitude of vibrations radial speed with ∂ = 0 [3, 5, 7, 8]. Practically the transducers
designs are represented as a set of glued rings.
Piezoceramic ring with the use of transverse piezoelectric effect (electrodes are
on lateral surfaces).
Mechanical resonance frequency:
(a) Unloaded ring

E /κ
E Yu1
fo = ( pulsation); f o = 2 fp (oscillation)
2η R
(4.3)
E (Yu1—Y from Young) —elasticity module and
where r—ring mean radius; E Yu1
ring material density; index 01 refers to the first mode of vibrations;
(b) Loaded ring

f p = f 0 / 1 + ω(κ c) B /(τ p κ d) ≥ f 0 / 1 + ω(κ c) B r/(κ c1E d), (4.4)
where ω—dimensionless coefficient of radiation reactance, preliminary deter-

mined at frequency f 0.
The technique of such transducers is resulted in [2].
4.4 Lamellar and Spherical Piezoceramic Transducers
Transducers, mechanical systems of which perform lateral flexural vibrations, are

used if frequencies are in lower than low 5… 10 kHz range. As a rule, these trans-
ducers are used in the field of frequencies, lower than the resonant frequency. Their
(a) (b)
2h
a
2h
a
0 a r
a r
2h
x
x
2h
Fig. 4.5 Vibrating systems of rectangular (a) and round (b) lamellar transducers
mode shape, intrinsic frequencies and electro-acoustic parameters depend on the

conditions of active elements fastening [11].
Vibrating system of lamellar transducers is made in the form of two-layer rec-
tangular or round piezoceramic plates, supported by opposite edges (Fig. 4.5a) or by
perimeter (Fig. 4.5b), i.e., symmetric or asymmetric bimorph elements.
The form of thin plate vibrations [2, 6, 7]:
f (x) = sin(η x/l); f (r ) = 1.04J0 (2.2r/a) − 0.04N0 (2.2r/a), (4.5)
where J0 and N0 —Bessel functions of 1st and 2nd kinds.

Equivalent concentrated parameters
m EQV = κ ahl; m EQV = 0.6ηκ a 2 h;

CEQV = 3(1 − μ2 )l 3 /(η 4 E Yu1
E
ah 3 ); CEQV = 3(1 − μ2 )a 2 /(46E Yu1
E
h 3 ). (4.6)
where μ = −s12 E /s E —Poisson ratio; E E = 1/s E —Young modulus of plates

11 Yu1 11
material.
Resonant frequencies of non-load transducer

f 0 ≥ 0.9c1E h/(l 2 1 − μ2 ); f 0 ≥ 0.45c1E h/(a 2 1 − μ2 ), (4.7)

where c1E = E Yu1
E κ.
Electromechanical transformation coefficient (factor)
N = η d31 E Yu1
E
ah/[l(1 − μ)]; N = 4.5d31 E Yu1
E
h/(1 − μ). (4.8)
Transducers with an active element in the form of a hollow spherical cover are
used as measuring radiators and receivers [5]. Spherical transducer calculation equals
cylindrical transducer calculation, described in 9.3 [12].
Mechanical resonance frequency:
(a) Unloaded cover

f 0 = [1/(2ηr )] 2E Yu /[κ(1 − μ)], (4.9)
4.4 Lamellar and Spherical Piezoceramic Transducers 63
where r—mean radius (r ≈ d); d—cover thickness; μ and E Yu —Poisson ratio

and cover material elasticity module;
(b) Loaded cover—formula (9.5), in which c1E should be substituted by value

2E Yu /[κ(1 − μ)], ω = kr/(1 + k 2 r 2 ).
Electromechanical transformation coefficient (factor)
N = 8η d31 r E Yu /(1 − μ). (4.10)
Equivalent concentrated parameters
m EQV = 4ηr 2 κd + 2ω(κc) B r 2 / f ; CEQV = (1 − μ)/(8η E 10 d). (4.11)
Capacitance
C0 = 4η ε33
T
(1 − k 2p )r 2 / d, (4.12)
where k 2p = 2d31
2 E /[ε T (1 − μ)]—energy EMCF for a sphere.
Yu 33
Electromechanical resonance frequency

/
f p = f p / 1 − k 2p . (4.13)
Reception mode sensitivity
2d31 dΘ p kL E Yu
M= (1 + [Q D ( f / f p − f p / f )]2 )−0.5 ,
ξ p ξτ (κc2 ) B (1 − μ)ε3T 3(1 − k 2p )kr
(4.14)

where ξτ = 1 − (1 − ξ/ξ p )Θ p ; ξ = k 2 r 2 /(1 + k 2 r 2 ); Q D = Q/ 1 − k 2p .
4.5 Basic Requirements to Transducers Projected
As transducers radiation is most effective at resonance frequency of their mechanical

vibratory system, transducers in radiation mode are mainly used at resonant or close
to them frequencies. Modern hydro-acoustic stations work in 1 to several megahertz
frequency range. To block this range a number of hydro-acoustic transducers are
used. The transducers vary in their energy transformation ways, mode shapes and
design types [2, 3, 6, 7].
For minimization of transducers dimension-types rich transducers broadbandness
is needed. Transducer broadbandness is assured by domain-dissipative piezoelements
and negative feedback application.
To have the given antenna concentration factor and its radiated power the trans-
ducers, used in it, should have corresponding wave sizes, permissible dispersion of
amplitude and phase errors and also necessary values of specific radiated power and
efficiency.
As hydroacoustic antennas are set in overboard space of various carriers, their
work depths (transducers hydrostatic pressure values are changed accordingly) can
be in several meters to several kilometers range.
Antenna [1] noise immunity depends on vulnerability of electric noises, emitted
by receivers, and radio-electronic elements attached. It also depends on sea and object
noise hindrances—the antenna carrier. Generally, receiver electronic elements and
noise immunity defines its threshold (minimal) pressure pth . Piezoelectric receivers
primary noise (electric noise of preamplifiers) immunity is assured by [1] the specific
value selection of its≤idle sensitivity M and internal resistance Z, i.e., specific receiver
sensitivity M = M/ Z .
To assure the necessary broadbandness a uniform below-resonance part of
amplitude-frequency receiver characteristic is usually used.
Thus, modern transducers should have work frequencies, wave sizes, specific
power, efficiency, specific sensitivities, broadbandness and work depths, assuring
the needed range of a hydro-acoustic station.
Transducers are used in sea water. They are influenced by various aggressive fac-
tors: corrosion, cavitation, fouling, wide temperature range and hydrostatic pressure.
In addition, radiating, transducers are influenced by considerable electric and cyclic
mechanical pressure, and also by heating of elements deformed, caused by them. As
a result of all these factors, mechanical and electric damages accumulation, water
vapor diffusion inside the transducer, materials ageing, etc. occur in the correspond-
ing elements of the design. Designing a transducer, considerable attention should
be paid to its reliability and durability. Electric, mechanical, thermal, chemical and
other influences, and also physical and chemical phenomena, caused by them, should
be considered in their evaluation.
To provide the corresponding knot fastening, transforming energy (of a so-called
active element), its electro-insulation and hermetic sealing, and also mechanical dura-
bility and acoustic shielding, special constructive elements, made of corresponding
materials, should be introduced into the transducer design. All this makes hydro-
acoustic transducers quite complicated and expensive. Transducers design task is
to select the following: a transducer type, materials used and details sizes to assure
transducer intended efficiency, reliability and durability with the minimum cost.
4.6 Selection of Energy Transformation Method and Mode Shape
According to the energy transformation method (electric energy—into mechanic

energy and vice versa), modern hydro-acoustic transducers are divided into piezo-
electric, magnetostrictive, electromagnetic, electro-dynamic, electrochemical,
electric-spark, hydraulics-acoustics, steam-gas-acoustical, optical-acoustical,
etc. [3, 11].
4.6 Selection of Energy Transformation Method and Mode Shape 65
The possibilities analysis of various energy transformation methods in the nec-

essary wide frequencies and depths ranges shows that only piezoelectric and mag-
netostrictive energy transformation methods meet modern requirements. To solve
partial problems in the range not exceeding 1 kGz frequency and 200 m depth the
transducers, based on the other energy transformation methods, are used in some
cases.
As it is known, EMCF characterizes active materials ability to transform electric
energy into mechanical energy in static mode
kC2 = W M /(W M + W E ),
where W E and W M —energy, accumulated by the transducers electric and mechanical

parts.
The main characteristics of the radiator, working at close to resonant frequen-
cies, essentially depending on material parameters, are its overall resonant size dG ,
mechanical-electric efficiency (Θ)ME and maximum specific power Pspmax radiated.
They are connected with active materials parameters by following correlations [1]:
1
ΘME = ;
1−kC2
1+ kC2 Q E Q M
ϕeM.ex
2 B1 ϕex
2B
2
Psp max = = ,
(κ c)2M (κ c)2M
where ϕem.m and ϕex —maximum permissible electromechanical driving voltage and
mechanical stress; (κc) M —specific acoustic material resistance; B1 and B2 —factors
determined by mode shape and design parameters.
For piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials voltage and stress are
ϕeM.ex1 = dik E Yu E; ϕeM.ex2 = aik B,
where dik and aik —tensor components of piezomodules and magnetostrictive con-
stants; E Yu —Young module; E and B—electric field intensity and magnetic
induction.
The receiver’s main characteristic—specific sensitivity—determines signal-
to-noise ratio on the receiver output or depending on it threshold pressure. For piezo-
electric and magnetostrictive receivers, functioning at below resonant frequencies,
specific sensitivity is connected to active material parameters by this correlation
≤
MSP = kC B3 κ M ,
where B3 —factor, determined by mode shape and design parameters.

Table 4.1 Specifications values of magnetostrictive and piezoceramic materials

Piezoceramic
Specification Nickel HI-2 Permendur WT<C-3 WTCHB-1
(low-nickel 50 Rα
alloy)
1 2 3 4 5
EMCF kC :
In weak fields 0.3 0.4 0,65 0.72
In strong fields 0.2 0.1 0.65 0.7
Q factor in strong fields:
electric Q E 2.6 1.9 40 11
mechanical Q M 21 20 200 60
Sound speed c·10−3 , m/s 4.9 5.2 3.1 2.6
Mechanical durability, mPa: 100 100 19.6 16.7
tensile strength ϕ
compression strength ϕC O M 100 100 350 345
Density κ · 10−3 , kg/m 3 8.8 8.2 7.25 7.3
Pressure ϕ E M , V /cm 2 0.71 1.55 2.6 –
Mechanic-electric 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.9
efficiency Θ M E
≤
kC / κ M ratio 2.07 2.68 7.8 10.5
Parameters of main modern magnetostrictive and piezoelectric materials, deter-

mining efficiency of mechanical-electric energy transducer, are shown in Table 4.1.
As it is seen from the Table, piezoelectric materials have considerably better spec-
ifications than magnetostrictive. The advantage of metal magnetostrictive materials
is their high mechanical durability, determining the level of permissible mechani-
cal stress. However, modern armoring (reinforcement) methods increase mechanical
durability of piezoceramic active elements to the level required. Thus, they neutralize
this disadvantage of piezoelectric materials.
Piezoelectric method of energy transformation is mainly used in modern home
radiators and receivers. The most effective are radiators with piezoceramic WT<C-3,
and receivers—with WTCHB-1 [1, 12–15].
4.7 Certain Transducers Designs
Designing a transducer, the necessary mode shape of the chosen active element is
realized by using the active element corresponding fastening to the transducer or
antenna housing (case) and by the necessary electric switching of the active element
corresponding parts (see Fig. 4.6) [2].
4.7 Certain Transducers Designs 67
(a) ξ0 (b) ξ0
(c) l
ϕ ϕ
P
U
ξ0
U E0
P P
(d) E0
P
P
P
U
U U
Fig. 4.6 Piezoceramic transducers fundamental mode and electric activation of Piezoelements,
realizing them: a, b pulsing and oscillating cylinders; c round flexural plate; d half-wave bar
As hydro-acoustic transducers are meant for continuous duty in sea water, to

assure the specified reliability and durability electric insulation and hermetic sealing
of those active elements parts under voltage is necessary.
The demanded mechanical durability of transducers-radiators active elements is
assured by armoring (reinforcement) with special strengthening details (bandages,
buckles, etc.), made of metal or polymeric materials. For electrochemical corrosion
prevention (protection)—corrosion-proof material (titan) or special measures (cov-
erings, protectors, etc.) are used. Electric insulation elements, hermetic sealing and
armoring (reinforcement) should form a unified vibratory system with an active ele-
ment. Therefore their corresponding mechanical conjugation (interface) is needed.
To remove unnecessary sound radiation (receipt) rear and anti-phase transducers
surfaces patches are shielded by sound-soft or sound-rigid acoustic reflecting or
absorbing (in the case with receivers) screens (barriers) are used.
Thus, the transducer design task is to choose key constructive elements and their
conjugations (couplings), assuring the necessary transducer efficiency, reliability and
durability with its minimal sizes, weight and cost [1, 2, 5, 12, 16].
Piezoceramic transducers, assuring the best operation efficiency and reliability
in radiation and reception modes, are widely used in modern hydro-acoustics. At
frequencies below 1 kHz they rival with compound magnetostrictive and electro-
magnetic transducers.
Fig. 4.7 Cylindrical piezo-

ceramic transducer of load- 3
bearing unit: 1—housing
(case); 2—current lead; 3—
fastening; 4—bandage; 5— 4
electric insulation; 6—active
element; 7—acoustic baffle 7
5
(screen) 2
6
1
One of the modern hydro-acoustic transducer widespread designs is shown in

Fig. 4.6. This transducer active element 6 consists of elementary piezoelements
(prisms) glued with each other. The active element electric insulation is ensured by
the layers of firm, liquid and gaseous electric insulating material 5, located between
the active element 6 and the transducer housing (cover) 1 or sea water. The active
element is sealed hermetically, combining the vulcanized or glued layers of sealing
materials (Details 7, 3, 4).
If necessary, the active element mechanical durability can be improved by applica-
tion (overlay) of armoring (reinforcement) elements 4, creating special compression
stress. By means of elastic fastening 3, made of polymeric or metal materials, the
active element is attached to the housing (case) 1. Layers of materials with high
acoustic reflection coefficients in water (air layers, and also air-filled polymers and
metal designs) are used as acoustic baffle (screen) 7.
In load-bearing designs (Figs. 4.7, 4.8) the active element and housing (case)
internal volumes are filled with air or electric insulation gas. These designs active
element and the strong housing (case) can resist hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic
pressure is transformed in the design loaded elements into one-, two- or three-axis
mechanical stress, which is considerably (up to 10… 15 times) bigger than hydrostatic
pressure, causing it.
Electric insulation gas, filling internal volumes of load-bearing units’ transducers,
also functions as an internal acoustic baffle (screen). Hermetic sealing and electric
insulation of load-bearing units’ active elements from basic (housing, case) parts are
ensured by polymeric materials and metals layers.
In compensated designs (Fig. 4.9) active and all other design elements, operating
under hydrostatic pressure, are uniformly compressed ϕC O M = p H .
Electric insulation and hermetic sealing of compensated designs are created by
polymeric material layers, and also by combinations of metal layers with insulating
liquid and polymeric materials.
Acoustic shielding of transducers surfaces (internal inclusive) is performed
by screens (baffles) designed for work under the corresponding hydrostatic pres-
sure [17].
4.7 Certain Transducers Designs 69
7
6
3
1
6
6 6
3
7
5
3
5 1
4 4 1
2
7
5 1
2 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 4.8 Load-bearing units of hydro-acoustic piezoceramic transducers: a tubular; b round plate;
c spherical; d rod (bar): 1—housing (case); 2—current lead; 3—fastening; 4—bandage; 5—electric
insulation; 6—active element; 7—acoustic baffle (screen)
Fig. 4.9 Compensated piezo-

transducers designs: a, b,
cylindrical, hermetically
sealed by layers metal- 5 3
compound (a) and oil-flooded 6
5 6 4
rubber (b) materials; (c)
rod (bar) oil-flooded low- 1
2
frequency: 1—housing (case); 7 7
2—current lead; 3—fastening; 8
4—bandage; 5—electric insu- 4
lation; 6—active element;
7—acoustic baffle (screen);
7—oil; 8—capillary; 9—
pressure compensator (pres- 2
surizer) 9 2
(c)
(a)
(b)
Table 4.2 Receiving transducers specifications [8]

No Type Material Form Sensitivity, Capacity, Resonant fre-
A/(N /m 2 ) × 10−5 nF quency, kHz
1 GRC-4 (WTC-19) Cylinder 7.5 13 1
2 GCG-T< Barium Double 5 25 1.5
titanate cylinder
3 GRC-6 (WTC-19) Two disks 30 10 1
4 GR-19 (WTC-25) Two disks 9 10 1
5 GLC-13 (WTC-19) Two rectangle 15 3 4.5
6 GLC-21 (WTC-19) Two cylinders 10 14 16
Specifications of the receiving transducers described are shown in Table 4.2 [8].
One more widespread design of hydroacoustic transducers consists of a set of
hollow piezoelectric cylinders or the washers which have been pulled together by
means of a metal core (see, for example, the patent of USA 16.109.109.A.Brown,
08.2000, G01129/00).
Specifications of piezoelectric hydro-acoustic transducers can be considerably
improved by using asymmetric bimorph elements, domain-dissipative piezoelements
and negative electromechanical feedback [12].
The information on hydroacoustic transducers produced in lots can be found in
[13, 18–25].
References
1. V.V. Bogorodskiy (ed.), Underwater Electro-Acoustic Transducers: The Directory (Sudostroe-

nie, Leningrad, 1983), p. 248 (in Russian)
2. A.P. Evtyutov, A.E. Rolesnikov, E.A. Rorepin et al., Reference Book on Hydroacoustics
(Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1988), p. 552 (in Russian)
3. S.I. Pugachev (ed.), Piezoceramic Transducers: The Directory (Sudostroenie, Leningrad,
1980), p. 232c (in Russian)
4. M.D. Smaryshev, Yu.Yu. Dobrovolskiy, Hydroacoustic Antennas (Sudostroenie, Leningrad,
1984), p. 300 (in Russian)
5. G.M. Sverdlin, Applied Hydro-Acoustics (Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1976) (in Russian)
6. G.M. Sverdlin, Hydroacoustic Transducers and Antennas (Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1980), p.
232 (in Russian)
7. G.M. Sverdlin, Yu.P. Igurtsov, Calculation of Transducers (Publishing House LKI, Leningrad,
1976–1977) (in Russian)
8. Yu.N. Ruliev et al., Piezoreceivers of Pressure (Publishing house of Rostov University, Rostov,
1976), p. 152 (in Russian)
9. G.V. Cats (ed.), Magnetic and Dielectric Devices, P. 1 (Energiya, Moscow, 1964), p. 416
(in Russian)
10. D.B. Dianov, V.M. Ruznetsov, Influence of transitive layers on rod piezotransducers frequency
characteristics. News of Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute Release 63, pp. 60–78 (1968)
(in Russian)
References 71
11. V.N. Tyulin, Introduction in Radiation and Sound Scattering Theory (Nauka, Moscow, 1976)
(in Russian)
13. http://www.elpapiezo.ru
14. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic Sensors (Springer, Berlin, 2011), p. 498
15. V.M. Sharapov, I.G. Minaev, Zh.V. Sotula, R.V. Bazilo, Piezoceramic Transformers and Sen-
sors (Vertical, Cherkasy, 2010), p. 278
1975) (in Russian)
17. V.E. Glazanov, Shielding of Hydro-Acoustic Antennas (Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1985)
(in Russian)
18. http://www.akhtuba.vistcom.ru
19. http://www.alttpp.ru
20. http://www.hydrodevices.kiev.ua
21. http://www.mechinindustry.ru
22. http://www.morfizpribor.ru
23. http://www.oceanpribor.ru
24. http://www.priboy.ru
25. http://www.sktbelpa.ru
Chapter 5
Transducers with Non-Destructive Control
Abstract Classification of methods of non-destructive control and piezoelectric

transducers for non-destructive control are described in this chapter.
Non-destructive quality control of materials and products is one of the most important
directions of science and technology. Its goal is to improve reliability and durability
of machines, mechanisms, designs and constructions.
5.1 Classification of Methods of Non-Destructive Control
Physical processes of interaction of a physical field or substance with object of the

control are put in a basis of classification of methods of non-destructive control.
Nine groups of methods of not destroying control by the form the physical phe-
nomena on which they are based allocate: magnetic, electric, vortexcurrent, radio
wave, thermal, optical, radiating, acoustic and by penetrable substances (Fig. 5.1).
Each of groups of control methods subdivided by the examined signs
[1–4].
Character of Interaction of a Field or Substance with Object
Interaction should be such that the controllable sign of object caused certain changes
of a field or a substance condition. For example, presence noncontinuity caused past
change through it radiations or penetration into it of trial substance.
In some cases the physical field used for the control under the influence of other
physical effects connected with a controllable sign arises.
For example, the electromotive power arising at heating of diverse materials,
allows to supervise a chemical compound of materials (thermoelectric effect).

74 5 Transducers with Non-Destructive Control
Methods of non-destructive control
Magnetic Electric
Acoustic Vortexcurrent
(ultrasonic)
Radio wave Thermal
Optical Radiating
Methods of control penetrable

substances
Fig. 5.1 Methods of non-destructive control
Primary informative parameter—concrete parameter of a field or substance

(amplitude of a field, time of its distribution, quantity of substance, etc.), which
change use for the characteristic of controllable object.
Way of reception of the primary information—concrete type of the sensor or
substance which use for measurement and fixing of the mentioned information
parameter.
Detailed data about control kinds can be found in the literature [1, 3, 5–12].
5.2 Acoustic Methods of Non-Destructive Control
Among numerous methods of non-destructive control, using various physical fields,

interacting with the object of control, acoustic (ultrasonic) methods are widely spread.
It is explained by many factors. For example, as it is stated in [13], they don’t have
such drawbacks of magnetic and electromagnetic methods as ambiguity of devices
data, strong dependence on minor changes in material chemistry even within one
brand. Acoustic methods are often indispensable in non-metal materials (ceramics,
concrete) control.
Many types of ultrasonic waves without velocity dispersion are used in non-
destructive control. Among them are body longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves,
surface Rayleigh waves and surface (subsurface) longitudinal, or as they are also
called, head “purely” longitudinal waves [1, 7, 9, 13–18]. Acoustic methods of
non-destructive control are based on registration of parameters of the elastic waves
arising or raised in object. Use elastic waves of an ultrasonic range more often (with
frequency of fluctuations above 20 kHz), this method name ultrasonic.
5.2 Acoustic Methods of Non-Destructive Control 75
Unlike all before the considered methods, here apply and register not electro-
magnetic, but the elastic waves, which parameters are closely connected with such
properties of materials, as elasticity, density, anisotropy (non-uniformity of properties
in various directions), etc. Acoustic properties of firm materials and air so strongly
differ, that acoustic waves are reflected from the most thin backlashes (cracks, faultys)
by width 10−6 –10−4 mm. This kind of the control is applicable to all materials well
enough spending acoustic waves: to metals, plastic, ceramics, concrete, etc. [1, 7, 9,
11–27].
Passive and active methods on character of interaction with object distinguish.
The passive acoustic method provides registration of the elastic waves arising
in the object.
Noises of the working mechanism allow to judge serviceability or malfunction of
the mechanism and even about character of malfunction.
This passive method of the acoustic control name vibronoise. Many cars supply
with the gauges registering level of vibration of certain knots and predicting their
working capacity. It is a vibrating quality monitoring or diagnostics [1, 5, 9].
Reorganisation of structure of the material, caused by movement of groups of
dispositions, occurrence and development of cracks, allotropic transformations into
a crystal lattice, is accompanied by occurrence of elastic waves ultrasonic (less often
sound) a range. The method of acoustic issue is based on use of these waves. Using
such informative parameters as quantity of signals in unit of time, their frequency,
peak distribution, a location of a place of occurrence of elastic waves, judge a con-
dition of the material, changes occurring in it, predict working capacity of a design
[1, 5, 7, 9, 11].
Active ultrasonic methods are more various under schemes of application and
have received much more a wide circulation. For the control use standing waves (the
compelled or free fluctuations of object of the control or its part), running waves
under passage and reflexion schemes. Methods of fluctuations use for measurement
of thickness at unilateral access and the control of properties of materials (the mod-
ule of elasticity, attenuation factor). As informative parameter frequencies of the
free or compelled fluctuations and their amplitude serve. Use also a method based
on measurement of a mode of fluctuations of the transducer, adjoining to object
(an impedance method). On amplitudes and resonant frequencies of such trans-
ducer (often looking like core) judge hardness of a material of a product, a pliability
(an elastic impedance) its surfaces. The pliability, in particular, improves under the
influence of the defects close to a surface of a product.
A reflexion method or echo-method by most the wide circulation was received
(Fig. 5.2). The transducer 1 raises 2 ultrasonic (acoustic) impulse in object of the
control. It is reflected from the bottom surface of object or defect 3 and is accepted
by the same (or another) the transducer. Generators of electric impulses 4 and 6 are
synchronised with the generator of development 7 electron beam tubes 5. Generators
of electric impulses 4 and 6 are synchronised with the generator of development 7
electron beam tubes 5.
The reflected signals amplify and cause occurrence on a line of development of
peaks. Signal 8 sent to a product, an echo-signal from defect 9 and a ground signal
Fig. 5.2 The scheme of pulse

ultrasonic detector’s: a the
control forging by the direct
transducer; b the control of
a welded seam the inclined
transducer
10 on Fig. 5.2 are shown. Informative parameters in this case are the amplitude and
time of arrival of impulses.
Echo-method very widely applied for detection metal preparations and welded
connections (Fig. 5.2), the control of structure of metals, measurement of a thickness
of pipes and vessels. Method of passage use much less often. It detected products
simple forms (sheets), estimate durability of concrete, a tree and other materials in
which durability correlates with speed of ultrasound [1, 9, 17].
Piezotransducers as a rule are of means of excitation and reception of ultrasonic
waves.
Considering more strongly reflexion of ultrasound from the most thin air back-
lashes, for transfer of waves from piezotransducer to product a liquid contact use. For
excitation of waves of a sound range except piezotransducers apply shock influence,
and to reception—microphones [1, 9, 17].
From numerous directions of development of an acoustic quality monitoring we
name working out of contactless transducers: laser activators and receivers, the
electromagnetic-acoustic transducers based on excitation of fluctuations of a sur-
face of object by an external electromagnetic field. A number of works is directed
on from the noise mainly connected with reflexion of elastic waves from structural
discontinuity, for example, of borders of crystals in a polycrystalline material.
5.3 Piezoelectric Transducers for Non-Destructive Control
Fundamental work of the following scientists is devoted to the development of

piezoelectric transducers with non-destructive control: Aleshin N.P., Bobrenko V.M.,
Vopilkin A.H., Vybornov B.I., Gurvich A.K., Domarkas V.I., Ermolov I.N.,
5.3 Piezoelectric Transducers for Non-Destructive Control 77
Karpelson A.E., Korolev M.V., Klyuyev V.V., Kutsenko A.N., Lange Yu.V., Polyakov
V.E., Potapov A.I., Sborovskiy A.K, Shkarlet Yu.M., etc. [5, 7, 9, 12–14, 16, 17,
19–25, 27].
Depending on ultrasound (US) devices type and purpose, various types of piezo-
transducers are used: contact and immersion; with and without ultrasonic delay
line (UDL); normal and angle; causing longitudinal, shear, surface, normal and
head waves; separate, combined and separate-combined; low- and high-frequency;
narrow- and broadband; focusing and non-focusing, etc. [1, 7, 13, 19–23, 28].
Main types of piezotransducers for ultrasonic devices are represented in Fig. 5.3.
Normal piezotransducers (Fig. 5.3a–c) radiate and receive longitudinal ultrasound
waves into the object investigated. They can be of contact (Fig. 5.3a) or immersion
(Fig. 5.3c) variant, and also with solid (-state) UDL (Fig. 5.3b). Angle transducers
(Fig. 5.3d, e) are used for radiation and reception of oblique longitudinal waves.
In addition, as a transformation result, shear, superficial, normal and head waves
appear on environment interface. Focusing piezotransducers focus ultrasonic US
waves using the piezoelement form (Fig. 5.3f) or an acoustic lens (Fig. 5.3g). In
Fig. 5.3h a separate-combined transducer, having advantages over combined trans-
ducers, is shown. It has a smaller dead zone, in particular.
In contact transducers (Fig. 5.3a–c) the thickness of contact lubricant layer is much
smaller than the wave length λ of US vibrations radiated. In immersion transducers
(Fig. 5.3c, e) the thickness of immersion liquid layer is much bigger λ. So-called slit
transducers with liquid thickness layer (several λ) between the object investigated
and the transducer are often used.
Contact transducers are used in the study of products with thoroughly machined
surface if there are no high requirements to the acoustic contact stability. Running
immersion transducer and the object investigated (usually of a small size) are drowned
in a tank with liquid. Thus, the acoustic contact stability with the product is consider-
ably increased. There appears a possibility of products automation control process.
Using a slit transducer, there appears a gap between it and the product, into
which contact liquid is continuously supplied. This allows automation of large-sized
products control without placing them in a tank with immersion liquid.
Combined transducers with solid (-state) UDL (Fig. 5.3b) are used for the dead
zone decrease (i.e. uncontrolled product area). It mainly arises because of the power-
ful electric excitation pulse influence on the input of a sensitive receiving amplifier.
Separate-combined transducers are also used for this (Fig. 5.3h).
Focusing transducers (Fig. 5.3f, g), allowing frontal equipment resolution raise
under other equal conditions, are used for radiation directivity, received signals
amplitude and signal-to-hindrance ratio improvement.
Studying objects with the help of shear, head, surface or normal waves, angle trans-
ducers (Fig. 5.3d, e) with different angles of US vibrations input are used. Depend-
ing on the product form and specifications character controlled, a certain kind of
waves is preferred or is even indispensable. For example, if thin-walled products are
defectoscoped—normal waves are used, if subsurface defects are detected—head
waves are applied, etc. [22].
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
4 4 4 4
1 5 1 7 1 1
6 6 6 6
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 1
3 3 3
2 2 2 3 2
4 4 4 4
1 1 8 1
6 6 1 6
1
(e) (f) (g) (h)
Fig. 5.3 Basic types of ultrasonic equipment transducers: a normal contact; b normal contact
with solid (-state) ultrasonic delay line; c normal immersion; d contact angle; immersion angle;
e focusing; g focusing with a lens; h separate-combined: 1 contact lubricant layer or immersion
liquid; 2 damper; 3 housing (case); 4 piezoelement; 5 protector; 6 object investigated; 7 solid (-state)
ultrasonic delay line; 8 acoustic lens; 9 and 10 electro-acoustic baffle (screen); 11 prism
Now piezoelements, radiating and receiving longitudinal body US waves, are

mainly used for realization of all the transducers designs mentioned above. These
designs differ in US waves radiated and received, focusing degree and type, types of
contact with the device and acoustic vibrations input in it, and positional relationship
of radiator and receiver, etc.
Different operation modes can be received if piezoelements of various shapes are
used; if they are positioned relative to the object studied differently, and operate in
radiator, receiver or radiator-receiver mode. Therefore, creation of a basic broadband
longitudinal wave piezotransducer opens a designing and manufacturing possibility
of broadband transducers of various types. Transducers specifications can be deter-
mined by characteristics of a piezoelement, generating and receiving longitudinal
US waves, in accordance with the acoustics principles known. For example, in angle
transducers amplitude of the US signal radiated and received, and also acoustic field,
created in the product, can be determined by piezoelement characteristics, using the
method of image US waves radiator [1, 7, 13].
Sensitivity, resonant frequency, frequency band, directionality, dead zone, acoustic
hindrances level, generated by the transducer, double conversion ratio refer to spec-
ifications of transducers with non-destructive control.
Practically all piezotransducers of non-destructive control devices work in pulse
mode. Therefore, bandwidth is one of the main transducers specifications. The wider
the bandwidth, the higher the devices resolution, the smaller the dead zone, the
better the product thickness measurement, defects co-ordinates and ultrasound speed
accuracy.
It is necessary to note, that similar transducers are used in hydro-acoustics, and
also in medicine, in sonoradiography devices.
We will consider specifications and defining properties of a longitudinal US waves
piezotransducer below [13].
Coefficient of Electromechanical Transformation
Forward transformation coefficient L characterizes piezoelement efficiency in radi-

ation mode:
L = P1CP /U0 (5.1)
where P1CP —average value of the radiated wave acoustic pressure amplitude; U0 —
amplitude of voltage, activating the transducer in radiation mode.
Inverse transformation coefficient M characterizes piezotransducer efficiency in
reception mode:
M = U/P2CP (5.2)
or
M = I /P2CP , (5.3)
where P2CP —average value of US wave amplitude, coming to the transducer;

U and I—voltage and current accordingly, arising between piezotransducer elec-
trodes in reception mode. In most cases it is more reasonable to use formula (5.3)
for M determination.
Double electromechanical transformation coefficient characterizes the combined
piezotransducer efficiency in radiation-reception mode:
D = LM. (5.4)
Piezotransducer Amplitude-Frequency Response
Amplitude-Frequency Response (AFR) shows change of transformation coefficient

module, depending on frequency. In Fig. 5.4 typical AFR of a half-wave resonant
piezoplates is represented.
The following sizes are considered to be AFR factors [13]: f 0 —frequency, corre-
sponding to the first maximum AFR (first harmonic), f 1 and f 2 —frequencies, when
AFR in the first harmonic region is 6 dB below the maximum in double transfor-
mation mode (or 3 dB below—in forward or inverse transformation mode); f 3 , f 4 ,
etc.—odd harmonics frequencies; Δf = f 1 − f 2 —pass band. For broadband piezo-

transducers (we will discuss them below) AFR looks as it is represented in Fig. 5.5.
This AFR can be characterized, by boundary frequencies f 1 and f 2 and strip Δf
width, for example.
Form of Acoustic Field Created
Created acoustic field form is spatial distribution of acoustic pressure P amplitude,

created by the piezotransducer in the object studied. The pressure field, created by
a cylindrical piezoelement on various distances z (from the radiating plane) and
x (from the symmetry axis), is represented in Fig. 5.4. The concepts of near- and
far-field zones, divergence angle and directivity diagrams are used for the radiation
field characteristic. Pressure distribution along radiation axis z (an acoustic axis) and
general field pattern are represented in Fig. 5.5. As it is seen from Figs. 5.4 and 5.5,
acoustic pressure amplitude changes non-steadily in the transducer near-field zone
if distance z changes [13]:

2
P(z) = P(0) 2 sin ( z 2 + a 2 − z) , (5.5)
k
where a—transducer radius; k—wave number.
Fig. 5.4 AFR of half-wave L, rel.un

resonant piezoelement: L
5
coefficient of forward electro-
mechanical transformation; f
frequency
fp f3 f4 f5
f1 f2 2 4 6 f, rel.un
Fig. 5.5 AFR of broadband L, rel.un

piezotransducer 1,5
f1 2 6 f2 f, rel.un
Fig. 5.6 Piezotransducer

radiation field: Z B near-field
zone border; a piezotransducer P, rel.un z / zB, rel.un
radius
2,0
1
1,5
0,5 1,0
0,8
0,6
0,3
0 x / a, rel.un
The near-field zone border is determined by expression
z B = a 2 /λ. (5.6)
Divergence angle (Fig. 5.7b)
Θ P = arcsin(0.61 λ/a) (5.7)
In the transducer distant-field zone the acoustic pressure amplitude monotonously

decreases with z increase (see Fig. 5.6 and 5.7a).
Field distribution in the distant-field zone is characterized by the directional dia-
gram concept

P(θ ) 2J1 (ak sin θ )

Θ P = arcsin(0.61λ/a)D(θ ) = = , (5.8)
P(0) ak sin θ
where J1 —Bessel’s function of the 1st kind.

A directional diagram example in polar and Cartesian coordinates is represented
in Figs. 5.8 and 5.9.
Various factors, listed above, influence the piezotransducers specifications. Spec-
ifications of the piezomaterial, used in piezoelement production, are of the greatest
P, rel.un x/a
1 2Θ P
1
1 z/zB, rel.un
0 -1
0,5 1 1,5 2 z / zB, rel.un
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.7 US field of piston piezotransducer: a pressure distribution along the transducer acoustic
axis; b general field pattern; continuous curve radiator nonstop run; dashed curve pulsed mode
Fig. 5.8 Transducer direc-

tional diagram in polar coor- 10° 5° 0° 5° 10°
dinates with 2a/λ = 5
R(ϕ )
20° 20°
0,75
0,50
0,25
Fig. 5.9 Transducer direc- P / P0

tional diagram in Cartesian
coordinates: continuous curve 0,8
radiator nonstop run; dashed 2J1(x) / x
curve pulsed mode
0,6
0,4
0,2
1 2 3 4 5 x = aksinϕ
importance. The specifications influence the electromechanical transformation coef-

ficient and piezotransducers AFR.
Resonant Volume Piezotransducers
Piezotransducers with a wide continuous spectrum of work frequencies, allowing

radiation and reception of short US impulses, have been considered till present.
In the majority of modern US devices resonant (volume) piezotransducers (VP),
effectively working only at intrinsic fundamental (basic) frequency, are used. These
transducers have big electromechanical transformation coefficient and assure very
high signal-to-hindrance ratio (approximately 100 dB). This ratio does not exceed
50 dB in the best types of broadband transducers. Frequently it is necessary to use
VP at high frequencies, in 20–50 MHz range. These VP are not serial in Ukrainian
industry. Low-frequency VP (2–5 MHz) can also be used for this purpose if they
run at higher harmonics. However, they will be extremely inefficient: the signals
amplitude at harmonics, compared to the signal at intrinsic fundamental (basic)
frequency, decreases approximately in inverse proportion to the harmonic number

and even faster. Therefore, this VP operation mode is not widely used in practice.
If VP is in US reception mode and it is current, but not voltage, of the transducer
output signal that is measured, then the signal amplitude on harmonics (frequency
dependent attenuation not inclusive) will equal the signal amplitude at intrinsic fun-
damental (basic) frequency. Therefore, this run mode considerably expands VP work
frequencies range and spectrum and allows creation of high-frequency transducers
without very thin piezoplates use.
Determination to expand VP work frequencies range and spectrum with all their
advantages preservation resulted in creation of surface active volume piezotransduc-
ers (SAVP). These transducers can work effectively at intrinsic fundamental (basic)
frequency and at even and odd harmonics. In comparison with VP the number of
their work frequencies fixed is twice bigger.
In addition, at mechanical attenuation of these transducers their AFR is much
more uniform, than VP AFR. Therefore, SAVP are more broadband transducers.
These transducers are also of scientific interest. They, as well as surface active thick
piezotransducers (SATP), transform weakly diverging US beam into drive force of
inhomogeneous electric field.
SAVP have planar electrodes, located only on one transducer side (Fig. 5.10).
SAVP—resonant transducers, which effectively radiate and receive US vibrations
with integer number of half-waves along the piezoplate thickness. Therefore, the
piezoelement volume in SAVP participates in creation of standing mechanical waves
and in formation of US radio pulses radiated and received. All piezotransducer vol-
ume is deformed in radiation and reception mode.
SAVP has a variety of interesting features due to its surface drive and resonant
properties.
In Fig. 5.11 SAVP AFR is shown. It was experimentally received in radiation
mode. SAVP 3 mm thick, 30 mm in diameter, with 0.2 mm diametrical slit gap
between electrodes was used as US waves radiator. US waves receiver—SATP 23 mm
thick and 30 mm in diameter with the same gap as in SAVP was located in water
on 30 mm distance from the radiator. The transducers were located with their gaps
parallel to and in front of each other.
SAVP was activated by radio pulses with rectangular envelope (curve) and various
filling frequency. SATP electrical signal was taken in a mode close to piezoelement
short circuit. As it is seen from Fig. 5.11, SAVP radiates US waves at its fundamental
(basic) frequency (0.7 MHz—in this case) and at all even and odd harmonics (1.4;
2.1; 2.8; 3.5 MHz, etc.).
Fig. 5.10 Surface active

volume piezotransducer
X
Z
Fig. 5.11 SAVP AFR for radi-

L,M, rel.un
ation and reception modes:
2
L and M forward and inverse
electromechanical transfor-
mation factors accordingly
f0 2f0 3f0 4f0 5f0 6f0 7f0 f, MHz

1 2 3 4 5
The result received in reception mode practically coincided with SAVP AFR in
radiation mode.
In Fig. 5.12 designs of non-uniformly polarized surface active volume piezotrans-
ducers (NPSAVP) of two types—NPSAVP-1 and NPSAVP-2 are shown. NPSAVP-1
is polarized only under one electrode (Fig. 5.12a), NPSAVP-2 is polarized under dif-
ferent electrodes in opposite directions (Fig. 5.12b). It is easier to make these piezo-
transducers by gluing together homogeneously polarized and depolarized piezoele-
ments. The influence of the glue (epoxy resin) layer on acoustic and electric fields,
arising in transducers, is practically absent. This fact was also established for non-
uniformly polarized surface active thick piezotransducers (NPSATP), by comparing
SAVP characteristics of two glued together parts with SAVP, made on a monolithic
piezoelement.
Non-resonant Excitation of Piezoelements
Two basic conditions under which creation of longitudinal US waves broadband ape-
riodic piezotransducer are formulated in work [20]. First, there should be only one
cut in the piezoelement volume (in that specific case it can coincide with its surface).
Driven electric field density or piezoactivity level (d33 ) or both simultaneously expe-
rience a sharp step in this cut. Secondly, piezoelement should have only those forms
or dimensions which eliminate the occurrence of standing waves, generated in the
cut or work surface.
These two principles assure transducer broadbandness and aperiodicity in radia-
tion and reception modes.
Besides these two principles, there exists one more principle (the third and the
last) which should be considered in reception mode. Only output electric current
(but not voltage) impulses, measured from the piezotransducer in reception mode,
repeat the form and duration of acoustic pressure impulses, influencing the transducer.
Therefore, current amplifier with small (units in Ohm) input resistance should be used
at work with broadband piezoreceiver. This amplifier practically assures transducer
short circuit mode at US impulses reception. As a result, current impulses of the
transducer are measured. These impulses have the same form as the acoustic signals
received, while the voltage pulses are calculated by the time integral from US pressure
impulses [20].
When the piezoelement is in radiation and reception modes electromechanical
transformation occurs mainly in the thin piezosubstance layer. The piezoelement
volume in this case is mainly passive and is only a wave guide—the environment of
US waves propagation.
Non-uniformly polarized thick piezotransducers (NTP) are referred to the first
type of broadband aperiodic US waves transducers [20]. They differ from usual
thick piezotransducers (TP) by polarization degree which smoothly decreases in
their volume from the maximum value at the front surface (radiating into useful
acoustic load) to zero at the opposite (back) surface.
Electromechanical transformation occurs in them mainly on one piezoelement
surface.
Non-uniform polarization in NTP is reached by partial depolarization of standard
uniformly polarized piezoelements as a result of short-term heating of a part of their
volume to the temperature, exceeding the top piezoceramic Curie point (Patent of
USSR 381021).
In US control practice NTP with solid (-state) US delay line 1 (Fig. 5.13a) between
the front piezoelement surface and the environment (the device controlled) in which
it radiates US waves, is of interest.
NTP design, shown in Fig. 5.13a, is much more complicated than the one, rep-
resented in Fig. 5.13c. However, the second design where the role of US delay line
is performed by the piezoelement body polarized, as it is shown in Fig. 5.13d, is
practically suitable only when small (1–2 µs) delay time is required.
Piezoelectric transducers in which the piezoelement is activated by non-uniform
electric field (Patent numbers: 539265, 590662, 595880, 658408, 658469), created,
for example, by coplanar electrodes, located on one of its surfaces, while its piezo-
electric properties experience a break, refer to the second type of broadband aperiodic
US transducers.
For the first time the similar method of US waves activation was offered by
S.Ya. Sokolov and G.E. Grachev in 1948. It was used for generation of hyper-sound
in piezoelectric quartz samples and for creation of monolithic solid (-state) US delay
line. In the type of thick piezotransducers described US waves in radiation mode are
mainly created at one surface. Electrical charges of maximal value are also measured
from the same surface by means of the electrodes located on it. These charges are
(a) (b)
×
Fig. 5.12 Transducers designs: a NPSAVP-1; b NPSAVP-2; polarization directions are shown by
arrows; depolarization zone is marked by the cross Results of researches of such transducers are
resulted in [1, 7, 11, 13, 20, 22]
Fig. 5.13 Various Types of

NTP: a with ultrasonic delay
line; b graph of polarization
degree change; c NTP, in
Z
which the piezoelement body d
serves as ultrasonic delay line; Z
d graph of polarization degree
change in the piezoelement d
1 d33 d33
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 5.14 Thick piezotrans-

ducers
2 E P
1
3
Fig. 5.15 Surface active

piezotransducer
2 E 3
P
1 d
generated on this surface in US waves reception mode. This type of transducers is

named [20] surface active thick piezotransducers (SATP).
We will study SATP work in comparison with usual TP work of the same dimen-
sions. If TP (Fig. 5.14) is activated by short electric impulse on electrodes 2, 3, then
short US pulses will arise at each of its surfaces. They will propagate in the volume
between TP bases, alternately reflecting from them and gradually fading along the
amplitude.
If the bottom electrode, for example, is removed from the transducer while the
head electrode is split in two parts, as it is shown in Fig. 5.15, and an identical short
electric impulse is supplied to the new pair of electrodes, located on a piezoelement
surface, then, as it was expected, odd impulses will disappear and even pulses will
remain, i.e. those pulses which appeared on the head piezotransducer basis. This
basis is represented as elementary SATP variant.
Fig. 5.16 Design of mono-

lithic NTP
P P
Fig. 5.17 Monolithic broad-

band piezotransducers without
depolarization 3
β
1
When head (Fig. 5.15) SATP basis borders with air, and the bottom—with the
device controlled, the piezoelement body 1 is nothing but US delay line between
“infinitely thin” piezotransducers and the device.
A schematic image of a NTP variant, explaining its operation principle, is given in
Fig. 5.16. NTP is a piezoceramic monolithic cone-shaped 1 block. Bottom electrode 3
is located on its radiating surface. Ring electrode 2 is located on its lateral surface. The
piezoelement is polarized as usually: by application of constant voltage on electrodes
2, 3. Then the part of the piezoelement, directly adjacent to electrode 2, is depolarized
to make the polarization degree decrease evenly from the maximum at electrode 3
to zero at electrode 2.
US waves appear only at electrode 3 when a voltage impulse is supplied to the
electrodes, as the piezoelement areas, adjacent to electrode 2, are depolarized. As a
result, the transducer responds to each electric impulse arisen by an only acoustic
impulse. Some types of these transducers are described in USSR Patent numbers:
539265, 590662, 595880.
One more variant of a monolithic piezotransducer, advantageously different from

the previous by the absence of depolarization sites, is shown in Fig. 5.17. The design
of this transducer is represented by a piezoceramic monolithic block. There is a
cone-shaped acoustic trap in front of silver electrode 1, located on its front surface
(radiating to useful load). The second electrode 2 is located on the back surface (not
radiating to useful load).
Longitudinal US waves arise along electrodes 1 and 2 if the transducer is activated.
A part of US waves energy, arisen at electrode 1, goes to the transducer useful acoustic
load (down in Fig. 5.17). The other part—propagates into the piezoelement and gets
into the acoustic trap 3 where it fades. US waves, arisen at electrode 2, propagate
into the transducer and, having reflected from the slant edge around electrode 1, also
go to the acoustic trap, not getting to the front piezoelement surface.
Information about the series-produced fault detectors is possible to find, for exam-
ple, in [29–34].
References
1. I.N. Ermolov, Y.Y. Istanin, Methods and Means of Not Destroying Quality Assurance (Vyssh
shk, Moscow, 1988), p. 368 (in Russian)
2. V.V. Rlyuev (ed.), Roentgentechnics. Reference Book (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1980) (in
Russian)
3. A.N. Maiorov, S.V. Milikyanz, L.I. Rosarev et al., Radio Isotope Defectoscopy (Methods and
Equipment) (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1976), p. 208 (in Russian)
4. S.V. Rumyancev, V.A. Dobromyslov, I.L. Borisov, Typical Methods of Radiation Fault Detec-
tion and Protection (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1979), p. 200 (in Russian)
5. N.P. Aleshin (ed.), Methods of Metals Acoustic Control (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1989),
p. 456 (in Russian)
6. A.S. Borovikov, A.P. Prohorenko, N.V. Dezhkunov, Physical Bases and Means Capillary of
Flaw Detection (Nauka and technica, Minsk, 1983), p. 256
7. I.N. Ermolov, Theory and Practice of Ultrasonic Control (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1981),
p. 240 (in Russian)
8. B.P. Golubev, Dosimetry and Protection Against an Ionising Radiation (Atomizdat, Moscow,
1977), p. 504
9. V.V. Rlyuev (ed.), Devices for Non-Destructive Control of Materials and Devices. Directory
(Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1986), p. 352 (in Russian)
10. V.A. Lanis, L.E. Levina, Technics of Vacuum Tests (Gosenergoizdat, Leningrad, 1963), p. 311
(in Russian)
11. A.G. Scherbinskiy (ed.), Methods of Defectoscopy and Welded Connections (Mashinostroenie,
Moscow, 1987), p. 360 (in Russian)
12. B.I. Vybornov, Ultrasonic Defectoscopy (Metallurgy, Moscow, 1974), p. 240 (in Russian)
13. I.N. Ermolov. (ed.), Ultrasonic Piezotransducers of Non-Destructive Control (Mashinostroe-
nie, Moscow, 1986), p. 280 (in Russian)
14. V.M. Bobrenko, A.N. Eutsenko, A.S. Sheremetikov, Acoustic tensometry. Flaw Detection 3,
70—87 (1980) (in Russian)
15. Y.V. Lange, Acoustic Low-Frequency Methods of Non-Destructive Multilayered Designs
(Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1991) (in Russian)
16. V.E. Polyakov, A.I. Potapov, A.R. Sborovskiy, Ultrasonic Control of Designs Quality
(Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1978), p. 238 (in Russian)
References 89
18. I.A. Viktorov, Ultrasonic Surface Waves in Solids (Nauka, Moscow, 1981), p. 288 (in Russian)
1974), p. 258 (in Russian)
20. M.V. Rorolev, A.E. Rarpelson, Broadband Ultrasonic Piezotransducers (Mashinostroenie,
21. M.V. Rorolev, Echo-Pulse Ultrasonic Thickness Gauges (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1980),
p. 112 (in Russian)
22. M.V. Rorolev et al., Ultrasonic Pulse Devices of Materials Durability Control (Mashinostroe-
nie, Moscow, 1987), p. 112 (in Russian)
23. A.R. Gurvich, I.N. Ermolov, The Ultrasonic Control of Weld Seams (Technics, Kiev, 1972),
p. 460 (in Russian)
24. G.S. Samoilovich (ed.), Non-Destructive Control of Metals and Products (Mashinostroenie,
25. Y.M. Shkarlet, Contactless Methods of Ultrasonic Control (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1974),
p. 56 (in Russian)
26. D.S. Shrayber, Ultrasonic Defectoscopy (Metallurgiya, Moscow, 1965), p. 392 (in Russian)
27. A.H. Vopilkin, I.N. Ermolov, V.G. Staseev, Spectral Ultrasonic Method of Defect Types Detec-
tion (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1979), p. 60 (in Russian)
28. P.I. Beda (ed.), Detailed Defectoscopy in Aeronautical Engineering (Voenizdat, Moscow, 1978),
p. 231 (in Russian)
29. www.altek.info
30. www.diagnost.ru
31. www.encotes.ru
32. www.kropus.ru
33. www.pgpribor.ru
34. www.psb-gals.ru
Chapter 6
The Technologies of PEAT Synthesis
Abstract New methods electrophysical and circuit engineering designing piezo-

electric electro-acoustic transducers are described in this chapter. It allows to create
tens variants of transducers of the given type from one piezoelement.
Piezoelement of the certain form and sizes usually use at designing of piezoce-
ramic transducers, from defined of piezoceramic material with certain electrophys-
ical properties (characteristics). Thus traditionally vector of force F operating on a
piezoelement parallel to a vector of polarisation P.
Simultaneously the vector of force F is parallel to a vector of electric field E of
output signal of the sensor, i.e. is perpendicular to electrodes which are put on a
piezoelement surface (Fig. 6.1) [1–14].
It is connected, obviously, that these electrodes use for piezoelement polarisation
at manufacturing. Simultaneously they are used also for removal of a useful signal
at measurement of physical sizes (force, pressure, acceleration, etc.), and also for
introduction in a piezoelement of electric voltage at use of a piezoelement as a radiator
(projector).
Such type of the sensor is known and named by traditional [6]. Only one trans-
ducer with certain characteristics (resonant frequency, sensitivity, a range of working
frequencies, etc.) it is possible to receive for this case for a certain piezoelement. Ear-
lier it was necessary to use other piezoelement, other size, other form, from other
piezomaterial for production of the sensor with other characteristics.
6.1 Spatial Energy: Force Structure of Piezoceramic Element
Electric field vector E of the sensor output signal (voltage), supplied to the projector,
should be considered at piezoceramic transducers designing, as it is suggested in
[6, 9, 15].
The location of F, P and E vectors in space characterizes the piezoelement spatial
energy power structure.

92 6 The Technologies of PEAT Synthesis
Fig. 6.1 Piezoelement with F

traditional arrangement of
vectors F, P and E P
E
Fig. 6.2 Parallelepiped- '

shaped piezoelement 2 1
' 3
3
'
2 1
A rectangular parallelepiped-shaped piezoelement is considered as an example

(Fig. 6.1). Its electrodes are attached to the wide faces.
Polarization P, force F and electric field vectors of the output signal E are shown
in this Figure. This arrangement of vectors is the most widespread and traditional [4,
16–20].
A piezoelement of other dimensions, shape and material was used in the past to
change the characteristics of traditionally designed piezoceramic sensors.
Meanwhile, the sensor characteristics can be changed if polarization P, applied
force F and electric field intensity vectors of output signal E are reciprocally
rearranged.
This rectangular parallelepiped-shaped piezoelement is considered below
(Fig. 6.2).
Let non-interconnected electrodes are attached to all parallelepiped faces and
the piezoelement is polarized between 1–1◦ faces. Let force F measured is applied
parallel to polarization vector P, perpendicularly to face 1, while the output voltage
is read from faces 1–1◦ . Thus, all three vectors are parallel to Z-axis in the case with
the given transducer (F ≥ P ≥ E ≥).
It is necessary to notice, that change of a direction of one of vectors on 180≈ leads
only to change of a phase of a signal.
The above considered transducer with parallel arrangement of three vectors is the
most widespread.
This expression is true for it:
Q d31 · F
UOUT = = , (6.1)
C1–1◦ C1–1◦
6.1 Spatial Energy: Force Structure of Piezoceramic Element 93
where Q—the charge, generated by the piezoelement on faces 1–1◦ ; C1–1 ◦ - capacitance
◦
between faces 1–1 ; d31 —piezomodule.
Let polarization vector P do not change its direction, and force F can be applied
to both face 1, and faces 2 and 3. Voltage can be read from faces 1–1◦ , 2–2◦ or 3–3◦ .
Thus, vectors F and E can be either parallel, or perpendicular to vector P (Fig. 6.3).
The transducer is called transverse [4] in case the force measured is applied to the
piezoelement for the angle between the direction of force F and polarization vector
P to be 90≈ (transducers b and e, in Fig. 6.3).
It appeared that sensitivity S for this transducer is written like this [6]
Q h
S= = di j , (6.2)
F a
where Q—charge, generated on the corresponding face; h—piezoelement height;
a—thickness.
Transverse piezoelements are used in sensors, made by ≤Brüel and Kjer√ (Den-
mark), and ≤Kistler Instrumente AG√, for example [21, 22].
Transducers with the angle between the electric field vector of output signal E
and 90≈ polarization vector P (transducers c and d in Fig. 6.3) are called domain-
dissipative [4].
The physics of the processes, occurring in these transducers, is insufficiently stud-
ied. It is assumed that the following factors influence the transducers characteristics:
• energy dissipation on domains [6, 9];
• change of electric capacitance between electrodes;
• occurrence of other type oscillations in the piezoelement.
The sensor with vectors F and E perpendicular to polarization vector P (trans-
ducers d and g in Fig. 6.3) is of a scientific interest. These transducers are called
domain-dissipative.
When all vectors are perpendicular to each other, transducers are called volume
(transducers h and i in Fig. 6.3).
The constructive circuits of the transducers, shown in Fig. 6.3, are only several
examples of their designs [6].
More transducer design variants are received if the polarization vector direction
becomes perpendicular to parallelepiped faces 2–2◦ , 9. Turning polarization vector
for it to be perpendicular to piezoelement faces 3–3◦ , 9 more variants of transducer
designs can be received. 27 transducers variants with various characteristics can be
totally received for a rectangular parallelepiped-shaped piezoelement [6, 9].
Experimental dynamic characteristics of the transducers are shown in Fig. 6.3.
Characteristics of the transducers in a dynamic mode are called dynamic, i.e. when
the value reduced is the time function (process). These parametres characterise trans-
formers internal (own) properties.
All real dynamic systems are theoretically nonlinear and nonstationary to some
extent, and their parametres are distributed.
Vectors Direction
Type of Transducer Sensor Diagram
F P E
F
(a) Traditional
P
E
(b) Transverse
P
F
F
(c) Domain-dissipative
P E
Transverse
(d) E
domain-dissipative P
F
F
E
(e) Transverse
P
(f) Domain-dissipative F
P
E
Transverse
(g) domain-dissipative F
P
E
Volume
(h) transverse
domain-dissipative
P
F
Volume F
(i) transverse E
domain-dissipative P
Fig. 6.3 Classification of piezoceramic transducers, depending on directions of vectors F, P, E
Practically the majority of them can be nominally considered linear stationary

dynamic systems with concentrated parametres, those based on nonlinearity are not
inclusive.
6.1 Spatial Energy: Force Structure of Piezoceramic Element 95
It is known that linear stationary dynamic system with concentrated parametres

is described by the differential equation with constant coefficients [6]:
dn y dy dm x dx
an + · · · + a 1 + a 0 y = bm + · · · + b1 + b0 x, (6.3)
dt n dt dt m dt
which in the operational form looks like

an p n + · · · + a1 p + a0 y(t) = bm p m + · · · + b1 p + b0 x(t), (6.4)
or shorter
An ( p) · y (t) = Bm ( p) · x (t) , m ∼ n, (6.5)
whence
Bm ( p)
y (t) = x (t) = L x (t) , (6.6)
An ( p)
where p = d/dt—differentiation operator; L—linear operator of stationary dynamic

system.
The differential equation is the exhaustive characteristic of the dynamic system.
However, it is hard to calculate its coefficients experimentally.
Using Laplas transformation to the differential equation under initial zero condi-
tions, the following transfer function is received:
Y (s) bm s m + bm−1 s m−1 + · · · + b1 s + b0

W (S) = = , (6.7)
X (s) an s n + an−1 s n−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0
where s—Laplas operator; Y (s)—Laplas image of output and input values accord-
ingly.
Complex frequency characteristic is received if Laplas operator is substituted by
jω in transfer function
bm ( jω)m + bm−1 ( jω)m−1 + · · · + b1 ( jω)b0

K ( jω) =
an ( jω)n + an−1 ( jω)n−1 + · · · + a1 ( jω)a0
= P(ω) + j Q(ω) (6.8)
where p(ω) and j Q(ω)—real and imaginary part of the complex frequency charac-
teristic.
Whence the amplitude-frequency characteristic (AFC)

K (ω) = |K ( jω)| = P 2 (ω) + Q 2 (ω) (6.9)
and phase-frequency characteristic

Q (ω)
ϕ (ω) = ar ctg (6.10)
P (ω)
The pulse transitive characteristic is the dynamic system response to the so-called
δ impulse 
t
δ (t) = 0, with t ∇= 0

∞, with t = 0
and
∞
δ (t)dt = 1
−∞
Transitive function is the response of the dynamic system to the input step action
in the form of unit function 1(t), the derivative of which equals δ-impulse.
As it is seen from Fig. 6.4, there are several peaks of amplitude-frequency char-
acteristic for a traditional transducer (Fig. 6.4a). In transverse transducers these res-
onances are partially suppressed (Fig. 6.4b). AFC of domain-dissipative transducers
is practically linear (Fig. 6.4c, f, g, h).
In this case transfer coefficient (sensitivity) is smaller in low-frequency area for
all transducer types than for traditional. However, considerable increase of transfer
coefficient is possible for domain-dissipative transducers in some cases [6, 9].
Transient characteristics of the transducers, represented in Fig. 6.3, are shown in
Fig. 6.5. The measurements were made in a piezotransformer mode under the action
of meander-shaped voltage on the transducer (f = 500 Hz, U = 3 V). Pictures were
taken by digital photocamera “Nikon-D90”.
As it follows from Figs. 6.4 and 6.5, the change of vectors F, P, E position in
space, i.e. change of the spatial energy power structure (SEPS), leads to essential
changes of the transducer dynamic characteristics.
This SEPS change is assured by the corresponding electrodes arrangement on the
piezoelement surface and the choice of force application site.
As the experiments showed, the change of transducers characteristics occurs also
if the angles between the vectors are less than 90≈ .
Many sensor designs can be created on the basis of the method offered
[6, 11, 12].
6.2 Spatial Arrangement and Conjunction Piezoelement

Electrodes
Change of output signal electric field vector E position can be realize by electrodes
piezoelement division into parts and connection of these part so that a corner α
between vector E and polarization vector P was 0 < α < 90≈ (Fig. 6.6).
6.2 Spatial Arrangement and Conjunction Piezoelement Electrodes 97
Fig. 6.4 AFC of Transducers from Fig. 6.3
If piezoelement electrodes divide on two equal parts sensor sensitivity on a charge

will decrease twice the charge is proportional to electrodes area. Voltage sensitivity
stays same, as for a piezoelement with undivided electrodes.
It is quite obvious, that the capacity between electrodes 1–2◦ (or 1◦ –2) will be
less, than capacity between electrodes 1–1◦ (2–2◦ ), therefore it is possible to receive
electric voltage (V2 ) several times more than on electrodes 1–1◦ or 2–2◦ (V1 ).
Fig. 6.5 Transient characteristics of transducers from Fig. 6.3

6.2 Spatial Arrangement and Conjunction Piezoelement Electrodes 99
Fig. 6.6 Piezoelement with F

the divided electrodes 1 V1 V2 2
1' 2'
Fig. 6.7 Piezoelement with

1 F 3 2
three systems of electrodes
1/ 3/ 2/
If electrodes 1 and 2 and 1◦ and 2◦ carry out from each other (for what it is possible
to divide initial electrodes into three parts (Fig. 6.7), sensitivity of piezosensor on
voltage will increase even more.
It is necessary to notice, that a spatial arrangement of electrodes and their switch-
ing from each other results not only in capacity change between electrodes and
sensitivity, but also to change of dynamic characteristics (AFC, pulse and transient
characteristics).
For such transducers piezoelements can be used also of disk form with electrodes
in the form of semidisks, disks and rings, piezoelements in the form of hollow
cylinders, etc.
6.3 Spatial Electromechanical Feedback
Parameters of automatic control systems (for example, time constants, input and out-
put resistances, frequency and transitive characteristics, etc.) can be widely changed
as a result of feedback (FB) introduction [5, 18, 23].
Application of FB in equipment gives excellent results [5, 6]. FB is also widely
used and in measuring devices. For example, resonant vibrations are activated in
piezoelectric sensors under the affect of positive feedback. Sensors of various phys-
ical values can be built on this basis. Negative feedback in resonant piezoceramic
sensors gives a chance to linearize their graduation characteristics [6].
Feedback has unique properties, due to which parameters of measuring devices
can be essentially improved.
Fig. 6.8 Block diagram of piezotransducer with feedback
FB in measuring devices is usually introduced along the input action. The general
view of the transducer with FB can be represented by the simplified block diagram
(Fig. 6.8), where W (p)—direct transform circuit, β( p)—FB circuit.
Using methods of automatic control theory [5, 18], the operational form of the
expression for the transducer with FB sensitivity can be written.
X2 W ( p)
WFB ( p) = = , (6.11)
X1 1 ± W ( p)β( p)
where X 1 and X 2 —input and output values.

Complex FB is the most common case of FB. Then operator p can be substituted
for j ω in the Eq. (6.11)
X2 W ( jω)
WFB ( jω) = = . (6.12)
X1 1 ± W ( jω)β( jω)
Expressing sensitivity of direct transform and FB circuits in the algebraic form,

the module sensitivity W F B (ω) and phase displacement ϕ F B after transformations
will look like this
W
W (ω) = ⎧ , (6.13)
1 ± 2Wβ cos(ϕ K + ϕβ ) + W 2 β 2
sin ϕ
tgϕ K + Wβ cos ϕβK
ϕFB (ω) = arctg sin ϕ
. (6.14)
1 ± Wβ cos ϕβK
The expressions received show that both sensitivity module and phase displace-
ment angle depend not only on modules W and β, but also on values and signs of
phase displacement angles in direct ϕC and inverse ϕβ transforms.
Influence of Frequency-Dependent Feedback
Working at a close to resonant frequency area, FB is frequency-dependent. A piezo-
electric sensor can be represented as series oscillatory element (Fig. 6.9). As it is seen
6.3 Spatial Electromechanical Feedback 101
L U2
R UFB FB Circuit
Fig. 6.9 Equivalent circuit of piezoelectric sensor with feedback
XLE
(a) UL UFB (b) XL (c) XL
ZFB ZFB
XFB
UR RFB RE
R R
UC XC
(d) XLE (e) XL (f)

XL
ZFB XL
RFB
XFB RE
RE RFB R
R
XC XC
ROC RE
R ZFB XFB XFB
XC ZFB
XCE XCE
Fig. 6.10 Voltage and resistance diagrams in piezosensor with feedback
from Fig. 6.9, the oscillatory contour is connected to the amplifier for the amplifier
output to be reconnected with it via a phase-shift device [5, 6].
If all voltages, operating in the contour, are divided into the current in the contour
the voltage diagram (Fig. 6.10a) will change into the resistance diagram (Fig. 6.10b).
Feedback introduction can be formally considered as introduction of certain complex
resistance into the contour. This can essentially alter both frequency and transitive
contour characteristics or any other system, covered by feedback, as the equivalent
parameters of this system are changed.
Several possible cases are considered below.
1. Angle ψ, formed by FB resistance Z F B, and active resistance R, is in these
0 < ψ < 90≈ limits, as it is shown in Fig. 6.10c.
Resolving Z F B into active and reactive components, one can see that the reactive
component of FB resistance directionally coincides with X L . As a result, equivalent
inductive resistance of contour X L E increases. This is equal to equivalent inductance

increase. Equivalent active resistance R E also increases in this case.
This implies, FB introduction leads to resultant own frequency reduction of an
electric contour or mechanical system. In this case its attenuation increases while Q
factor decreases.
2. Angle ψ satisfies inequalities 90≈ < ψ < 180≈ . Now, as it is seen from
Fig. 6.10d, equivalent inductive resistance X L E , and, consequently, equivalent induc-
tance increases. However, active component R F B has a negative value. This leads to
decrease of equivalent contour active resistance. This resistance may equal zero if
equality R F B = R exists.
Thus, the resultant own frequency of the electric contour or mechanical system
decreases in the case considered, while Q factor increases. It can become infinitely
big. As a result, continuous oscillations appear in the contour under the action of any
charge fluctuation.
3. The following case is possible if angle ψ equals 180≈ < ψ < 270≈ . As it
follows from Fig. 6.10e, this FB increases contour or system equivalent capacitive
resistance. It means that equivalent capacitance is reduced. In this case resultant active
resistance decreases simultaneously. Resultant own frequency or Q factor increases
if contour or mechanical system equivalent parameters decrease.
4. And finally, inequality 270≈ < ψ < 360≈ is true when vector Z F B is in
the fourth quadrant, as is shown in Fig. 6.10f. Equivalent capacitive resistance is
increased by feedback in this case. The contour equivalent capacity is decreased,
while active resistance increases under its action.
Thus, contour or corresponding mechanical system resultant own frequency is
increased by FB while its Q factor is decreased.
The analysis shows that FB can essentially alter the system properties, its fre-
quency and transitive characteristics. Then own frequencies, attenuation values, etc.
can be either increased, or decreased.
No power compensators are used if the method offered is used. As a result, the
design of piezoceramic sensors with NFB becomes simpler. In this case the piezoele-
ment is also a power compensator. Besides that, as summation of direct transform
and FB signals is made in the piezoelement volume, this type of FB was called spatial
electromechanical.
A circuit of a piezoceramic sensor with FB, based on the method discussed, is
shown in Fig. 6.11.
The sensor, represented in Fig. 6.11, is a closed static follow-up system [5, 18]. It
consists of piezoelement PE and matching voltage preamplifier A. Three electrodes 1,
2 and 3 are attached to the piezoelement. Electrode 1 is connected to the preamplifier
input, electrode 2—to the common wire of the circuit, and electrode 3—an additional
piezoelement electrode—to the preamplifier output.
Because electrodes can settle down on various sides of a piezoelement, the feed-
back in this case is named by spatial.
Transfer function of such device looks like
6.3 Spatial Electromechanical Feedback 103
3 1
UOUT
UPE
PE
2 A
Fig. 6.11 Piezoceramic sensor with FB
WT R ( p)
W F B ( p) = W1 ( p) , (6.15)
1 + WT R ( p)β( p)
where W1 ( p)—transfer coefficient of not direct transform circuit with NFB;

WT R ( p)—transfer coefficient of direct transform circuit with NFB;
β( p)—transfer coefficient with NFB circuit.
Relative error devices, represented on Fig. 6.11, is possible to define under the
formula [6]:
1 1
γFB = γW − γW (1 − ), (6.16)
1 + W ( p)β( p) 1 + W ( p) β( p)
where γW —relative error of direct transfer subcircuit with NFB.

The condition under which the error of a piezosensor with NFB will equal zero
can be easily seen from this equation, i.e. γFB = 0:
W ( p)β( p) = 1 (6.17)
It is necessary to notice also, that in this case a various arrangement of vectors

F, P, EIN , EFB allows to receive, for example, for a piezoelement in the form of a
parallelepiped, tens variants of sensors with various characteristics.
For FB radiators it is possible to enter by means of the additional chain which
has been not connected galvanic with a chain of passage of a signal of excitation
(Fig. 6.13). This circuit allows to create necessary dynamic characteristics of the
transducer.
(a)
UOUT, mV 1180
774
(b)
500
UOUT, mV
45
34
24 28
50
20 35 68 102 f, kHz 20 35 68 102 f, kHz
Fig. 6.12 AFC of piezoelectric transducer: a without FB; b with FB
Fig. 6.13 Projector with FB: A

G generator; A amplifier of
voltage;PE piezoelement
G
PE
6.4 Inclusion of Piezoelements in Schemes of Electric Filters
The idea is put in a basis of creation of such transducers that if piezoelement (piezoele-
ments) to include in the scheme of the electric filter amplitude-frequency responses
(AFC) transducers will correspond AFC of the filter [24].
Electric filters are well enough studied and described in the literature [16, 17,
25]. As the electric filter is called the device serving for allocation (or suppression)
electric voltage or currents of the set frequency. Depending on characteristics some
types of filters from which the greatest interest for the given case is represented by
filters of the bottom and top frequencies are known.
Filters of the bottom frequencies (FBF) pass fluctuations of all frequencies from
a direct current and to some top boundary frequency ωt .
Filters of the top frequencies (FTF) pass fluctuations from some bottom boundary
ωb to infinitely high.
Two variants of the transducer with piezoelements in scheme FBF and FTF are
shown in Fig. 6.14 [9, 15, 17, 24].
Lack of these sensors is necessity of use for some schemes of two piezoelements
or a piezoelement and a capasitor. To eliminate this lack, it is offered to use in
schemes of sensors piezotransformers, that is piezoelements with two systems of
electrodes. Besides, it is offered to have electrodes on a piezoelement so that the
6.4 Inclusion of Piezoelements in Schemes of Electric Filters 105
electric field vector between these electrodes was under a corner α to a polarisation
vector (0 < α ∼ 90≈ ).
Two schemes of the sensors, realising these ideas, are shown in Fig. 6.15 [11, 24].
The idea of inclusion of piezoelements in schemes of filters can be realised and
for radiators.
6.5 Technology of Additional Elements
The essence of this technology consists in addition to a piezoelement of elements

which change sensor characteristics. Here two variants are possible, at least. In
the first case the second piezoelement, a metal plate or the ultrasonic concentra-
tor mechanically joins with a piezoelement [9, 11, 26].
In the second case the capacity joins a piezoelement electrically inductance, an
oscillatory contour, a piezoelement or a piezoelement part.
Bimorph and trimorph elements
Two piezoelements connected among themselves mechanically and electrically
(symmetric bimorph piezoelement), allow to increase sensitivity at 10–20 times and
in as much time to reduce resonant frequency. Connection of a piezoelement and
metal plate (asymmetric bimorph piezoelement) also leads to increase 10 times to
sensitivity and reduction of resonant frequency.
In bimorph piezoelements arise curving fluctuations that allows to use them in
microelectromechanical systems and devices (MEMS), for example, in scanners of
nanomicroscopes [10, 20].
(a) (b)
PE1 R1
F
PE1
R
F
R3
PE2 U out F U out
PE2
R2
R4
Fig. 6.14 Sensors with piezoelements in schemes of electric filters: a in scheme FBF; b in scheme
FTF
(a) (b)
R1 R1
2 F 4
2
4 1
1 5
3
R1
3 5
Fig. 6.15 Sensors with piezotransformers in schemes with piezotransformers in schemes: a in

scheme FBF; b in scheme FTF
Ultrasonic concentrators
Ultrasonic concentrators are devices for ultrasound (US) intensity increase, i.e. the
amplitude of particles vibration displacement [6, 14].
An ultrasonic concentrator is a mechanical transformer of vibrations. It means
that displacement amplitude on the output concentrator side is in K times bigger than
on the input, where K—concentrator transfer coefficient.
Two types of concentrators, based on different action principle, are distinguished:
focusing or high-frequency, and rod, or low-frequency. In the given section the influ-
ence of US rod concentrators on the piezoelectric sensors parameters are studied.
So, rod US concentrator (RUSC) is a device for increase of particles vibration
displacement amplitude (or particles oscillatory velocity) in a low-frequency range.
RUSC is a hard rod of variable section or variable density, attached to the radiator
by its wider end or by the part of greater material density.
RUSC action principle is based on increase of particles vibration displacement
amplitude as a result of its cross-section reduction or density, according to the momen-
tum conservation law. Then, displacement amplitude increases with the rod opposite
ends diameters or densities difference.
RUSC is widely used in ultrasonic technology. RUSCs are components of ultra-
sonic vibration systems. RUSC can be considered as an acoustic waveguide in which
a zero vibrations mode is propagated. It is characterized by the constant section
amplitude. The maximum linear size of the concentrator D wide should be less than
λ
2 , where λ—wave length in the concentrator material.
RUSCs usually work at resonant frequency, therefore length L of the concentrator
should be multiple to
half-waves integer: L = nλ 2 , where n = 1,2,3. If the frequency is intended λ
depends on RUSC form as a result of US propagation velocity in the wave guides
with variable cross-section.
RUSC with variable density is usually made of two interconnected rods of various
materials λ4 long with identical variable cross-section.
6.5 Technology of Additional Elements 107
(a) (b) (c)
υ υ
υ
U’ U’
U’
(d) (e)
U’
U’
Fig. 6.16 Sections of round simple one-step concentrators of longitudinal vibrations: a stepwise;
b conic; c exponential; d catenoidal; e gausses (ampoule); curves show the distribution of amplitude
oscillatory velocity υ and deformations U’ along the concentrator length
Fig. 6.17 Compound Con-

centrator: I—big diame-
ter cylinder; II—conic or
exponential-shaped rod part; I II III
III—small diameter cylinder
RUSCs are usually classified according to the following features [53]:

(a) longitudinal section form (Fig. 6.16);
(b) cross-section form (round, sphenoid, etc.);
(c) amount of elements with various longitudinal section profile (simple,
compound—Fig. 6.17);
(d) amount of tandem resonant concentrators of half-wave length (one–two–etc.,
stage—Figs. 6.18, 6.19);
(e) mean line form (rectilinear, bent);
(f) concentrator vibrations type (longitudinal, shear, torsion).
Fig. 6.18 Two-step Concen-

trator: I—step concentrator;
II—ampoule concentrator
IІ II
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.19 Concentrators with variable internal profile: a exponential; b and c stepwise
RUSC cross-section change can occur as a result of rod external and internal
profile change (Figs. 6.16 and 6.9) accordingly.
RUSC force coefficient C = ξξ0 , where ξ and ξ0 —displacement amplitudes on its
narrow and wide ends accordingly. Under the influence of harmonious vibration with
circular frequency ω the vibrational speed amplitude V = ωξ and, consequently,
C = VV0t . For step RUSC C = N 2 , where N = RR0e , and Re and R0 —radiuses of
narrow (output) and wide (input) ends accordingly. For exponential C = N, catenoid
C = N2π ·l , and for conic C < N and always C < 4.6 [14].
cos λ
The vibrational speed Vm maximum amplitude, received on the narrow RUSC
end, depends on the concentrator material properties, destroying the fatigue stress F,
and wave resistance pc (where p—density, c—US waves propagation velocity), and
on dimensionless function T, depending only from the concentrator form:
F
Vm = T. (6.18)
ρc
RUSC are widely used in US technology as various US tools with US machine

working, soldering, crushing, dispersion, clearing, in medicine, etc. [6].
The sensitivity increase effect of mechanical values resonant piezoceramic trans-
ducers with RUSC use is discovered and partially studied by I.G. Minaev and
6.5 Technology of Additional Elements 109
Fig. 6.20 Resonant piezosen-

sor with ultrasonic concentra- F 2
tor: 1—piezotransformer; 2—
concentrator; 3—generator;
4—measuring device
1
3 4
Fig. 6.21 Piezosensor static

UOUT , B
characteristics: 1—without
concentrator; 2—with con-
centrator 50
1
40
30
20
2
10
0 1 2 3 4 F, N
Fig. 6.22 Piezosensor: 1—

stepwise concentrator-shaped F
piezoelement; 2—generator;
3—measuring device
2 3
V.M. Sharapov in 1976 [56–58]. Some RUSC uses in piezosensors are described
in Trofimov’s [50] and Sharapov’s [6] papers.
A simple sensor with RUSC is shown in Fig. 6.20 [4]. Here stepwise concentra-
tor 2 is attached to piezotransformer 1 surface. The piezotransformer is connected
to oscillations generator 3 and measuring device 4. The dependence of piezotrans-
former output voltage on the force for a sensor without concentrator (curve 1) and
for the sensor in Fig. 6.20 (curve 2) is shown in Fig. 6.21. As it is seen from Fig. 6.21,
the transducer sensitivity was 10 times increased because of the concentrator use.
One more variant of the sensor design is shown in Fig. 6.22 [6]. Here the piezoele-
ment is made as a stepwise concentrator. It can be practically realized if two piezoele-
ments of different diameters and lengths, satisfying the creation condition of resonant
vibrations in piezoelements, are interconnected. The connections can be glued with
epoxy compound or soldered (Rose’s and Wood’s alloys, etc.). Sensitivity increases
for the given design can reach D 2 /d 2 , where D and d—piezoelements diameters.
Not only considerable sensitivity increase, but also accuracy improvement can be
referred to concentrators use advantages. This can be reached if the concentrator is
made of material with better than piezoceramics elastic characteristics (steel, quartz
and bronze). In addition, the force can be applied to the point, through spherical
elements, for example, as it is done in force measuring equipment. Fastening the
transducer to the concentrator vibration node the losses in environment can be avoided
completely. Finally, the force can be transferred through a precision resilient element,
rigidly welded or soldered to the concentrator. This allows contact rigidity influence
avoidance and the static characteristic linearization.
Joining of the ultrasonic concentrator to a piezoelement increases amplitude of
oscillatory displacement (or speeds), that allows to use such devices for ultrasonic
are sharp, sinks, dispersions of a liquid, and also in measuring devices on the basis
of resonant piezoelements [6, 14]. The use of concentrators for increase in capacity
of low-frequency ultrasonic radiators is not less perspective.
Electric elements and circuits
Because the piezoelement is the electromechanical device to which there corre-
sponds an electric circuit (in that specific case—a consecutive oscillatory contour),
connection to it of electric elements (resistors, condensers, inductance) can change
characteristics piezosensors (see also Chap. 7–9).
For example, inductance connection between electrodes piezotransformer the sen-
sor allows to increase level of output voltage and acoustic power piezoradiator, to
expand a pass-band of the sensor, etc. (see Chap. 7–9).
Connection is consecutive with a resistor piezoelement, reduces good quality of
a piezoelement and expands a working strip of frequencies.
Capacity inclusion between input and output systems of electrodes of piezotrans-
formers the sensor also allows to expand a working range of frequencies.
Inductance connection between electrodes piezotransformer the sensor allows to
increase level of output voltage and acoustic power piezoradiator, to expand a pass-
band of the sensor, etc. Results of researches in this area will be published in separate
work [15, 27–40] (see Chap. 7–9).
Acoustic resonators
The use of acoustic resonators for work PEAT in air, for example, of resonator
Helmholtz allows to raise level of sound pressure (see Chap. 7–9).
6.6 Technology of Synthesis of the Transducers, Considering

Electric signals
The change of the form of the electric signal arriving on the transducer, can lead to
change of its technical characteristics. For example, if the tax on the electro-acoustic
transducer electric voltage in the form of a meander, AFC such transducer extends
towards low frequencies [7, 11].
6.6 Technology of Synthesis of the Transducers, Considering Electric signals 111
At giving on a piezoelement simultaneously two signals new properties and trans-

ducer functions can be received. For example, if the tax on a piezoelement with two
inputs two signals of the sinusoidal form, can be received a low-frequency signal
enough high capacity [11, 21, 22, 28, 30, 32, 33, 42, 43].
6.7 The Combined Technology
In this case the technologies described above are used simultaneously or in various
combinations. It is easy to see, that in this case from one piezoelement hundreds
(!) of variants of sensors with various characteristics among which it is possible to
choose a variant with necessary or best characteristics (increase of accuracy, stability,
sensitivity, expansion of a working range of frequencies, etc.) can be received. Some
devices mentioned in the given chapter, are described in patents [34–39].
References
1. V. Domarkas, R.J. Kazys, Piezoelectric Transducers for Measuring Devices (Mintis, Vilnus,
1974), p. 258. (in Russian)
2. P.G. Dzagupov, A.A. Erofeev, Piezoelectronic Devices of Computer Facilities, Monitoring
Systems and Management (Politehnica, St.Petresburg, 1994), p. 608
3. A.P. Evtyukov, A.E. Eolesnikov, E.A. Eorepin et al., Directory on Hydroacoustics (Sudostroe-
nie, Leningrad, 1988), p. 552. (in Russian)
4. A.P. Evtyutov, V.B. Mitko, Engineering Calculations in Hydroacoustics (Sudostroenie,
Leningrad, 1988), p. 234. (in Russian)
5. L.A. Ostrovskiy, Theoretical Basics of Electric Measuring Instruments (Energiya, Leningrad,
1971), p. 544. (in Russian)
6. V.M. Sharapov, M.P. Musienko, E.V. Sharapova, Piezoelectric Sensors, ed. by V.M. Sharapov.
7. V. Sharapov, M. Musiyenko, Zh. Sotula, L. Kunickaya, About the effect of expansion of repro-
duced frequency band by electroacoustic transducer. Ultragarsas (Ultrasound) 64(3), 7–10.
ISSN: 1392–2114 (Technologija, Kaunas, 2009)
8. V. Sharapov, A.Vladisauskas, Zh.V. Sotula, Investigation of an internal friction in piezoce-
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1392–2114 (Technologija, Kaunas, 2011)
9. V. Sharapov, A.Vladisauskas, K. Bazilo, L. Kunitskaya, Zh. Sotula, Methods of synthesis of
piezoceramic transducers: spatial energy force structure of piezoelement. Ultragarsas (Ultra-
sound) 64(4), 44–50. ISSN: 1392–2114 (Technologija, Kaunas, 2009)
10. V. Sharapov, A. Vladishauskas, S. Filimonov, Bimorph cylindrical piezoceramic scanner for
scanning probe nanomicroscopes. Ultragarsas (Ultrasound) 64(4), 51–54. ISSN: 1392–2114
(Technologija, Kaunas, 2009)
11. V.M. Sharapov, I.G. Minaev, J.V. Sotula, K.V. Basilo, L.G. Kunitskaya, Piesoceramic Trans-
formers and Sensors (Vertical, Cherkasy, 2010), p. 278. (in Russian)
12. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic Sensors (Springer, New York, 2011), p. 498
13. N.A. Shulga, A.M. Bolkisev, Vibrations of Piezoelectric Solids (Naukova dumka, Kiev, 1990),
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14. Ultrasound (small encyclopedia), ed. by I.P. Golyamina. (Soviet encyclopedia, Moscow, 1979),
p. 400 (in Russian)
15. V. Sharapov, Vladisauskas, P.A. Molchanov, Zh.V.Sotula, The new technologies of piezo-
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16. D. Jonson, D. Jonson, G. Mur, The Directory on Active Filters (Energoatomizdat, Moscow,
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17. M. Kaufman, A.G. Cidman, Practical Guidance by Schemes Calculations in Electronics, vol.
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19. S.I. Rudnitskiy, V.M. Sharapov, N.A. Shulga, Vibrations of disk bimorph transducer of metal-
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20. V. Sharapov, R. Kazys, A.Vladisauskas, L. Kunitskaya, Zh. Sotula, V. Tuz, K. Bazilo, Trans-
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22. V.M. Sharapov et al., Research of Piezoceramic Adder on a Basis Bimorph a Piezoelement.
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28. V.M. Sharapov et al., About One Way of Creation of Low-Frequency Acoustic Fluctuations
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Means of Piezoelectric Transducers. No. 1 (Visnyk ChDTU, Cherkasy, 2011) (in Russian)
34. V.M. Sharapov et al., Way of Creation of Ultrasonic Fluctuations by Means of Piezoelectric
Transducer. Patent of Ukraine 55521. Publication No. 23 (2010) (in Ukrainian)
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Publication No. 12 (2011) (in Ukrainian)
40. V. Sharapov, Kažys, Zh. Sotula, A. Vladišauskas, Methods of low-frequency acoustic fluctu-
ations creation by means of piezoelectric transducers. Ultragarsas (Ultrasound) 66(1), ISSN:
1392-2114 (Technologija, Kaunas, 2012)
41. V. Sharapov, K. Bazilo, Zh. Sotula, Creating of low frequency oscillations of transducers
based on disk monomorphic piezoelements. Ultragarsas (Ultrasound) 66(1), ISSN: 1392–2114
(Technologija, Kaunas, 2012)
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Kaunas, 2011)
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Chapter 7
Methods of Low-Frequency Acoustic
Vibrations Creation
Abstract New methods and devices for decrease of working frequency of

transducers are described in this chapter, that is equivalent to increase in range of
action of transducers, range of detection of sea objects.
It is known that low-frequency sound is propagated in water to a depth of sev-

eral thousand kilometers practically without attenuation. This happens because of
deep (undersea) sound channel formation in the ocean upper level—acoustic wave
guide of refraction type. Due to this, low-frequency acoustics has its obvious advan-
tages in a wide range of problems. Among these problems one can mention the cre-
ation of sound channels several thousand kilometers, such as Kamchatka—Hawaii
(4,700 km) for instance and also a system of ultrasonic illumination of underwater
conditions, etc.
Hollow cylinder-shaped monomorph piezoelectric transducers and disk-shaped
asymmetric bimorph piezoelements are most widely used as hydro-acoustic trans-
ducers [1].
As a rule, piezoceramic projectors work at resonant frequency. It is connected with
that, inductive and capacitor resistance compensate each other on resonant frequency
and active resistance is output resistance of a piezoelement. The maximum current
through a piezoelement and the maximum capacity radiated by a piezoelement, can
be reached on resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency of round bimorph element can be approximately determined
by using the formula [2]:
0.45ch
f0 ◦ , (7.1)
r 1 − μ2
2
≥
where c = Eσ;
h piezoelement thickness;
r piezoelement radius;
E Young’s module;
σ piezoelement material density;
μ Poisson coefficient.

116 7 Methods of Low-Frequency Acoustic Vibrations Creation
Fig. 7.1 Independent radiat-

ing complex ( f = 20.5 Hz)
institute of applied physics of
Russian academy of sciences
[7]
As formula shows (7.1), the decrease of bimorph element resonant frequency

is possible through the reduction of piezoelement thickness and also through the
increase of its radius, i.e. dimensions increase. These parameter alterations have tech-
nological and dimensional restrictions. In practice, resonant frequency of bimorph
elements is usually about some kilohertz [2–6].
A series of low-frequency (LF) projectors of acoustic fluctuations is devel-
oped by Institute of Applied Physics of Russian Academy of Sciences (Nizhniy
Novgorod) [7].
For example, the projector with working frequency 20.5 Hz weighs 4.500 kg and
its diameter is more than 3 m (Fig. 7.1).
At present a significant number of engineering solutions for low-frequency piezo-
ceramics projectors [8–14] are known. Some of their schemes are presented on
Fig. 7.2 [7].
7.1 Method of Beating
To decrease the projector dimensions a famous radio-engineering solution is pro-

posed to use. It was used in superheterodyne receivers to obtain intermediate
frequency [4, 5, 8, 15–20].
As to the hydroacoustic projectors, for example, the main idea is that a piezoele-
ment with two systems of electrodes (piezotransformer) is used as a projector. The
voltage from the first generator is delivered to one system of electrodes. And the
voltage oscillation frequency of this generator is equal or close to the resonant fre-
quency of a piezoelement. The voltage from the second generator is delivered to the
other system of electrodes. Voltage oscillation frequency of this generator is also
close to the same resonant frequency to make the difference between the first and
7.1 Method of Beating 117
Fig. 7.2 Low-frequency The radiating piston Elastic plate

piezoceramic projectors: type (a) Piezoceramic washer
a – f p = 650 Hz, Ø 310 mm,
The case
type b – f p = 2800 Hz,
Elastic outcome between
Ø 220 mm, type c – f p =
the case and the piston
700 Hz, Ø 700 × 700 mm
The radiating piston The resonator
Piezoceramic washer
(b)
The case
Elastic outcome between
the case and the piston
Piezoceramic column
(c)
Radiating surface
The case
the second generators oscillation frequency equal to the projector working frequency
(Fig. 7.3) [18].
If signals from two generators are delivered to piezoelement with two systems of
electrodes (piezotransformer) it functions as an adder (summer, summator) [5, 16,
17, 21].
The adder can exist as an absolutely independent element, or as a part of an
integrated piezoelectric device, where stationary or non-stationary processes add or
subtract [21, 22].
As it is known, if sinusoidal electric field is applied to the piezoelectric, direct
and return (back) progressive waves of displacement, deformation, and voltage arise
in it because of inverse piezoelectric effect. These waves make a standing wave in
stationary mode. Of course, if several progressive waves are created in the piezoelec-
tric volume, then using superposition principle (if oscillations in the linear section
of element’s work are created), algebraic addition of energy fluxes in each point of
the volume is obtained [21].
Fig. 7.3 Low-frequency

piezoceramic projector: G1,
G2—oscillations generators;
PE—piezoelement
G1 G2
PE
Fig. 7.4 Piezoceramic adder U out
G1 G2
One of the variants of the adder design is presented on Fig. 7.4. This is a piezo-
electric transformer of transverse type [16, 21].
The electric output signal is deduced from piezoelement volume by means of a
target electrode, on which at the expense of direct piezoeffect the charge, proportional
to the total value of the mechanical pressure operating in electrode location is induced.
Adding together two voltages of identical resonant frequency ω Uin1 = Um1 sin
(Πt + Θ1 ) and Uin2 = Um2 sin(Πt + Θ2 ) on a piezoelement presented on Fig. 7.4,
we’ll obtain:
Uout = k1 Uin1 + k2 Uin2 = Um sin(Πt + Θ), (7.2)
where
Um = k12 Um1
2 + k 2U 2 +
2 m2 , (7.3)
+2Um1 Um2 k1 k2 cos(Θ2 + Θ1 )
k1 U1 sin Θ1 + k2 U2 sin Θ2
tgΘ = . (7.4)
k1 U1 cos Θ1 + k2 U2 cos Θ2
Here k1 and k2 are the coefficients determining the connection by voltage between
output and each input. Sizes of these factors are defined by the geometry of these elec-
trodes and material parameters at the chosen oscillation mode (Mechanical energy
factor, electromechanical connection factor, piezomodul etc.). For the elementary
designs of summarizing transformers (bars, plates, disks) sizes of factors k1 and k2
will be defined by parities:
A1 A2
k1 = p and k2 = p , (7.5)
A A
where A1 , A2 , A—are the areas of input and output electrodes; p—constant coeffi-
cient for such designs and material of the adder; at certain parameters of the adder
the coefficients ki can have the values essentially exceeding the unit.
Practical interest is represented by the cases, when Θ1 − Θ2 = 0 or Θ1 − Θ2 = ∂ .
In these cases
7.1 Method of Beating 119

Um = 2 + k 2 U 2 ± 2U U k k
k12 Um1 2 m2 m1 m2 1 2
= k1 Um1 ± k2 Um2 . (7.6)
For a symmetric design k1 = k2 = k. Thus,
Um = k(Um1 ± Um2 ) (7.7)
For greater numbers n inputs, using an induction method, we’ll obtain:

Um = κn2 Umn
2
+ 2κn Unm κ1,2,3,...(n−1) Um1,2,3...(n−1) cos(Θm − Θ1,2,3...(n−1) )
1/2
+ κ1,2,3...(n−1)
2 2
Um1,2,3...(n−1) ; (7.8)
κn Unm sin Θn + κ1,2,3...(n−1) Um1,2,3...(n−1) sin Θ1,2,3...(n−1)

tgΘ = , (7.9)
κn Unm cos Θn + κ1,2,3...(n−1) Um1,2,3...(n−1) cos Θ1,2,3...(n−1)
where Um1,2,3...(n−1) and Θ1,2,3...(n−1) are defined under formulas through

Um1,2,3...(n−2) and Θ1,2,3...(n−2) etc. Thus
Ai
ki = p . (7.10)
A
Electric signal transfer coefficient is one of basic parameters of the piezoceramic
adders work effectiveness. Adders transfer coefficient—this is the relation of output
signal maximum amplitude to the maximum amplitude of a summable signal.
Beating—these are the oscillations with periodically varying amplitude, resulting
imposition of two harmonious fluctuations with various, but close frequencies. Beats
arise owing to the difference of phases between two oscillations with various fre-
quencies all time changes so, that both oscillations appear at any moment in phase,
after some time—in antiphase, then again in phase etc. If A1 and A2 —amplitudes of
two imposed oscillations, at identical phases of oscillations the amplitude of resultant
oscillations reaches the greatest value A1 + A2 , and when phases of oscillations are
opposite, the amplitude of resultant oscillations falls to the least value A1 − A2 . In
the elementary case, when both oscillation amplitudes are equal, their sum reaches
value 2A at identical phases of oscillation and falls to zero when they are opposite
on a phase (Fig. 7.5).
The result of oscillation imposition can be written down in a kind:

Π1 − Π2 Π1 + Π2
A sin Π1 t + A sin Π2 t = 2 A cos t sin t , (7.11)
2 2
where ω1 and ω2 —accordingly angular frequencies of two imposed harmonious

oscillations (initial phases of both oscillations are supposed to be equal to zero, as
Fig. 7.5 Beating, arising by imposition of two oscillations of similar frequencies; T —period of
beating
they do not have a great influence in formation of beats, only the difference of phases
between both oscillations which all time varies from 0 to 2π).
If ω1 and ω2 differ a little, the value in expression (7.11)

Π1 − Π2
2 A cos t (7.12)
2
can be considered as a slowly varying amplitude of oscillations

Π1 + Π2
sin t . (7.13)
2
Angular frequency η = ω1 − ω2 is called angular frequency of beat. As the fre-

quency ω1 + ω2 is much more than frequency of beat, the variable value can be
considered (7.12) as amplitude of oscillations (7.13), as (7.12), though the value is
not constant (as amplitude must be), but varying slowly. In the process of rapproche-
ment of frequencies ω1 and ω2 the frequency of beats decreases, disappearing at
ω1 ≈ ω2 (“zero” beating).
7.2 Piezoelectric Adders 121
Fig. 7.6 Disk piezotrans- 2 5

former
3
1
4
2'
1' 3'
4' 5'
Fig. 7.7 Amplitude- Kmp

frequency characteristic of
the piezotransformer: 1—
1,2
traditional scheme; 2—Tr-DD
scheme 1
0,8
0,6
2
0,4
0,2
1
1 20 40 60 80 f,
7.2 Piezoelectric Adders
The Adder on a Basis of Monomorph Disk Piezotransformer

The adder is made of a piezoelement WTC-19 in diameter 30 and in the thickness
0.8 mm (Fig. 7.6) [17].
The electrodes on face surfaces of a piezoelement have been divided into five
parts—the central disk 5 (5≤ ) and the external ring consisting of four equal parts 1–4
(1≤ –4≤ ).
Measurements of AFC were obtained in piezotransformer mode under the influ-
ence of sinusoidal electric voltage from generator G3-106 (U = 1 V) on electrodes
1–1≤ . The target signal was taken from electrodes 5–5≤ by means of the millivoltmeter
V3-38 (the traditional scheme Tr-Tr [2, 4]) and from electrodes 5–1≤ (the scheme
Tr-DD [4, 16, 17]).
The results of AFC measurement are shown on Fig. 7.7.
(a) (b)
0,1 V/div.
0,1 V/div.
0,2 ms/div. 0,2 ms/div.
Fig. 7.8 Transitive coefficient of piezotransformer: a traditional scheme; b scheme Tr-DD
Table 7.1 Transitive

Electrodes Etr
coefficient of
piezotransformer Input Output fur fr far
1 − 1≤ 5 − 5≤ 0.004 1.1 0.100
1 + 2 − 1≤ + 2≤ 5 − 5≤ 0.006 2.2 0.195
1 + 2 + 3 − 1≤ + 2≤ + 3≤ 5 − 5≤ 0.010 3.0 0.265
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 − 1≤ + 2≤ + 3≤ + 4≤ 5 − 5≤ 0.013 4.1 0.310
Transient characteristics of piezotransformer are shown on Fig. 7.8. The mea-

surements were taken also in piezotransformers mode under the influence of electric
voltage in the form of a meander on piezotransformer (f = 500 Hz, U = 3 V).
Photo by digital camera “Nikon-D90”.
The influence of the area of electrodes, on which the input voltage is submitted, on
transfer coefficient of piezotransformer on resonant frequency fr , in pre- resonant fur
and after resonant far areas was also investigated. Traditional scheme of connection
was used for measurements [23, 24].
Measurement results are presented in Table 7.1.
From Table 7.1 It follows that the increase of entrance electrodes area leads to the
increase of piezotransformer transfer coefficient.
The piezotransformer research has also shown that shift of phases between input
and output signals makes 0√ in pre-resonant area, 90√ on resonance and 180√ in
after-resonant area.
The influence of consecutive connection of piezotransformer parts on transfer
factor on resonant frequency has been also investigated. Traditional scheme of piezo-
transformer connection was used for measurements.
The measurement results are presented in Table 7.2. From Table 7.2 It follows that
the highest output voltage of piezotransformer can be obtained when it is connected
according to the scheme No 6.
This information can be used at designing of adders and transducers.
The traditional scheme (Fig. 7.9) and Tr-DD-Tr scheme (Fig. 7.10) were used
during the adder research.
Table 7.2 Output voltage of

No of circuit Electrodes Uout , B
piezotransformer
Input Output
1 1 − 1≤ 2 − 2≤ 2.0
2 1 − 1≤ 3 − 3≤ 2.2
3 1 − 1≤ 4 − 4≤ 1.8
4 1 − 1≤ 5 − 5≤ 4.6
2 3 4
5 1 − 1≤ 2' 3' 4' 4.6

2 5 4
6 1 − 1≤ 2' 5' 4' 6.2

7 1 − 1≤ 2+3+4− 2.3
2≤ +3≤ +4≤
8 1 − 1≤ 2+5+4− 3.1
2≤ +5≤ +4≤
Fig. 7.9 Traditional scheme

of piezoadder connection
5 3
1
G1 G2
4
2'
5' 3'
1'
4'
The piezoceramic adder contains two generators of electric fluctuations G1 and

G2, and disk monomorph piezotransformer (Fig. 7.6).
Generator G3-106 and oscilloscope C1-55 were used for the experiments. The
measurements were taken under the influence of sinusoidal electric voltage (U =
1 B) on the adder.
Measurement results are shown in Fig. 7.11 and Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 shows the maximum output voltage depending on electrodes connection
scheme.
In Table 7.3, it is visible, that connection of the piezoadder according to the scheme
Tr-DD-Tr (schemes No 3, 4) leads to the output voltage increase in pre-resonance
(fpr ) and after resonance (fpr ) areas.
5 3
1
G1 G2
4
2'
5' 3'
1'
4'
Fig. 7.10 Connection of piezoadder on the scheme Tr-DD-Tr
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.11 Oscillograms of output piezoadders: a traditional scheme; b scheme Tr-DD-Tr
Bimorph Piezotransformer Adder

The adder design on the basis of bimorph piezotransformer is shown on
Fig. 7.12 [5].
Piezoelement electrodes, on the top face surface, are divided into three parts, two
of which have the half-ring form 1, 3, and the third—the disk form 2. Electrodes of
the bottom face surface 1≤ , 2≤ , 3≤ , located from the party of glass-cloth-base disk, are
a projection of the top electrodes.
The bimorph element (BPE), which consists of a piezoelement from piezoce-
ramic WTC-19, of diameter 30 and thickness of 0.8 mm and glass-cloth-base disk in
diameter 35 and thickness of 0.8 mm were used for the experiments. Piezoelement
is polarised on a thickness, and electrodes are located so, as it is shown on Fig. 7.12.
Glass-cloth-base disk in this case is used not to close the electrodes located on the
bottom face surface of a piezoelement.
Amplitude-frequency characteristics (AFC) of adders, which schemes are pre-
sented in Table 7.4 are measured, at giving on one of inputs of the adder sinusoidal
Table 7.3 Output voltage of adder on basis of disk monomorph piezotransformer

No Circuits of connection Uout , B
fpr Fr Far
1 0.02 8.10 0.60
2
1 5 3
G1 G2
4
2'
1'
5' 3'
4'
2 0.05 13.5 0.90
G1 G2
3 0.80 3.50 1.10

2
1 5 3
G1 G2
4
2'
1'
5' 3'
4'
4 1.20 5.60 1.50
G1 G2
5 0.04 13.0 0.80
G1 G2
voltage with amplitude 1V. One generator was used for this purpose (G 1 ). Results
of measurements are presented on Fig. 7.13.
Generator G 1 at all measurements AFC was connected to the electrode 1.
In the first case the output signal was taken from the electrode 2 (curved line 1,
Fig. 7.13). The general wire of the scheme was connected to electrodes 1≤ and 2≤ .
In the second case the output signal was taken from the electrode 2 (curved line
2, Fig. 7.13). The general wire of the scheme was connected only to the electrode 1≤ .
In the third case output signal was taken from the electrode 3 (curved line 3,
Fig. 7.13).
The general wire of the scheme was connected to electrodes 1≤ and 3≤ .
Fig. 7.12 Adder on the basis

disk bimorph piezoelement:
PE—piezoelement; GCB—
glass-cloth-base disk; 1, 2,
3—top electrodes; 1≤ , 2≤ , 3≤ —
bottom electrodes
In the fourth case the output signal was read from the electrode 3 (curved line 4,
Fig. 7.13). The general wire of the scheme was connected to the electrode 1≤ .
In Fig. 7.13, it is visible, that the maximum factor of transfer is reached at use of
schemes 2 and 4.
Transitive characteristics have been also measured for schemes of 1 and 2 adders
(Table 7.4). The schemes were investigated in a mode of piezotransformer at giving
of electric voltage in the form of a meander with amplitude 3 V and frequency 1 kHz.
Results are shown on Fig. 7.14.
From Fig. 7.14, it is visible, that the form of the output signal is characteristic
for fading fluctuations of two-planimetric oscillatory system. From Fig. 7.14, it is
visible, that attenuation of oscillatory system has increased and the differentiating
properties have amplified. Besides, from Fig. 7.14 it is also visible, that the transfer
factor is increased (Fig. 7.14b).
The oscillograms of output signal of adders for schemes 1 and 2 are presented on
Fig. 7.15. Sinusoidal voltage from generators G 1 and G 2 with amplitude moved 1 V.
Projector frequency G 1 —7 kHz, and G 2 —7.25 kHz.
In Fig. 7.15, it is visible if a piezoceramic adder is connected according to the
scheme 2 (Table 7.4) the coefficient transfer of signal is approximately 4 times higher,
when connecting by the scheme 1.
The results of computer modelling of the adder in Labview are presented on
Fig. 7.16 [5].
Adders on the basis of hollow cylindrical monomorph piezoelements and sym-
metric bimorph elements have been also developed and investigated [19, 20].
The acoustic signal in shape beating for use in acoustic systems demands further
transformation. This book doesn’t contain the technology of such transformation.
7.3 Creating of Low Frequency Oscillations by Means of Peak Modulators 127
Table 7.4 Output voltage of adder on basis of disk monomorph piezotransformer

No of circuit Circuits of adders Transfer coefficient on frequency
1 kHz 7 kHz 10 kHz

1 0.15 0.22 0.19
2 0.80 0.81 0.80
3 0.06 0.08 0.06
4 0.74 0.75 0.74
7.3 Creating of Low Frequency Oscillations by Means

of Peak Modulators
Here two cases are possible. In the first—the peak-modulated oscillations (PM) are
created in a piezoelement. In the second—electric PM oscillations are created in
the separate generator, and then move on a piezoelement. Bearing frequency in both
cases gets out equal to one of resonant frequencies of a piezoelement, therefore the
coefficient of transfer of such device can be big enough. Some schemes of peak
modulators on the basis of piezoelectric resonators and transformers are described
in work by Pluzhnikov and Semenov [21].
The principle of action of the piezoelectric peak modulator is based on depen-
dence of a current, proceeding through a piezoelement, from an operating field. At
Fig. 7.13 AFC of piezoce- U, mV

ramic adders in a mode of
piezotransformers 210
2
4
180
150
120
90
60
1
3
30
1 2 4 6 8 f, kHz
construction of such modulator the working point gets out either on falling down, or
on an ascending site of hysteresis curve [21].
If we supply the voltage with the frequency equal to the resonance PER frequency
on the input of scheme 1–1, Fig. 7.17, (where PER—piezoelectric resonator, the
condenser Cω and resistor Rω are provided for cross coupling of chains of bearing
and modulating voltage), and low-frequency modulating voltage Uη on clips 2–2,
the amplitude of high frequency current proceeding on resistance of loading Rl will
change proportionally to the size of low-frequency (modulating) sinusoidal voltage
submitted on contacts 2–2.
As a rule, the peak piezoelectric modulator works on private hysteresis cycle. In
this case we can get essentially big linearity modulation characteristics, than in case
of full hysteresis cycle work.
The scheme of the modulator on the basis of multielectrode piezoelectric system
allows to get rid of ballast elements Rω and Cω , reducing a pass-band for a modulating
signal (Fig. 7.18a). Here the dependence of output voltage of a generating part 6 on
operating field, applied to the middle area 4 is used.
Using the piezoelectric transformer (PET), makes it possible to raise the level
of output voltage of the modulator essentially (Fig. 7.18b). The work principle of
such modulator is similar to the principle considered above. The dynamics of the
piezoelectric peak modulator is entirely defined by the dynamics of the operated
piezoeffect. So, in particular, the modulator pass-band depends on resonant fre-
quency and good quality of a piezoelectric element. At resonant frequencies of the
order of megahertz units the pass-band entirely covers the sound range. The of mod-
ulation coefficient can be brought to 100 % by the choice of appropriate voltage of
displacement or by changing the modulating signal (Fig. 7.19) at high linearity of
modulation characteristics (Fig. 7.20).
The oscillogram of output signal of the peak modulator is shown in Fig. 7.21.
7.3 Creating of Low Frequency Oscillations by Means of Peak Modulators 129
Fig. 7.14 Transitive char- (a)

acteristics of pezoceramic
adders in a mode of piezo-
transformer: a scheme 1;
b scheme 2
(b)
The influence of the peak-modulated signals on oscillatory systems has been

considered in work [15].
Using bimorph elements as peak modulators of is rather perspective.
7.4 Method of Additional Oscillatory Contour

As is known, that a piezoelement—electromechanical oscillatory system, which the
equivalent electric scheme is represented on Fig. 7.22 [4, 16].
On this scheme Cel —capacity between piezoelement electrodes, L d , Cd R—
dynamic inductance, capacity and active losses in a piezoelement.
If attach the inductance to the input of a piezoelement L ad , this inductance and
capacity between electrodes Cel forme a consecutive oscillatory contour L ad Cel
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.15 Signal from the output electrode: a scheme 1; b scheme 2
(Fig. 7.23), which resonant frequency can be defined by the known formula (7.14)
[18, 25].
1
f ad = ≥ (7.14)
2∂ L ad Cel
Resonant frequency of a piezoelement
1
f PE = ≥ . (7.15)
2∂ L d Cd
Besides, there is a resonance on frequency
1
f = ≥ . (7.16)
2∂ (L ad + L d )Cd
Depending on values Cel and L ad three cases are possible:
f ad = f P E ;
f ad < f P E ; (7.17)
f ad > f P E .
In this section we will consider the first and the second case, i.e. cases, when
f ad = f PE and f ad < f PE .
We will test the electro-acoustic transducer Pτ-19 prodused by factory
Âvrora & (Volgograd).
The transducer consists of bimorph piezoelement (a steel plate 40X with diam-
eter 32 mm and thickness 0.15 mm and of piezoelement with diameter 23 mm and
thickness 0.2 mm made of piezoceramic WTC-19), fixed on the generating line in
the case made of polystyrene. The amplitude-frequency characteristics (AFC) of this
transducer are shown in Fig. 7.24.
The basic resonant frequency of transducer curving oscillations is ∼2.5 kHz
(Fig. 7.24).
7.4 Method of Additional Oscillatory Contour 131
Fig. 7.16 Results of computer

modelling of piezoceramic
adder: a f1 = 7 kHz, f2 =
7.25 kHz, U1 = U2 = 1 V; b
f1 = 7 kHz, f2 = 7.25 kHz,
U1 = 1A, U2 = 2 V; c
f1 = 7 kHz, f2 = 0.1 kHz,
U1 = U2 = 1 V
Measurements were carried out in piezotransformer mode. The sound pressure

was also measured on resonant frequency by the sound level meter RFT.
The inductance coils (L ad ) 0.24, 1.0 and 2.4 H were made for carrying out the
experiments. These inductances with capacity Cel (17 nF) form resonant frequen-
cies 2.5, 1.22 and 0.8 kHz (Fig. 7.23). AFC of the transducer were measured by the
connection of each of inductances (Fig. 7.24b–d).
U
C R
1 2 2
PER
U out
R
1
Fig. 7.17 Circuit of the piezoelectric modulator [21]
(a) (b)
~U E= ~U
2 2 U= 2 2
3 U=
1 5 4 6 1
E E 3
~Uout ~Uout ~Uout
~Uout
1 3 1 3
Fig. 7.18 The piezoelectric modulator on the basis of multielectrode system [21]
It is visible, that, using additional oscillatory contours, created by means of addi-

tional inductance and interelectrode capacity of a piezoelement, there is a possibility
of creation of low-frequency acoustic fluctuations by means of rather high-frequency
transducer (Fig. 7.24).
The own (active) resistance of losses r0 has been measured simultaneously on the
specified frequencies (Table 7.5) [10, 26]. In Table 7.5, it is visible, that the value of
losses in piezoelement increases with fall of frequency.
Table 7.5 Dependence of

Frequency, kHz 0.8 1.2 2.5
sound pressure from
frequency r0 , k Ohm 9.3 5.9 3.9
Sound pressure, dB 80 93 97
7.5 Creation of LF Acoustic Fluctuations with the Help of Monomorph Piezoelements 133
m, %
100
1
80
2
60
40
3
20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Ey, V/mm
0 5 10 Uf , V
Fig. 7.19 Dependence of depth of modulation of the piezoelectric peak modulator on intensity
of constant electric field (curve 1) and amplitudes of a high-frequency field (curves 2 and 3) For
frequencies of a modulating signal η = 15 and 40 kHz [21]
Fig. 7.20 Modulation the m, %

characteristic for various
frequencies of a modulating
signal: 1—it is less than
100
frequency of a relaxation;
2—it is more than frequency
of a relaxation
80
1
60
2
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 U ,V
7.5 Creation of LF Acoustic Fluctuations with the Help

of Monomorph Piezoelements
It is considered that the flexural vibrations do not occur in monomorph piezoelectric

elements in the form of plates, bars, disks, etc. [2, 4].
Fig. 7.21 Oscillogram of

output voltage of the peak
modulator
Fig. 7.22 The equiva- Ld Cd R

lent electric circuit of a
piezoelement
Cel
Fig. 7.23 The equivalent Lad Ld C R

circuit of piezoelement with
additional inductance
Cel
Meanwhile, the appearance of low frequency oscillations are detected in

monomorph piezoelectric elements, but the sound pressure level generated by piezo-
electric monomorph transducers is low [27, 28].
Figure 7.25 shows the connection scheme (Fig. 7.25a) and the amplitude-frequency
characteristic (AFC) on the sound pressure (Fig. 7.25b, c) of monomorph piezoelec-
tric element Ø66 × 3 mm, made of piezoceramics WTC-19.
In Fig. 7.25, the amplitude-frequency characteristic of the monomorph piezoelec-
tric element and in low-frequency area has resonant character.
To clarify the type of oscillations for this piezoelectric element Chladni figures
were received (Fig. 7.26). As we can see from Fig. 7.26a, the Chladni figure for the
frequency of 4.05 kHz corresponds to the flexural vibrations of the piezoelement, and
for the frequency of 34 kHz—the main resonant frequency of the radial oscillations
(Fig. 7.26b).
(a) (b)
U, mV U, mV
400 2000
Ps=76 dB Ps=97 dB
300 1500
200 1000
100 500
0 0
0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,4 2,7 f , kHz 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2, 2,7 f , kHz
(c) (d)
U, mV U, mV
2000 2000
1500 1500
Ps=93 dB
1000 1000 Ps=80 dB
500 500
0 0
0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,4 2,7 f , kHz 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,4 2,7 f , kHz
Fig. 7.24 AFC of transducer Pτ-19 at inductance addition (Fig. 7.23): a L ad = 0; b L ad = 0.24
H; c −L ad = 1.0 H; d −L ad = 2.4 H
To increase the level of flexural vibrations it is proposed to create in piezoelement

the electric field which stimulates these oscillations. The electrodes on the piezoele-
ment must be placed in a way the electric field E vector of the exciting voltage makes
the angle α with the polarization vector P, where 0 < α ∇ 90√ (Fig. 7.27a, b).
It should be noted that such arrangement of electrodes on the piezoelements is
widely used in the so-called domain-dissipative piezoelements, in which the angle
α creates the polarization vector and the electric field vector of output voltage of
piezoelectric sensor [4, 16].
When using such scheme in piezoelectric transducers two competing processes
are possible—increasing of flexural vibrations due to the location of the exciting
field vector and at the same time reductions of these oscillations by increasing own
resistance of piezoelement. The proposed idea is experimentally verified.
The piezoelement Ø66 and 3mm thick made of piezoceramics WTC-19 was used
for the experiments.
The amplitude-frequency characteristics (AFC) on the sound pressure were mea-
sured with the sound level meter RFT for connection schemes (Fig. 7.27). Simultane-
ously, the internal friction in the piezoelectric element was measured on the resonant
frequency. These results are shown on Fig. 7.28.
Figure 7.28 shows that for schemes with α ◦ 90√ (Fig. 7.28a, b) the sound pressure
level increased by about 12 dB, the resonant frequency has not changed, and r0
increased approximately in 4 times compared with the transducer with α = 0√
(Fig. 7.25a).
The oscillating circuit made of the additional inductance L ad and interelectrode
capacitance of piezoelement Cel was created to further increase of the sound pressure
at the input of piezoelement. The inductance is determined from the expression [9]:
Fig. 7.25 Connection scheme (a)

(a), amplitude-frequency 2
characteristic on sound pres-
1
sure in the low-frequency (b)
and high frequencies (c) areas
G
of monomorph piezoelectric
element Ø66 × 3 mm E P
1'
2'
(b)
P, dB
Pr=76,5dB
r0=8,44kOhm
75
70
65
3.6 3.8 4 4.2 f, kHz
(c) P, dB
Pr=92dB
90
85
80
75
70
20 25 30 35 f, kHz
1
L add = , (7.18)
4∂ 2 fr2 Cel
where fr —the resonant frequency of piezoelectric element; Cel —capacitance

between the electrodes 1–2≤ , 1–2 and 1–1≤ , respectively.
Connection schemes of piezoelectric element with an additional inductance are
shown in Fig. 7.29.
The measurement results of AFC are shown on Fig. 7.30.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.26 Chladni figures for flexural (a) and radial (b) oscillations of monomorph disk piezoele-
ment
Figure 7.30 shows that the sound pressure level on the frequency of 4.05 kHz for
transducers with additional inductance (Fig. 7.29) has increased on about 24 dB in
comparison with the transducers without inductance (Fig. 7.28) and on about 36 dB
in comparison with the known connection scheme (Fig. 7.25) on the same frequency.
For schemes with α ◦ 90√ (Fig. 7.29a, b) The sound pressure level has increased on
about 10 dB in comparison with the transducer with α = 0√ (Fig. 7.29c) [29].
7.6 Creation of LF Fluctuations with Help Bimorph

and Trimorph Elements
It was already mentioned (see Chap. 2), that connection of a piezoelement with a
metal plate (asymmetric) bimorph element, piezoelement with other piezoelement
(symmetric bimorph element) or two piezoelements with a metal plate (trimorph
(a) 2 (b)
1 2
1 E
G
E
P
G
P
1'
2'
1'
2'
Fig. 7.27 Schemes of connection piezoelements: a α ◦ 87√ , the electrodes 1 and 2≤ are located
coplanar; b α = 90√ , the electrodes 1 and 2 are located planar
(a) P, dB (b) P, dB
Pr=88dB Pr=88,5dB
r0=36,6kOhm r0=36,6kOhm
85 85
80 80
75 75
70 70
65 65
3.6 3.8 4 4.2 f, kHz 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 f, kHz
Fig. 7.28 AFC of piezoelectric transducers on the scheme: a Fig. 7.27a; b Fig. 7.27b
element) leads to the occurrence of the curving oscillations and to the resonant
frequency decrease. For example, Fig. 7.31, the asymmetric bimorph element, made
of brass plate (diameter 200 and thickness 1 mm) and a disk piezoelement made of
piezoceramic WT<C-3 (diameter 50 and thickness 1.2 mm), and on Fig. 7.31b—AFC
of this element, was obtained in transformer mode. For comparison, Fig. 7.31c the
AFC of a piezoelement Ø50 × 1.2 mm maid of piezoceramic WT<C-3, obtained in
low-frequency area.
The use of the asymmetric bimorph element has allowed to lower essentially the
resonant frequencies of the transducer (Fig. 7.31).
A symmetric bimorph element, composed from two piezoelements (Ø 66×3 mm)
maid of piezoceramic WTC-19 (Fig. 7.32a), its AFC—Fig. 7.32b [30].
The AFC of the monomorph piezoelement (Ø60×3 mm) is presented on Fig. 7.25.
As we can see Figs. 7.25 and 7.32, the resonant frequency of symmetric bimorph
element is also essentially lowered [31, 32].
Shifting the piezoelements one concerning another makes it possible to reach
the further decrease of the resonant frequency for symmetric bimorph element
(Fig. 7.33a).
In Fig. 7.34, the transducer composed from three piezoelements Ø66 × 3 mm,
called on similarity to the butterfly “mahaon”, and on Fig. 7.34b—its AFC. The
low-frequency resonances have also appeared in this transducer [33].
The use of the additional oscillatory contour method makes it possible to reach
the further decrease of the resonant frequency and the increase of sound pressure on
this frequency (see Sect. 7.4).
7.7 Application of Volume Resonators in Electro-Acoustic Transducers 139
Fig. 7.29 Schemes of con- (a) L add

nection of a piezoelement 2
with additional inductance: a
1
C1−2≤ = 1.2 nF, L ad = 1.25
H; b C1−2 = 1.13 nF,
G
L ad = 1.3 H; c C1−1≤ = 8.1
nF, L ad = 0.185 H P
1'
2'
(b)
Ladd 2
1'
2'
(c) Ladd
2
G
P
1'
2'
7.7 Application of Volume Resonators in Electro-Acoustic

Transducers
The acoustic oscillatory systems in which separate elements represent the gaseous
environment are widely used for work in the air environment in electro-acoustic
transducers. The acoustic oscillatory systems are used in the form of cavities, chan-
nels, volume resonators which in a combination can form difficult devices, which
action is similar to the resonant contours, filters etc. With their help it is possible to
allocate or suppress certain sites of the frequencies sound range.
The Gelmgolts resonator is the example of the elementary acoustic oscillatory
system. It is a vessel of the spherical shape with open neck. The air in the neck—
oscillating mass, and the air volume in the vessel acts as an elastic element. Certainly,
Fig. 7.30 AFC of piezoelec- (a)

tric transducers with addi- P, dB
tional inductance: a Fig. 7.5a;
Pr=112,5dB
b Fig. 7.5b; c Fig. 7.5c
fr=4,05kHz
110
100
90
80
70
3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 f, kHz
(b)
P, dB
Pr=113dB
fr=4,05kHz
110
100
90
80
70
3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 f, kHz
(c)
P, dB
100
Pr =102dB
fr =4,05kHz
90
80
70
60
3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 f, kHz
Fig. 7.31 Design of asym- (a)

metric bimorph element (a),
AFC (b) and AFC monomorph
piezoelement Ø50 × 1.2 mm
in low-frequency area (c)
(b)
U, V
1, 8
fr=6,2 kHz
1, 6
1, 4
1, 2 fr=0,48 kHz
1,0
fr=0,73 kHz
0, 8 fr=5 kHz
fr=0,95 kHz
0, 6
fr=1,5 kHz fp=3,4 kHz
0, 4
fr=2,8 kHz
0, 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 f , kHz
(c)
U, V
fr=4,3 kHz
0,3
0,2
0,1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 f , kHz
such division is fair only approximately as some part of the air in a cavity is possessed
of inertial resistance. However, the accuracy of such approach is quite satisfactory
at enough big size of the relation of the aperture area to the area of section of cavity.
The basic part of kinetic energy of oscillations is concentrated in the neck of the
resonator where the air oscillatory speed of particles has the greatest size (Fig. 7.35).
Strictly speaking, the resonator—is a system with distributed parameters. How-
ever, if sizes of the resonator are small in comparison with length of the wave of
oscillations operating on the resonator it is possible to consider such system as a
system with concentrated parameters. Gelmgolts resonator own frequency is:
Fig. 7.32 Symmetric (a)

bimorph element from two
piezoelements Ø66 × 3 mm
(a) and AFC (b)
(b)
U,V
fr=7,2 kHz
11
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 f, kHz

c0 S
fr = (7.19)
2∂ VL
where:
fr frequency, Hz;
c0 speed of a sound in air (340 m/s);
S aperture section, m2 ;
L length of an aperture, m;
V resonator volume, m3 .
For example, for a vessel with volume 1l, neck length—1 sm and section 1 sm2
the resonance frequency will be about 170 Hz.
It is necessary to notice, that the wave length for this frequency is about 2 m,
that much exceed the characteristic sizes of the resonator. Hence, we couldn’t speak
about a standing acoustic wave in the resonator. Really, it is possible to excite only
(a)
(b)
U,V
fp =5,2 kHz
fp =6,2 kHz
2 fp =4,2 kHz
fp =0,5 kHz
fp =2,5 kHz
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 f,
Fig. 7.33 Symmetric bimorph element with shift of piezoelements (a) and it AFC (b)
the waves in a cavity, which length is less than characteristic size of the resonator:
≥
3
ξ∇ V (7.20)
For the given example it is frequencies above 3 kHz.

Organ pipe—it is the other variant of the resonator. Standing waves in such res-
onator are possible only for those cases when the odd number of quarters of waves
lengths keeps on the length of a pipe. Accordingly, the resonant frequencies will be
equal:
c0
f = (2 p − 1) , (7.21)
4L
where p = 1.2, 3.
(a)
(b)
U,V
1,8 fp=4,2 kHz
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
fp=5,7 kHz
0,8
0,6
fp=6,1 kHz
0,4 fp=2,7 kHz
fp=0,7 kHz
0,2
0
0,5 1 2 3 4 5 6 f, kHz
Fig. 7.34 Transducer from three elements (a) and it AFC (b)
Though there are some resonant frequencies but the first fluctuations mode is most
strongly expressed. The quarter wave resonator in length corresponds to this case:
c0
L= (7.22)
4f
Examples of air resonators application in PEAT can be found in transducer Pτ-19

(see Fig. 3.1), and also in Chaps. 8 and 9.
References 145
Fig. 7.35 Resonator of S

Gelmgolts: S-aperture section,
L-length of an aperture, V -
resonator volume
References
1. V.S. Didkovskiy, O.G. Leyko, V.G. Savin, Electro-acoustic piezoceramic transducers (Imex-
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2. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic Sensors (Springer, Berlin, 2011), p. 498
3. O.V. Korzhik, Forming of descriptions of single receiving electro-resilient cylinder transformer
with cut electrodes, ed. by O.V. Korzhik, O.G. Leiko. Scientific news NTUU RPI, vol. 1 (2005),
pp. 50–55 (in Ukrainian)
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5. V.M. Sharapov, S.A. Filimonov, K.V. Bazilo, Zh.V. Sotula, L.G. Runickaya, Research of Piezo-
ceramic Adder on a Basis of Bimorph Piezoelement, vol. 4 (Visnyk ChDTU, Cherkasy, 2009)
(in Russian)
6. http://www.ipfran.ru
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nas, 2011), pp. 40–44
9. V.M. Sharapov, Zh.V. Sotula, P.A. Molchanov, V.G. Savin, Methods of Synthesis of Piezo-
electric Transducers: a Method of Accidental Elements. Inductance, No. 1 (Visnyk ChDTU,
Cherkasy, 2011) (in Russian)
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(Technologija, Kaunas, 2011), pp. 30–33
11. V.M. Sharapov, V.M. Lugovoy, V.I. Voropay, S.V. Rotte, Electro-acoustic transducer. Patent of
Ukraine 19643. Publication 2006 (in Ukrainian)
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ChDTU, Cherkasy, 2010) (in Russian)
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of Cylindrical Multielectrode Piezotransformer, vol. 3 (Visnyk ChDTU, Cherkasy, 2010) (in
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2011 (in Ukrainian)
Chapter 8
Methods of Increasing Sound Pressure
New methods of increases in sound pressure c the help of an additional electric

oscillatory contour, bimorph and trimorph elements, and also by decrease in an
internal friction are described in this chapter.
8.1 Method of Additional Oscillatory Contour
As already noticed (see. Chap. 7), if a piezoelement input is connected with

inductance L add in such a way that this inductance and inter electrode capacity Cel
of piezoelement form a consecutive oscillatory contour properties of piezoelement
will change [1–4]. Three cases are possible here:
f add = fr ;
f add < fr ;
f add > fr .
In the given section is considered the case, where f add = fr , h.e. resonant fre-
quency of an additional contour f add is equal to resonant frequency of electro-
mechanical fluctuations of a piezoelement f p .
This idea is checked experimentally by means of the electro-acoustic transducers
Pσ-19 produced by OJSC Âvrora& (Volgograd). The transducer contains bimorph
piezoelement, which consists of 40X steel plate with diameter of 32 mm and thickness
of 0.15 mm and piezoelement with diameter of 23 and thickness of 0.2 mm. Bimorph
element is fixed in the shock-resistant polystyrene case (Fig. 8.1).
Check will be done in piezotransformer mode and for this purpose one of elec-
trodes will be divided into two parts—a ring and a disk (Fig. 8.1).

148 8 Methods of Increasing Sound Pressure
Fig. 8.1 Electro-acoustic

transducer ZP-19
As is known [5–7], the piezoelement is the electromechanical oscillatory sys-

tem, where the equivalent electric scheme is a series-parallel oscillatory contour
(Fig. 7.22).
Communication between input and output of piezotransformer is carried out by
means of the ideal transformer Tr .
On this scheme is shown: Cin —capacity between input and output electrodes; L d ,
Cd , R—so-called dynamic inductance, capacity and active losses in a piezoelement.
Let’s consider the input circuit of the transducer containing inductance L add and
inter electrode capacity Cin (Fig. 8.2).
If we choose L add from
1
L add = , (8.1)
4Π fr2 Cin
2
where fr —resonant frequency of a piezoelement, then resonant frequency f add of

consecutive oscillatory contour L add Cin . will be equal to resonant frequency of a
piezoelement, h.e. f add = fr .
As is known [8, 9], the transfer coefficient of a contour on resonant frequency is
equal to good quality tuned-circuit Q.
In this case voltage on a piezoelement input (i.e. on capacity Cin .) will be
UC = Ugen · Q, (8.2)
where Q—quality of a contour;

Ugen —voltage generated by the generator.
L add Ld Cd R Tr
Cout
~ G Cin
Fig. 8.2 The equivalent scheme of the transducer with additional inductance
8.1 Method of Additional Oscillatory Contour 149
Fig. 8.3 AFC of electro- U,V

acoustic transducer 3σ-19: 1
without additional inductance; P sound=109 dB
2 with additional inductance 0,4
P sound=90 dB 2
0,3
1
0,2
0,1
1,9 2,2 2,5 f , kHz
Hence, it is possible to expect the increasing of output capacity (sound pressure)

of transducer or of transformation coefficient of piezotransformer [1–4].
Besides, inductance L add together with dynamic inductance L Θ create additional
resonant frequency, which is below the basic resonant frequency of a piezoelement fr .
Amplitude—frequency characteristics (AFC) of transducer Pσ-19 and Pσ-19
with additional inductance are shown on Fig. 8.3. It has been taken in piezoceramic
transformer mode. Sound pressure was also measured on resonant frequency with
the help of sound level meter produced by RFT.
As can be seen on Fig. 8.3 level of sound pressure on resonant frequency for the
transducer Pσ-19 has grown almost in 20 dB, however, it is not a limit for the given
scheme.
Besides that there was a resonance on frequency ◦2.1 kHz, which is formed from
inductance L add + L d and dynamic capacity Cd .
8.2 Internal Friction in Piezoceramic Elements

of Electro-Acoustic Transducers
Internal friction in firm bodies is a property of firm bodies to transform irreversibly the
mechanical energy informed a body in processes of its deformation into warmth [10].
Internal friction is among not elastic or relaxation properties which are not
described by the elasticity theory. Last is based on the latent assumption about quasi-
static character (infinitesimal speed) of elastic deformation, when thermodynamic
balance is not broken in a deformable body. And pressure ∂ (t) at any moment of
time is defined by value of deformation κ(t) at the same moment. For a linear intense
condition is ∂ (t) = M0 κ(t). The body submitting to this law is called as ideally elas-
tic, M0 —the static module of elasticity of ideally elastic body that corresponds to
considered type of deformation (stretching, torsion). If there is periodic deformation
of ideally elastic body ∂ and κ are in one phase [11].
A deviation from the thermodynamic balance occurs with final speed in a body in
the process of deformation that causes appropriate relaxation process (returning to
an equilibrium condition), accompanied by dissipation (dispersion) of elastic energy,
i.e. its irreversible transition into warmth. For example, if we bend uniformly heated
plate, which made of material that expands when heated, stretched fibers are cooled,
compressed fibers are heated and owing to that a cross-section gradient of temperature
occurs, i.e. elastic deformation will cause infringement of thermal balance.
Relaxation process is equalization of temperature with the help of heat conduc-
tivity accompanied by irreversible transition of a part of elastic energy into thermal
energy, that is an explanation for observed experimentally decay of free flexural
vibrations of a plate [12].
During elastic deformation of an alloy with uniform distribution of atoms of
components, the redistribution of the components may take place because of the dif-
ferences of their sizes. Relaxation process is also a restoration of equilibrium distrib-
ution by means of diffusion. Demonstrations of non-elastic, or relaxation properties,
except the properties mentioned above, are elastic after-effects in pure metals and
alloys [11].
Research of an internal friction in piezoceramic is of interest, as an internal friction
in a piezoelement is a resistance of a piezoelement on resonant frequency when
inductive and capacitive reactance compensate each other. This reactance at the given
pressure of the generator defines a current through a piezoelement, and therefore,
the capacity of acoustic radiation of a piezoelement [12].
Separate sections in books are devoted to research of an internal friction [11, 12].
Besides, the work is devoted to research of influence of static pressure on internal
pressure in piezoelements [13]. Works are also devoted to research of an internal
friction in piezoceramic [14–17] etc.
The analysis of energy dissipation in piezo material, having electromechanical
communication, is a complicated problem, solution of which is complicated by
fact that dissipation factors are amplitude dependent. Any piezoelectric material
has mechanical and dielectric losses, which macroscopical description can be find,
for example, in monographies [10, 12, 14, 16–18]. These kinds of losses can be
taken into account, for example, by complex representation of elastic and dielectric
constants:
s ≥≥ c≥≥
tgηm = (or ); (8.3)
s≥ c≥
κ≥≥ ω ≥≥
tgηe = ≥
(or ≥ ). (8.4)
κ ω
In a number of works, for example in [14, 15], it is proposed to take into account
piezoelectric losses in a piezoelectric material as
d ≥≥ e≥≥ g ≥≥ h ≥≥
tgηem = ( , , ) (8.5)
d ≥ e≥ g ≥ h ≥
8.2 Internal Friction in Piezoceramic Elements of Electro-Acoustic Transducers 151
It has been confirmed experimentally in [16].

According to [14], there are three types of a friction:
• constant or Coulomb;
• liquid;
• solid body.
The coulomb friction is proportional to weight of a moving element and does

not depend on speed of its movement. This type of a friction is practically absent in
simple oscillatory systems and it isn’t of interest in a considered case.
Liquid friction is a classical kind of an internal friction when loss resistance is
constant, and force of resistance is proportional to speed. This kind of losses in the
given work is not considered.
The friction of a firm body is characteristic for elastic deformations of solid
bodies and it is of the greatest interest in our case.
Experience shows that one of the elements of transformation of mechanical energy
into heat is the pliability. Quality factor of an element of pliability is the factor
depending only on properties of a material. According to this it is [12]:
1
QT = , (8.6)
τKR
Though QT generally depends on frequency, it is experimentally established, that
for the majority of solid bodies QT is approximately constant in a sound range of
frequencies. Therefore in case of the friction of solids the quality factor QT may be
assumed as a material constant. Then resistance of losses in inverse proportion to
frequencies R = 1/(τK Q T ).
If Q T is constant the mechanical impedance may be presented as
1
Z = R + jτM + = R(1 + j Q T ν ≥ ), (8.7)
jτK
where ν ≥ = (τ/τ0 )ν.

When modeling piezoceramic resonator the equivalent mechanical scheme with
the concentrated constants is usually applied, where it is assumed R = const, that cor-
responds to the case of a liquid friction, or in a general case of mechanical system—
to the external friction proportional to speed.
If piezoresonator has free fluctuations the mechanical losses correspond to a fric-
tion of a solid body. Therefore the resistance of mechanical losses R is dependent on
frequency.
As the internal friction is defined by deformation of elements of a pliability, in
the equation M dξ dt + Rξ + K ϕ = F it is expedient to unite resistance of losses and
1
a pliability, taking in to account that for a harmonic excitation it is dϕ/dt = jτϕ
d 2ϕ
M + αϕ = F (8.8)
dt 2
where α = (1/K )(1 + jτK R) = α0 (1 + jφ) is the complex rigidity. From (6)
follows, that valid part α defines rigidity of system, and imaginary part is proportional
to the factor of losses.
Elastic properties of piezoceramic are described by five independent elastic con-
stants. According to this there are five independent kinds of the internal friction,
described by a complex size of each constant.
The internal friction in the solid body can be hysteresis or relaxation type. Fre-
quency dependence allows to define character of an internal friction φ.
Dielectric losses. Polarizing processes make the basic contribution in dissipation
of electric energy on an alternating current in piezoceramic. As these processes are
defined by dielectric properties of a material the most convenient way is to represent
losses in polarizing processes by adding complex dielectric permeability
κ = κ≥ − jκ≥≥ (8.9)
and a tangent of a corner of dielectric losses
κ≥≥
tgη = . (8.10)
κ≥
In most cases κ = κ≥ − jκ≥≥ = const, hence, tgη = const. Last condition corre-
sponds to the processes of polarization which are not dependent on speed of change
of electric field. However, as experience shows, dialectics, and in particular ferroelec-
tric materials, are characterized by the whole spectrum of relaxation—polarization
mechanisms when depending on speed of change of frequency of fluctuations there
isn’t enough time for one or another process of polarization. In similar cases complex
dielectric permeability depends on frequency
κ(τ) = κ≥ (τ) − jκ≥≥ (τ) (8.11)
Thus, piezoceramic material is characterised by five kinds of an internal

mechanical friction, for example tgϕs11 E , tgϕ E , tgϕ E , tgϕ E , tgϕ E ; by two
s12 s13 s33 s44
T T
kinds of dielectric losses: tgϕκ11 , tgϕκ33 , and also by three kinds of piezoelectric
losses: tgϕd31 ; tgϕd33 ; tgϕd15 .
In the results published before it wasn’t mentioned to which elastic factors corre-
sponds the defined size, for example, of mechanical quality. Meanwhile in a dynamic
mode on a longitudinal fashion of fluctuations of a core in the field, which is per-
pendicular to its length, the meaning of tgϕs11 E is defined, and in the field, which
D
is parallel to its length, the meaning is, tgϕs33 , when fluctuations in thickness of
plates—tgϕc33 D and etc.
Most often mechanical quality of piezoceramic materials is defined on a radial

fashion of fluctuations of a disk or on a longitudinal fashion of fluctuations of a core
in electric field, which is perpendicular to length of a core. In the mentioned cases,
should be the same Q value (Q s11 E = 1/tgϕ E ) under a condition that tgϕ E =
s11 s11
E
tgϕs12 . Not to take into account this condition the value of quality, defined on radial
Fig. 8.4 The scheme of mea-

surement of an internal friction PE
of a piezoelement:G generator
β3-106; MV millivoltmeter G ~
B3-38
R MV
E depending on a sign of difference ϕ E −

fluctuations of a disk, can differ from Q s11 s11
ϕs12 .
E
In the given work results of measurements of internal friction of piezoceramic

elements, which are used in electro-acoustic transducers, are presented [19].
The internal friction in the given work was measured according to the scheme
shown on Fig. 8.4, on resonant frequency. In this case τL and τC 1
of piezoelement
are equal and compensate each other, and resistance of a piezoelement is equal to
internal friction r0 .
The resistance R is chosen from a condition R << r0 .
In the given work dependence r0 on following parameters of a piezoelement was
defined:
• the areas of electrodes;
• the locations of electrodes;
• type of fluctuations.
Measurements were done for piezoelements made of piezoceramic WTC-19
(Ø66 × 3 mm) and WT<C-3 (Ø50 × 1.2 mm), and also for bimorph piezoelement
(BPE), made of a piezoelement Ø50 × 1.2 mm (WT<C-3) and a metal plate Ø200 ×
1 mm made of a semisolid brass K63.
One of electrodes of each piezoelement has been divided in 3 parts of the equal
area in the form of a disk and two half rings (Fig. 8.5).
The internal friction was consistently measured r0 with connected separately and
in various combinations electrodes 1, 2, 3.
Measurements have been done on resonant frequency of radial fluctuations fr =
55 kHz for a disk Ø50 × 1.2 mm made of piezoceramic WT<C-3.
The results of measurements r0 are presented in the Table 8.1.
Fig. 8.5 The scheme of

division of electrodes of a
piezoelement: 1, 2 electrodes
in the form of half rings, 3
disk electrode 1 3 2
Table 8.1 Results of measurements r0

Electrodes 1 2 3 1+2 1+3 1+2+3
r0 , Ohm 115.5 115.3 44.7 46.7 70 33
From Table 8.1 follows that with increasing of the area of electrodes r0 decreases,
that is quite obvious. The fact, that resistance r0 with connected central electrode
(disk 3, Fig. 8.5) is less than resistance of peripheral electrodes of the equal area, is
less obvious and should be explained.
The internal friction r0 depending on frequency, a material of a piezoelement, and
type of fluctuations has been found for monomorph piezoelements Ø50 × 1.2 mm
(WT<C-3), Ø66 × 3 mm (WTC-19) and for bimorph piezoelement (BPE).
Measurements have been done on the basic resonant frequency of radial fluctu-
ations for monomorph piezoelements Ø50 × 1.2 mm, WT<C-3—55 kHz and Ø66 ×
3 mm, WTC-19—39 kHz and for BPE (Ø50 × 1.2 mm, WT<C-3 and plate Ø200 ×
1 mm from K63)—2.9 kHz. At measurements electrodes 1, 2, 3 have been connected
to each other.
Frequencies, which are below the basic resonant frequency, have been created
by connection of piezoelement with an inductance L add , which together with inter-
electrode capacity of a piezoelement Cel created the consecutive oscillatory contour,
which has resonant frequency:
1
fr = ≈ (8.12)
2Π L add · Cel
From Table 8.2 follows, that with the fall of frequency r0 increases, that confirms
the data [12, 14, 15].
Table 8.2 Resistance r0 depending on frequency

Piezoelement fp , kHz 55.3 1.0 0.655
Ø50 × 1.2 mm, r0 , kOhm 0.033 5.2 8.4
WT<C-3
Piezoelement fp , kHz 39.2 1.6 1.05
Ø66 × 3 mm, r0 , kOhm 0.035 9.2 16.9
WTC-19
BPE fpl , kHz 2.9 1.02 0.65
Ø50 × 1.2 mm
WT<C-3 r01 , kOhm 1.8 5.4 10.3
Ø200 × 1 mm,
K63
Besides, figure r0 is little bit greater on identical frequencies (1.0 and 0.65 kHz),
for bimorph piezoelement (curving fluctuations) than for monomorph piezoelement
(Ø50×1.2 mm, WT<C-3).
Besides, the meaning of r0 is less for monomorph piezoelement Ø50 × 1.2 mm
made of piezoceramic WT<C-3, than for monomorph piezoelement Ø50 × 3 mm
made of piezoceramic WTC-19.
At fluctuations of piezoelement on a radial fashion in the piezoelement centre r0
has smaller meaning than on periphery.
If a frequency falls, r0 increases.
If the area of electrodes increases r0 decreases.
The meaning of r0 for a piezoelement Ø 50 × 1.2 made of piezoceramic WT<C-3
is less than for a piezoelement Ø66 × 3 mm made of piezoceramic WTC-19.
For a bimorph piezoelement r0 is more above than for monomorph.
The effective way of decreasing r0 can be a feedback [6, 7].
8.3 Piezoelectric Projectors of a Sound on a Basis of Bimorph

and Trimorph Elements
As a rule, for producing transducer-radiators monomorph piezoelements and asym-

metric bimorph elements are used [5, 6, 12].
Monomorph transducers have rather high resonant frequency, that in some cases
(in particular, in hydroacoustics) is a weakness. Asymmetric bimorph elements have
rather low resonant frequency and high level of sound pressure.
The most simple way of increasing of output capacity (sound pressure) of such
transducers is the increasing of exciting voltage, however, in this case there are restric-
tions, as at achievement of a certain limiting voltage Ulim there can be depolarisation
of a piezoelement, a mechanical destruction of a piezoelement or of glutinous con-
nection.
8.3.1 Decrease of Resonant Frequency
For reduction of resonant frequency it is also possible to increase the sizes of a

piezoelement, however, this way also has the constructive and technological restric-
tions [5].
As it has been noticed before [5], the connection of a piezoelement with a metal
plate (asymmetric bimorph element) or of a piezoelement with other piezoelement
(symmetric bimorph element) or of two piezoelements with a metal plate (trimorph
element) leads to occurrence of curving fluctuations and to decreasing by 10 times
and more of resonant frequency.
For example, on Fig. 8.6a is shown asymmetric bimorph element, which is made
from a brass plate with a diameter of 200 mm and thickness of 1 mm and from a
disk piezoelement made of piezoceramic WT<C-3 with the diameter of 50 mm and
thickness of 1.2 mm, and on Fig. 8.6b is shown amplitude-frequency characteristic
(AFC) of this element, recorded in a transformer mode. For comparison, on Fig. 8.6c
is shown the AFC of monomorph piezoelement Ø50 × 1.2 mm made of piezoceramic
WT<C-3.
As shown on Fig. 8.6, the use of asymmetric bimorph element has allowed to
decrease essentially the resonant frequency of the converter.
On Fig. 8.7a is shown symmetric bimorph element made from two piezoelements
made of piezoceramic WTC-19 with the diameter of 66 mm and thickness 3 of mm,
and on Fig. 8.7b is shown AFC of this element. For comparison on Fig. 8.7c is shown
the AFC of monomorph piezoelement Ø66 × 3 mm.
As shown on Fig. 8.7b the resonant frequency of symmetric bimorph element is
also essentially decreased.
For further decreasing of the resonant frequency for symmetric bimorph element
piezoelements should be moved relative to each other (Fig. 8.8).
On Fig. 8.9a is showed the transducer, which is made from three piezoelements
Ø66 × 3 mm and is named by similarity to the butterfly ^mahaon&, and on Fig. 8.9b
is the AFC. Low-frequency resonances have also appeared in this transducer.
8.3.2 Increase of Sound Pressure Level
As shown before, that application of bimorph and trimorph elements allows to

decrease the resonant frequency of the transducer. At the same time in some cases it
is also possible to increase a sound pressure (see Figs. 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9).
To reduce internal friction (i.e. own resistance) of piezoelement, it is necessary to
increase its diameter. However, the increase in diameter is limited by technological
possibilities of production and mechanical durability of a piezoelement, therefore to
increase the sound pressure some piezoelements of small diameter or their parts can
be used (Fig. 8.10).
According to experiments, the increase in quantity of piezoelements allows to
increase sound pressure approximately the same number of times.
However, as in this case the quantity of piezoelements is limited by the area of a
metal plate.
The quantity of piezoelements can be increased by placing additional piezoele-
ments on the underside of the metal plate (Fig. 8.11).
In essence asymmetric bimorph element in this case has turned in trimorph. It is
necessary to put an additional piezoelement on a metal plate in such a way that it
creates fluctuations in phase with fluctuations of the first piezoelement.
On Fig. 8.12 schematics of connections of piezoelements into a bimorph element
and its connection to the generator of electric fluctuations are shown. The same way
piezoelements are connected in trimorph element.
8.3 Piezoelectric Projectors of a Sound on a Basis of Bimorph and Trimorph Elements 157
(a)
(b) U,V
1,8
1,6 fp=6. 2 kHz
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8 fp=5 kHz
0,6
0,4 fp=3, 4 kHz
0,2 fp= 2, 8 kHz
2 3 4 5 6 f ,kHz
(c)
U,V
f p =40,3 kHz
0,3
0,2
0,1
0 10 20 30 40 f.,kHz
Fig. 8.6 Asymmetric bimorph element: a exterior view; b AFC of bimorph element; c AFC of
monomorph piezoelement Ø50 × 1.2 mm
(a)
(b) U, V
fr=7,2 kHz
11
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 f , kHz
(c)
P, dB
Pr=92dB
90
85
80
75
70
20 25 30 35 f, kHz
Fig. 8.7 Symmetric bimorph element made from two piezoelements Ø66 × 3 mm: a exterior view;
b AFC; c AFC of monomorph piezoelement Ø66 × 3 mm
(a)
(b)
U, V
f =5,2 kHz
3
f =6,2 kHz
2 f =4,2 kHz
f =0,5 kHz
1 f =2,5 kHz
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 f , kHz
Fig. 8.8 Symmetric bimorph element with shift of piezoelements (a) and AFC (b)
(a)
(b)
U,V
1,8 fr=4,2 kHz
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8 fr=5,7 kHz
0,6
0,4 fr=6,1 kHz
fr=0,7 kHz fr=2,7 kHz
0,2
0
0,5 1 2 3 4 5 6 f, kHz
Fig. 8.9 Transducer made from three elements (a) and AFC (b)
Fig. 8.10 Asymmetric bimorph element with several piezoelements (a) and with one piezoelement
and piezoelement parts (b)
1
3
Fig. 8.11 Trimorph element: 1, 2 piezoelements; 3 metal plate
(a) (b) +
G ~ +
_ G ~ +
ă
+_ ă+
ă
(c)
~ +
G ă
+
ă
Fig. 8.12 Schematics of connections of piezoelements in symmetric bimorph and trimorph ele-
ments to the generator
It is possible to have a couple of piezoelements on each part of a metal plate

that will increase sound pressure by 15–20 dB. The design of asymmetric trimorph
element can be rather perspective (Fig. 8.13).
Fig. 8.13 Asymmetric tri- 1

morph element: 1, 2 piezoele-
+ 2
ments; 3 metal plate ă
~ +
ă
3
To get the maximum sound pressure the neutral plane should be between piezoele-
ments.
References
1. V.M. Sharapov, Z.V. Sotula, P.A. Molchanov, V.G. Savin, Methods of synthesis of piezoelectric
transducers: a method of accidental elements. Inductance. Visnyk CHDTU, No. 1 (2011) (in
Russian)
2. V.M. Sharapov, Patent of Ukraine No. 56930. H04R 17/00. A method of creation of acoustic
vibrations with help piezoelement (2011) (in Ukrainian)
3. V.M. Sharapov, Z.V. Sotula, I.V. Chornoshiy, L.G. Kunickaya, R.V. Bazilo, Patent of Ukraine
No. 56932. H04R 17/00. Electro-acoustic transducer (2011) (in Ukrainian)
4. V.M. Sharapov, Z.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine No. 56942. H04R 17/00. Electro-acoustic trans-
ducer (2011) (in Ukrainian)
5. V. Sharapov, Piezoceramic sensors (Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2011), p. 498
6. V.M. Sharapov, M.P. Musienko, E.V. Sharapova, Piezoelectric sensors. in V.M. Sharapov (ed.)
7. V.M. Sharapov, I.G. Minaev, Z.V. Sotula, R.V. Bazilo, L.G. Kunickaya. Piezoceramic trans-
formers and sensors. (Vertical, Cherkasy, 2010), p. 278 (in Russian)
8. V.A. Rotelnikov, Radio engineering bases (Gostexizdat, Moscow 1950) (in Russian)
9. Ostrovskiy L.A. Theoretical basics of electric measuring instruments (Energiya, Leningrad,
1971), p. 544 (in Russian)
10. The physical encyclopaedia. http://www.femto.com.ua/
11. V.S. Postnikov, Internal friction in metals (Mashinistroenie, Moscow, 1975) (in Russian)
12. S.I. Pugachev (ed.), Piezoceramic transducers: the directory (Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1984),
p. 256 (in Russian)
13. I.G. Minaev, V.M. Sharapov, About influence of pressure on an internal friction of piezoceramic
WTC. News of high schools USSSR—Physics, No. 9 (1976) (in Russian)
14. E. Skuchik, Simple and difficult oscillatory systems (Mir, Moscow, 1971) (in Russian)
15. R. Holland, Representation of dielectric, elastic and piezoelectric losses by complex coeffi-
cients. IEEE Trans. Sonics Ultrason. SU-14(1), 18–20 (1967)
16. R. Holland, Measurment of piezoelectric phase angles in a ferroelectric ceramic. IEEE Trans.
Sonics Ultrason. SU-172, 123–124 (1970)
17. C.E. Land, G.W. Smith, C.R. Westagate, The dependence of small—signal parameters of
ferroelectric ceramic resonators upon state of polarization. IEEE Trans. Sonics Ultrason.
SU-11, 8–19 (1964)
18. Y.M. Poplavko, Physics of dielectrics (Higher school, Rirovograd, 1980) (in Russian)
19. V.M. Sharapov, Z.V. Sotula, I.G. Minaev, P.A. Molchanov, V.G. Savin, I.I. Morgun, Research of
an internal friction in piezoceramic elements of electro-acoustic transducers/ Visnyk CHDTU,
No. 2 (2011) (in Russian)
Chapter 9
Methods of Expansion of Pass-Band PEAT
Abstract Methods of expansion of a pass-band of transducers by means of the

connected contours, volume resonators are described in this chapter.
9.1 Decrease of Quality of Transducer
In the given work we consider a piezoelement as the electromechanical oscillatory

system, as a series-parallel oscillatory contour (Fig. 2.4a). Such equivalent chain of
a piezoelement (of the piezoelectric resonator) is also given in this chapter (Fig. 9.1).
The correctness of the given schematic has been proved by experiment [1].
Resonant frequency of a piezoelement can be defined according to the known
formula [1–4]:
1
σ0 = √ (9.1)
L d Cd
Quality
σ0 L d
Q= (9.2)
R
It is considered the resonant curve (pass-band) to be the area of frequencies
(σ2 − σ1 ), outside of which energy of the compelled fluctuations becomes less
than a half of full energy when it is a resonance, under the condition that the ampli-
tude of external influence doesn’t change. What is meant here is a square of ratio of
currents or speeds as each of these values is proportional to capacity [3, 4].
Thus, width of a resonant curve of a consecutive contour will be its width at the
height, which is defined by the relation:
2
I 1
=
I 2

164 9 Methods of Expansion of Pass-Band PEAT
Fig. 9.1 The equivalent elec- Ld Cd

tric schematic of the piezo- R
electric resonator: G generator
of electric fluctuations; L d ,
Cd dynamic inductance and
G
capacity; Cel capacity between ~ Cel
electrodes; R active losses
Fig. 9.2 AFC of consecutive

contour
S(ω0)
S(ω1,2)
Δω Δω
ω
ω1 ω0 ω2
or
1
I = √ I0 ,
2
where I0 —resonant value of a current in a contour.

According to the last equality
the width
√ of resonant curve is defined in those
points, for which sensitivity S σ1,2 is 2 times less than sensitivity S(σ0 ) at a
resonance, i.e.

S σ1,2 = √1 S(σ0 )  
2
or (9.3)
√ 
2S Π1,2 = S(Π0 ) ⎧
The resonant curve, which reflects the mentioned idea, is shown on Fig. 9.2.
To consider the oscillatory system of high quality its resonant curve√is sharp
enough. As a result frequency σ1 and σ2 , at which sensitivity decreases in 2 times,
appear rather close to resonant frequency σ0 . This circumstance allows to replace in
9.1 Decrease of Quality of Transducer 165
such cases exact equality with the confidant equality dΠ ≈ d, i.e. considering Π ≈ 1
in this case. Thus, it is
1
S(Π) ≈ ⎪ 2 (9.4)
1 − Π2 + d 2
where d = σ2Θ0 —attenuation of contour;

Θ = 2LR
—indicator of attenuation.
If to designate the ratio of current frequency σ to own (resonant) frequency σ0 as
σ
Π= , (9.5)
σ0
Value of the module of complex sensitivity can be defined as:
1
S(Π) = |S( jΠ)| = ⎨ (9.6)
(1 − Π2 )2 + (dΠ)2
To replace attenuation d with so-called degree of calm ∂, and
1 Θ R
∂= d= = (9.7)
2 σ0 2σ0 L
This equality (9.6) will become more appropriate for oscillatory systems:
1
S(Π) + ⎨ . (9.8)
(1 − Π2 )2 + (2∂Π)2
Quality of a contour can be defined also as the ratio
fr
Q= (9.9)
2κ f
From (9.9) follows, that for pass-band expansion it is necessary to reduce the
quality of a contour. To illustrate this AFC of the resonant piezoelectric transducer
with a smooth reduction of its quality are shown on Fig. 9.3. It was taken with the
camera with its shutter opened [1].
9.2 Connected Contours
To connect a piezoelement to the second contour, such system, as is known, is called

the connected oscillatory contour [3, 4].
Let’s consider a case when the contour connected to a piezoelement has the same
parameters as a piezoelement, i.e. resonant frequencies, quality and detuning of these
Fig. 9.3 AFC of resonant

piezoelectric transducer with
smooth decrease of its quality
contours are equal [4]:

σ p1 = σ p2 = σ p ;
Q 1 = Q 2 = Q;
η1 = η2 = η,
where η = rx ,
x—jet resistance;
r—active resistance of a contour.
For this case dependence of a relative current I12 /I12 from relative detuning η and
various values of the factor of coupling of contours A looks like [4]:
I12 2A
=⎨ (9.10)
I12 max (1 + A2 − η 2 )2 + 4η 2
Family of the resonant curves with connected identical contours are shown on
Fig. 9.4 [4].
From Fig. 9.4 follows, that when the connected contours are used the pass-band
can be expanded.
Circuits of transducers on the connected contours is shown on Fig. 9.5
[5–8].
There are couple of ways of schematic implementation, which are shown on
Fig. 9.5e, f. First of all electrodes on a piezoelement can be divided into parts with
the identical or different area (i.e. with identical or different capacity). According to
that inductance L 1 and L 2 can be equal to each other or can be not equal. At last,
it is possible to choose inductance L 1 and L 2 and capacities Cel1 and Cel2 in such a
way that resonant frequencies of contours are equal or differ from each other.
9.2 Connected Contours 167
I12
I12 max
Fig. 9.4 Family of the resonant curve of two connected identical contours
Schematics with three inductances (contours) (Fig. 9.5e, f) allow to receive a

pass-band of the transducer, which is even wider.
Certainly, pass-band expansion has more variants of schematics. For example, as
oscillatory contours two or three piezoelements and corresponding to them induc-
tance can be used.
To get the certain AFC condensers with capacity 0.1–0.2 of capacity between
these electrodes can be connected to the transducer with two systems of electrodes
(Fig. 9.5c) in parallel to entrance and target electrodes [9, 10]. The results of mea-
surement of AFC in a piezotransformer mode for this case are shown on Fig. 9.6.
9.3 Volume Resonators
Volume resonators can be used as the second contour for the expansion of pass-band
(and also to increase the level of sound pressure) [11–14].
Acoustic oscillatory systems are used in the form of cavities, channels, volume
resonators, Combine them, they can form complex devices, which act the same way
as resonant contours, filters etc. With their help it is possible to allocate or suppress
certain sites of a sound range of frequencies [11–14].
For experiments the electro-acoustic transducer Pω-19 produced by OJSC Âvrora&
(Volgograd) was used. Bimorph element of this transducer is made of steel 40X
(a) (b)
L
G G
PE
PE
L
(d)
L1
(c)
L1 L2
G Cel1 Cel2
G PE
Cel1 Cel2 L2
PE
(f)
L1 L3
(e)
L1 L2 L3
G C el1 C el2 C el3
G PE
C el1 C el2 C el3 L2
PE
Fig. 9.5 Circuits of transducers on the basis of the connected contours
with diameter of 23 and thickness of 0.15 mm from piezoelement Ø23 × 0.2 mm

(Fig. 9.7a). The back wall of the case of the transducer, made of polystyrene, is
removed. (Fig. 9.7b). Then on the body Pω-19 the hollow cylinder with length 37 mm
(the volume resonator), made of bronze with the thickness of 0.2 mm, is fixed.
There was a partition 4 with an aperture Ø4 mm in the cylinder (Fig. 9.7d). Position
of the partition could be changed what allows to change resonator volume. The
partition can be also removed.
9.3 Volume Resonators 169
(a) (b)
U, V U, V
0.72 2,32 2,45
2
0.6
0,707 U max 0,707 Umax
1.5
0.4
1
2,33
0.2
0.5
2,51
2,57
0.058 0,14 0,11

0.042
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 f, kHz 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 f, kHz
(c)
U, V
3 3
3
0,707 Umax
2
1
2,25
2,7
0,3 0,23
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 f, kHz
Fig. 9.6 AFC of transducer: a transducer Pω-19; b with one contour; c with two contours
Transducer has been connected to the generator of electric fluctuations τ3-106

and its AFC has been measured according to the sound pressure with the help of
RFT’s sound level meter. The microphone has been placed at a distance 3 cm from
the transducer Pω-19.
AFC has been measured for following cases:
1 AFC Pω-19.
2 AFC Pω-19 with the open acoustic resonator.
3 AFC Pω-19 with acoustic resonator with volume of 8 cm3 .
4 AFC Pω-19 with acoustic resonator with volume of 16 cm3 .
Results of measurements are shown on Fig. 9.8.
As shown on the Fig. 9.8, the connection of the acoustic resonator has allowed to
increase the level of sound pressure by 20–30 dB and to expand a strip of working
frequencies.
Further on an input of the converter by means of additional inductance 145 mH
and interelectrode capacity of a piezoelement the oscillatory contour with resonant
frequency 2.5 kHz was created (Fig. 9.9).
UG = 1V
Fig. 9.7 Pω-19: a view from the side of a piezoelement; b back view (the back wall is removed);
c Pω-19 with the acoustic resonator; d design of transducer: 1 piezoelement; 2 metal plate; 3
cylinder; 4 partition
Results of measurements of AFC are shown on Fig. 9.10.

Introduction of inductance has raised even more target sound capacity and to
expand a strip of frequencies of the electro-acoustic transducer (Fig. 9.10).
Results of measurements AFC when L add = 200 mH (fr = 2 kHz) are shown on
Fig. 9.11.
As well as in the previous case, level of sound pressure and width of a strip of
frequencies have increased.
9.3 Volume Resonators 171
Fig. 9.8 AFC of transducer: P, dB

1 AFC Pω-19 (Fig. 9.7b); 2
AFC with the open acoustic
resonator (Fig. 9.7c); 3 AFC
with the acoustic resonator
with volume of 8 cm3 ; 4 AFC
with the acoustic resonator
with volume of 16 cm3
f, kHz
Fig. 9.9 The electro-acoustic

piezoelectric transducer on a
UG=1V
basis of Pω-19, with addi-
tional inductance: 1 piezoele-
ment; 2 metal plate
Fig. 9.10 AFC of trans- P, dB

ducer with input voltage
of 1 V, L = 145 mH: 1
AFC Pω-19 without a back
wall (Fig. 9.8b); 2 AFC with
the open acoustic resonator
(Fig. 9.8c); 3 AFC with the
acoustic resonator with vol-
ume of 8 cm3 ; 4 AFC with
the acoustic resonator with
volume of 16 cm3
f, kHz
Fig. 9.11 AFC of trans- P, dB

ducer with input voltage
1 V, L = 200 mH: 1 AXX
Pω-19 without a back wall
(Fig. 9.8b); 2 AFC with
the open acoustic resonator
(Fig. 9.8c); 3 AFC with the
acoustic resonator with vol-
ume of 8 cm3 ; 4 AFC with
the acoustic resonator with
volume of 16 cm3
f, kHz
References
2. A.P. Evtyutov, A.E. Rolesnikov, E.A. Rorepin et al., Hydroacoustics Handbook (Sudostroenie,
3. L.A. Ostrovskiy, Theoretical Basics of Electric Measuring Instruments (Energiya, Leningrad,
1971), p. 544 (in Russian)
4. V.A. Rotelnikov, Bases of the Radioengineering (Gostehizdat, Moscow, 1950) (in Russian)
5. V.M. Sharapov, Patent of Ukraine 56930. H04R 17/00. A method of creation of acoustic
vibrations with help piezoelement, 2011 (in Ukrainian)
6. V.M. Sharapov, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 56942. H04R 17/00. Electro-acoustic trans-
ducer, 2011 (in Ukrainian)
7. V.M. Sharapov, Zh.V. Sotula, I.V. Chornoshiy, L.G. Kunickaya, E.V. Bazilo, Patent of Ukraine
56932. H04R 17/00. Electro-acoustic transducer, 2011 (in Ukrainian)
8. V.M. Sharapov, V.G. Savin, P.A. Molchanov, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 60924 H04R
17/00. A method of creation of acoustic vibrations, 2011 (in Ukrainian)
9. V.M. Sharapov, Patent of Ukraine 59478. H04R 17/00. Electro-acoustic transducer, 2011 (in
Ukrainian)
10. V.M. Sharapov, K.V. Bazilo, Zh.V. Sotula, Expansion of a pass-band of piezoelectric trans-
formers, vol. 2 (Visnyk CHDTU, Cherkasy, 2011)
11. I.G. Dreyzen, Electroacoustics and Sound Announcement (Svyazizdat., Moscow, 1961), p. 548
12. V.V. Furduev, Electroacoustics (The state publishing house of the tehniko-theoretical literature,
Moscow, 1948), p. 515
13. http://www.bluesmobil.com
14. A.V. Rimskiy-Rorsakov, Electroacoustics (Sviaz, Moscow, 1973), p. 292
Chapter 10
Sensors with Piezoelements in Shemes
Electric Filters
Abstract Transducers with piezoelements in shemes of low-pass and high-pass

electric filters are described in this chapter, and also sensors with piezotransformers
in schemes of electric filters.
These sensors are based on the following idea: if sensors piezoelement (-s) are
switched on the electric filter scheme the sensors amplitude-frequency charcteris-
tics (AFC) will correspond to the filter AFC.
10.1 Schemes of Electric Filters
Electric filters are sufficiently studied and described in literature [1, 2].
An electric filter is a device to single out (or suppress) voltage or currents of the
intended frequency.
Depending on frequencies range and specifications demanded the following filters
[1] are known:
• passive LC-filters and the RC-filters made of resistors, inductance coils and con-
densers;
• piezoelectric, electromechanical, magnetostrictive filters, analogues to LC-filters
with small losses. Electromechanical filters can work at frequencies from several
dozen hertz to several megahertz; magnetostrictive—from several kilohertz to
several hundred kilohertz; piezoelectric—from several hertz to dozen megahertz;
• active LC-RC-filters which are usually used at ultrasonic, sound and infrasonic
frequencies.
The basic filter characteristics are the pass-band width and selectivity. There are
six types of filters, depending on the frequency band:
– low-pass filter (LPF), passing all frequencies oscillations, beginning with direct
current and finishing with certain upper boundary frequency ωu (Fig. 10.1a);
– high-pass filter (HPF), passing oscillations, starting with certain lower frequency
limit ω1 and finishing with infinitely high (Fig. 10.1b);

174 10 Sensors with Piezoelements in Shemes Electric Filters
(a) Κ(ω) (b) Κ(ω)
LPF HPF
0 ωt 0
ω ωb ω
(c) Κ(ω) (d) Κ(ω)
RF
BPF
0 0
ωb ωt ω ωb ωt ω
(e) Κ(ω) (f) Κ(ω)
CF
RCF
0 0
ω1 ω2 ω ω1 ω2 ω
Fig. 10.1 Amplitude-frequency characteristics of Filters: a low-pass filter (LPF); b high-pass filter
(HPF); c band-pass filters (BPF); d rejection filters (RF); e comb filters (CF); f rejection comb filters
(RCF)
– band-pass filters (BPF), passing frequencies oscillations higher a certain low

frequency ω1 and lower the upper frequency ωu (Fig. 10.1c);
– rejection (band-elimination) filters (RF), blocking oscillations of certain fre-
quency or frequency band from ω1 to ωu (Fig. 10.1d);
• comb filters (CF), having several pass-bands (Fig. 10.1e);
• rejection comb filters (RCF) (Fig. 10.1f).
Filters AFC, shown in Fig. 10.1, are idealized and true to some extent only for
first-order filters.
In higher-order filters AFC in pass-band can have essential non-uniformity (usu-
ally in oscillations form). Besides that, filters phase-frequency characteristics should
be considered, as their nonlinearity leads to various delay time of frequencies com-
ponents in a signal and, as a result—to the signal form distortion. [1, 2].
10.1 Schemes of Electric Filters 175
There is a particular filter for each case. This filter allows to get rid of hindrances
with minimal form and useful signal spectrum distortions most effectively. It should
be not only low or upper frequencies, band or rejection filter, it should also have an
intended AFC. However, for the majority of cases filter AFC can be chosen from
almost standard set, consisting of Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and elliptic filters
[1, 2].
Butterworth Filter. LPF filters with zero attenuation at zero frequency are
called Butterworth filters. Their attenuation increases monotonously in the pass-
band. It reaches 3 dB at threshold frequency. Then in suppression band monotonously
increases. The more sections the filter has, (i.e. the higher its order is) the steeper its
characteristics in suppression band and the lower the attenuation is in the pass-band.
Chebyshev Filter. Filters with attenuation characteristic in the pass-band of a
vibrational character with the amplitude, not exceeding 3 dB, are called Chebyshev
filters. In addition, their attenuation characteristic increases monotonously in sup-
pression band. Its curve slope is bigger than the Butterworth filter curve slope of the
same order.
Bessel Filter. It is a well-known fact about Butterworth and Chebyshev filters
that spectral components of input signal, passing through them, experience time
delay. Time delay change in the filter pass-band is called distortion. It is caused by
the signal delay. This distortion increases with the filter order and pulsations level
increase. However, there are filters, assuring constant delay for all signal spectral
components, in the pass-band.
The primary function of low-pass filters (LPF) is to pass oscillations to the
output with the minimum attenuation. The frequencies of these oscillations do not
exceed the filter intended threshold frequency (cutoff frequency) ωc . At the same
time the oscillations with higher frequencies should be essentially weakened. An ideal
frequency dependence of power transfer coefficient for LPF with cutoff frequency
ωc looks like this [1]:

1, 0 ≤ ω ≤ ωc
R P (ω) = , (10.1)
0, ω > ωc
This frequency characteristic is obviously impossible. Reduction to zero of R P (ω)

function, and consequently—of R( p) function, contradicts to known Payley-Winner
criterion. Frequency transfer coefficient of the physically realized system should not
+∞
contradict this integral: −∞ |ln|K ( jω)||
1+ω2
∂ω < ∞. Thus, a permissible approximating
function should be selected [1].
Low and high pass filters are the most interesting in the case discussed.
Low-pass Filters
L-scheme of RC-filter is often used as LP filter (Fig. 10.2a) [1, 2]. The filter consists of
a longitudinal shoulder in which condenser C1 and resistor R are serially connected.
Condenser C2 is connected to the transverse shoulder.
The frequency transfer coefficient can be determined directly from the circuit [6]:
(a) (b)
А(ω)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7 4
U IN U OUT 0.6
3
0.5
0.4
0.3
2
1
0.2
0.1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 f, kHz
Fig. 10.2 Low-pass RC-filter: a L-connection scheme; b filter AFC, curve 1—butterworth approx-
imating characteristic, curve 2—with R = 600 Ohm, curve 3— with R = 200 Ohm, curve 4—with
R = 100 Ohm
Zl Z 2 · Zl
RU ( jω) = = , (10.2)
(A11 · Z l + A12 ) Z 1 · Z 2 + (Z 1 + Z 2) · Z l
where A11 —quadripole voltage transformation coefficient in idle mode

A11 = 1 + ZZ 21 ;
Z1—complex resistance of quadripole longitudinal shoulder
1
Z1 = R + ;
j · ω · C1
Z2—complex resistance of quadripole transverse shoulder
1
Z2 = ;
j · ω · C2
A12 —quadripole coefficient A12 = Z 1;

Z l —load resistance (of matching voltage amplifier)
Then normalized transfer function of the filter will looks like:
Z Y · C1 · P · ωc
R(P) = , (10.3)
Z Y · C1 · P · ωc + Z Y · P 2 · ωc2 · C2 · C1 · R + Z Y · C2 · P · ωc + Z Y · C1 · P · ωc · R + 1
where P—normalized complex variable: P = ωpc = ωjωc ;

ωc —circular frequency of quasi-resonance;
p = jω + σ —complex frequency.
The transfer function (operational transfer coefficient)
(b)
A(ω)
1
(a)
0.9
0.8
4
0.7
UIN 0.6
UOUT 3
0.5
0.4
1
0.3
2
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 f, kHz
Fig. 10.3 RC- Low-pass filter: a T—connection scheme; filter AFC: b curve 1—approximating
Butterworth characteristic, curve 2—with R = 600 Ohm, curve 3—with R = 200; curve 4—with
R = 100 Ohm
p
a0 + a1 · ωc
K ( p) = , (10.4)
p p2
b0 + b1 · ωc + b2 · ωc2
where a0 , b0 , b1 ; b2 —polynomial coefficients of transfer function;
a0 = 0; a1 = Z l · ωc · C1; b0 = 1; b1 = Z l · ωc · (C1 + C2) + R · ωc · C1;

b2 = Z l · ωc2 · C2 · C1 · R.
The module of frequency transfer function determines the filter AFC A(ω) =
R( jω).
The result of computer simulated AFC filter with L-connection scheme, made in
MathCAD 2001 software, is presented in Fig. 10.12b [3–5].
As it is seen from Fig. 10.2b LPF amplitude-frequency characteristic depends on
the longitudinal shoulder of L-scheme. AFC filter nonlinearity decreases and the
work band increases if the resistance is changed. For a filter with R = 600 Ohm
resistance, the pass-band is 20 kHz, and for the filter with R = 100 Ohm, the pass-
band is 120 kHz (level 0,7).
The elementary scheme of T-shaped RC-filter (Fig. 10.3a) [1, 2] is also used in
filtration schemes.
The scheme consists of longitudinal and transverse shoulders. Serially connected
resistors R1 and R2 are switched to the longitudinal shoulder, while condenser C—to
the transverse shoulder. Frequency coefficient of voltage transfer for the filter looks
like this [1, 2]:
ZY ZY
RU ( jω) = = . (10.5)
(A11 · Z Y + A12 ) Z Y · (1 + j · R1 · ω · C) + R1 + R2 + j · R1 · R2 · ω · C
(a) (b)
PE2 Κ(ω)
C
R UOUT
FTF
0
ωl ω
Fig. 10.4 High-pass RC Filters: a electric scheme; b filter AFC
Normalized transfer function of the filter looks like:
ZY a0
RU (P) = = , (10.6)
Z Y · (1 + R1 · ωc · P · C) + R1 + R2 + R1 · R2 · ωc · P · C b0 + b1 · P
where a0 , b0 , b1 —polynomial coefficients of quadripole,

a0 = Z l ; b0 = Z l + R1 + R2; b1 = Z l · R1 · ωc · C + R1 · ωc · C · R2.
The result of computer simulated AFC filter with T-connection scheme, made in
MathCAD 2001 software, is presented in Fig. 10.3b.
As it is seen from Fig. 10.3b LPF amplitude-frequency characteristic depends on
longitudinal shoulders resistance of the T-shaped scheme. The filter AFC nonlinearity
can be decreased and the work band can be increased if the resistance is changed.
As for the filter with R1 = R2 = Ohm 300 resistances the pass-band is 20 kHz, and
if R1 = R2 = 50 Ohm the pass-band is 120 kHz.
High-pass Filters
A high-pass filter is intended oscillations passing with small attenuation. The fre-
quencies of these oscillations do not exceed the cutoff frequency ωc [1, 2].
As it is known [1, 2] the elementary passive high-pass filter is a differentiating
RC section (Fig. 10.4).
Selectivity of single pole RC-filter is low and is 6 dB an octave. Use of multi-
section (divided by the followers) filters, as in the case with low-pass filters, allows
selectivity increase.
T-shaped (a) and U-type (b) HPF sections are shown in Fig. 10.5a.
A circuit, consisting of two parallel connected T-shaped sections [2] (Fig. 10.6a),
is considered below.
There are a capacitance element and a resistor in longitudinal shoulders of the
section. The connection point of these elements through resistor R3 is attached to
the scheme common wire.
(a) (b)
C C
UIN R1 R2 UOUT
R UOUT UIN
Fig. 10.5 Passive RC-filters: a T-shaped connection scheme; b U-type connection scheme
(a) (b)
С1
R1 А(ω)
1
0.9
0.8
U1 0.7
R3
0.6
0.5
UIN UOUT 0.4
С2
R2 0.3
0.2
0.1
U2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 f, kHz
R4
Fig. 10.6 High-pass Filter: a double T- shaped scheme; b filter AFC
The transfer function or operational transfer coefficient for this scheme [1, 2]:
p2
U OU T ( p) a2 · ωc2
+ a1 · p + a0
R( p) = = , (10.7)
U I N ( p) b2 · p2
+ b1 · p + b0
ωc2
where a0 , a1 , a2 , b0 , b1 , b2 —polynomial coefficients of quadripole,
a0 = 0; a1 = ωc · (R4 · C2(R3 + R1) + R3 · C1 · (R2 + R4);

a2 = ωc2 · (C2 · R4 · C1 · R3 · (R1 + R2));
b0 = R1 + R3 + R4 + R2;
b1 = ωc · (C2 · R4 · (R3 + R1 + +R2) + C1 · R3 · (R1 + R4 + R2));
b2 = a2 .
(a) (b)
F
PE1 R1 R2
R
F UOUT
PE2 UOUT PE2
PE1
Fig. 10.7 Sensors of mechanical values with piezoelements in LPF Scheme
The results of computer simulated AFC high-pass filter, made in MicroCap 9.6.1
software, are presented in Fig. 10.6b [6–8].
10.2 Sensors with Piezoelements in Low-Pass Filters Schemes
Two variants of sensor with piezoelements in LPF scheme are shown in Fig. 10.7
[3–5].
In this case force F influences a piezoelement (PE1). The second piezoelement is
used as a condenser.
A sensor, based on a bimorph element, was used in the research. The sensor
consists of a semi-solid brass Ø36 metal plate 0.3 mm thick and a piezoceramic
WTC-19 piezoelement 30 mm in diameter and 0.8 mm thick. The basic resonant
frequency of the transducer flexural vibrations is 3.5 kHz.
The results of a computer simulated sensor, shown in Figs. 10.5 and 10.7, made
in MicroCap 9.6.1, are represented in Fig. 10.8
(b)
(a)
R1=100 Om
R2=1K
R3=1K R1=300 Om
C1=5n
C2=5n R1=500 Om
C2-5=5n
L1=0.5H
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.8 Equivalent Scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.8a): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with the
resistance change R1 with R3 = 1 K, C1 = 5 n, C2 = 5n, C2-5 = 5 n L1 = 0.5 H
10.2 Sensors with Piezoelements in Low-Pass Filters Schemes 181
As it is seen from Fig. 10.8, the sensor AFC depends on the resistance value of
resistor R. There is a “dip” of AFC at the frequency of 3.5 kHz. This frequency
corresponds to the resonant frequency of the bimorph element.
Similar results are received for this sensor (Fig. 10.7b).
10.3 Sensors with Piezoelements in High-Pass Filters Schemes
Two schemes of sensors with piezoelements in HPF scheme are shown in Fig. 10.9
[6–8].
Force F influences only one piezoelement (PE1) in the sensor (Fig. 10.9a). In the
second case (Fig. 10.9b) the force influences both piezoelements.
The computer simulation results of sensor, shown in Fig. 10.9a, are represented
in Fig. 10.10.
As it is seen from the simulation results, the sensor AFC depends on the resistance
R3 value. Similar results are received for the sensor (Fig. 10.9b).
10.4 Sensors with Piezotransformers in Electric Filters Schemes
The disadvantage of the sensors, discussed in Sect. 10.2 and 10.3 sensors, is the
necessity to use two piezoelements or a piezoelement and the condenser in certain
schemes.
(a) (b)
PE1
R1
PE1 PE2
F
F
R3
R3 UOUT F
UOUT
PE2
R2
R4
Fig. 10.9 Sensors of mechanical values with piezoelements in HPF scheme

(b)
(a)
R1=20 M Om
R2=1kOm
C2-
R1=12M Om 3=500pF
R1=2 M Om C4-5=5nF
L1=0.5H
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.10 Equivalent scheme and Sensor AFC (Fig. 10.9a): a equivalent scheme, b amplitude-
frequency responses with resistance R1 Change with R2 = 1 kOm, C2−5 = 500 pF, C4 − 5 = 5 n,
L1 = 0.5 H
To eliminate this disadvantage it is offered to use piezotransformers, i.e. piezoele-

ments with two systems of electrodes in the sensors schemes.
In addition, it is offered to position electrodes for the electric field vector between
them to be at the angle α to the polarization vector (0 < α ≤ 90◦ ) for one or two
systems of electrodes. As a result, voltage on these electrodes is received. It exceeds
the traditional case voltage when α = 0 [9–11] (see also Chap. 3).
The relevant sensors schemes are shown in Fig. 10.11 [12–15].
The mechanical values sensor (Fig. 10.11a) consists of piezoelement 1 with two
systems of electrodes 2, 3 and 4, 5 and resistors R1 and R2. The resistors are connected
to piezoelement electrodes and the sensor output. The electrode 5 is connected to
the general wire of the scheme. Electrodes 2, 3, 4 and 5 are of the identical area.
An identical electric charge appears on them under identical mechanical action.
Meanwhile, capacitance C2-5 between electrodes 2 and 5 is considerably smaller than
capacities C4-5 between electrodes 4 and 5. It is evidently connected with the distance
between electrodes increase and, probably, with the change of dielectric permeability
in piezoelectric material. Capacitance is measured at the angle α(0 < α ≤ 90◦ ) to
the polarization vector P [9–11]. Therefore, voltage on electrode 2 is higher, than on
electrode 4. This creates favorable conditions for the sensor and filter work.
WTC-19 piezoceramics piezoelement (30 mm in diameter and 0.8 mm thick) and
brass R63 metal plate (36 mm in diameter and 0.3 mm thick) were used in the exper-
iment.
Computer simulation of piezoceramic sensors was done with MicroCAP. The
sensor AFC can be forecast in this program.
The equivalent scheme and AFC of the sensor, based on the scheme (Fig. 10.11),
are shown in Fig. 10.12.
In the equivalent scheme (10.12a) the parameters of the consecutive contour L1,
C2, R3 correspond to the bimorph piezoelement parameters: capacitance C1 inter-
electrode capacitance C4-5 . Electrode 2 voltage is represented by generator V1.
10.4 Sensors with Piezotransformers in Electric Filters Schemes 183
(a) (b)
R1 R1 R1 R2
2 F 4 4 6
F
1 1
3 5 3 5 7
(c) R1 (d) R1 R2
2 F 4 6 2 4 6
F
1
1
3 5 7 3 5 7
Fig. 10.11 Sensors with Piezotransformers in LPF Schemes
As it is seen from Fig. 10.12, there is a “dip” in AFC at the frequency of ∼3.5 kHz.
It corresponds to the resonant frequency of the bimorph piezoelement. The depth of
this “dip” depends on the bimorph element Q factor, i.e. resistance R3 value.
Besides that, AFC linearity and the work band width depend on resistance R1.
The sensor (Fig. 10.11b) differs from the sensor (Fig. 10.11a): an additional R2—
C6-7 circuit is introduced. As a result, an additional integration of the input signal,
created on electrode 2, becomes possible.
The equivalent scheme and the sensor AFCs, designed by the scheme (Fig. 10.11b)
are shown in Fig. 10.13.
As it is seen from Fig. 10.13, the sensor has more linear frequency characteristic
in this case.
The sensor’s scheme (Fig. 10.11c) differs from the scheme (Fig. 10.11a): elec-
trodes 2, 5, 6 from electrodes systems 2–3, 4–5, 6–7 are used in this case. Electrode
5 is connected to the common wire of the scheme. Electrode 2 area S2 is smaller than
electrode 5 area S5 . Electrode 6 area S6 equals area S5 , i.e. S2 < S5 and S5 = S6 .
This leads to the increase of interelectrode capacities C2-5 < C5-6 , and consequently,
voltage on electrode 2 appears to be bigger than on electrode 6. It is experimentally
proved that resonant frequency of the bimorph sensor increases too.
The equivalent scheme and AFC of the sensor, created by the scheme, shown in
Fig. 10.11c, are represented in Fig. 10.14.
(a) (b)
R1=100 Ohm
R2=1kOhm
R3=1kOhm R1=300 Ohm
C1=5nF
C2=5nF R1=500 Ohm
C2-5=5nF
L1=0.5H
(c) F(kHz)
R1=100 Ohm
R2=1kOhm
R3=10kOhm R1=300 Ohm
C1=5nF
R1=500 Ohm
C2=5nF
C2-5=5nF
L1=0.5H
F(kHz)
(d)
R1=100 Ohm
R2=1kOhm
R3=1kOhm
C1=10nF
R1=300 Ohm
C2=5nF R1=500 Ohm
C2-5=5nF
L1=0.5H
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.12 Equivalent scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.11a): a equivalent scheme, b AFC
with resistance R1 change with R3 = 1 K, C1 = 5 n, C2 = 5 n, C2-5 = 5 n L1 = 0.5 H,
c AFC with resistance R1 change with R2 = 10 K, C1 = 5 n, C2 = 5 n, C2-5 = 5 n L1 = 0.5 H,
d AFC with resistance R1 change with R3 = 1 K, C1 = 10 n, C2 = 5 n, C2-5 = 5 n L1 = 0.5 H
The equivalent scheme and AFR of the sensor, produced by the scheme in
Fig. 10.11d, are shown in Fig. 10.15.
Some sensors with piezotransformers in high frequency filters schemes are shown
in Fig. 10.16 [16–19].
The sensor (Fig. 10.16a) consists of piezoelement 1 with two systems of electrodes
2, 3 and 4, 5 and resistor R1. Electrode 4 is connected to the sensor output. Electrode
5 is connected through resistor R1 to electrode 2 and to the scheme common wire.
Electrodes 2, 3, 4 and 5 are of identical area. Therefore, an identical electric charge
is formed on them under identical mechanical influence. Meanwhile, capacitance
C2-5 between electrodes 2 and 5 is much smaller than capacities C4-5 between
electrodes 4 and 5. It is obviously connected with the distance increase between the
(b)
(a)
R2=20 Ohm
R1=10 Ohm
R3=1kOhm R2=120 Ohm
C1=5nF
C2=5nF
R2=200ohm
C2-5=5nF
C6-7=5nF
L1=0,5H
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.13 Equivalent scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.11b): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with
resistance R2 change with R1 = 100 Om, C1 = 5 n, C2 = 5 n, C2-5 = 5 n, C6-7 = 5 n, L1 = 0.5 H
(b)
(a) R1=150 Ohm
R1=280 Ohm
C2-3=500pF
C6-7=2nF R1=400 Ohm
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.14 Equivalent scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.11c): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with
resistance R1 change with C2-3 = 500 p, C6-7 = 2 n
(b)
(a)
R2=100 Ohm
R1=100Om
C2-3=500pF
C4-5=5nF R2=5 kOhm
C6-7=500рF
R2=10 kOhm
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.15 Equivalent scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.11d): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with
resistance R2 change with R1 = 100 Om, C2-3 = 500 pF, C4-5 = 5 nF, C6-7 = 500 pF
electrodes and, probably, dielectric permeability change in piezoelectric material.

The capacitance is measured at the angle of α(0 < α ≤ 90◦ ) to the polarization
vector P [9–11]. Piezoceramic WTC-19 piezoelement (30 mm in diameter and 0.8
mm thick) and brass K63 metal plate (36 mm in diameter and 0.3 mm thick) were
used in the experiment.
(a) (b)
F
2 4 2 6
F 4
1 1
3 5 3 5 7
R1
R1
(c) (d)
6
4 R3 7 R3
5 4
F R1 R1
5
F
2 R4
R4
2
3
3
1
R2 1
R2
Fig. 10.16 Sensors with piezotransformers in HPF schemes
The sensors computer simulation was done in MicroCAP.

The equivalent scheme and AFC of the sensor, made by the scheme, shown in
Fig. 10.16a, are represented in Fig. 10.17.
As it is seen from Fig. 10.17, the sensor has linear AFC and the working bank
width depends on resistance R1.
The sensor (Fig. 10.16b) differs from the sensor (Fig. 10.16a): the sensor has three
systems of electrodes 2–3, 4–5, 6–7. Electrode 5 is connected to resistor R1, electrode
2—to the common wire, electrode 6—to the sensor output.
The equivalent scheme and AFC of the sensor, constructed by the scheme, shown
in Fig. 10.16b, are represented in Fig. 10.18.
As it is seen from Fig. 10.18, the sensor has more linear frequency characteristic
with smaller R1values in this case.
(a) (b)
R1=20 MOhm
R2=1kOhm
C2-3=500pF
R1=12MOhm C4-5=5n F
R1=2 MOhm
L1=0.5H
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.17 Equivalent scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.16a): a equivalent scheme, b AFC of
resistance R1 change with R2 = 1 kOm, C2-5 = 500 pF, C4-5 = 5 nF, L1 = 0.5 H
(b)
(a)
R1=20 MOhm
R2=1kOhm
C2-3=500pF
R1=10,8MOhm R1=0,8 MOhm C4-3=500pF
L1=0,5H
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.18 Equivalent scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.16b): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with
resistance R1 change with R1 = 1 kOm, C2-3 = 500 pF, C4-3 = 500 pF, L1 = 0.5 H
The sensor scheme (Fig. 10.16c) differs from the scheme (Fig. 10.16a): two pairs
of electrode systems 2–3, 4–5 and four resistors in this case are used. Electrodes
2 and 4 are connected to the common wire. Electrode 3 is connected to resistors
R2 and R4. R2 is connected to the common wire. The second resistor R4 output
is connected to the sensor output. Electrode 5 is connected to resistors R1 and R3.
The second resistor output R1 is connected to the common wire. The second resistor
R3 output—to the sensor output. The equivalent scheme and amplitude-frequency
responses of the sensor, constructed by the scheme, shown in Fig. 10.16c, are shown
in Fig. 10.19.
As it is seen from Fig. 10.19, the operating band of this sensor extends essentially.
The equivalent scheme and AFC of the sensor, based on the scheme, shown in
Fig. 10.16d, are represented in Fig. 10.20.
As it is seen from Figs. 10.17, 10.18, 10.19, 10.20, working bank is expanded 10–
15 and more times if the corresponding resistance and piezoelement capacitances
are selected.
Sensors with piezotransformers in the electric filters schemes are developed and
studied. Creation of integrating and differentiating circuits in the piezotransformer
scheme allowed the sensor operating band expansion. Then AFC remains linear in
(a) (b)
R1=1M Ohm
R1=11 MOhm
R2=15MOhm
C4-5=5nF
R1=20 MOhm C2-3=5n
L1=0.5H
L2=0.5H
R3= R4=1kOhm
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.19 Equivalent Scheme and sensor AFC (Fig. 10.16c): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with
resistance R1 change with C2-3 = 5 nF, C4-5 = 5 nF, R2 = 15 mOhm, R3 = R4 = 1 K, L1 =
L2 = 0.5 H
(a) (b)
R1=10MOm R2=10MOm
C2-4=500pF
R1=6MOm
C2-3=500pF
R3= R4=1kOm
R1=1 MOm
F(kHz)
Fig. 10.20 Equivalent Scheme and Sensor AFC (Fig. 10.16d): a equivalent scheme, b AFC with
resistance R1 change with R2 = 10 MOhm, C2-3 = 500 pF, C2-4 = 500 pF, R3 = R4 = 1 kOm
the wide range of frequencies. Computer models to predict AFC of sensors with
piezotransformers in electric high pass filters schemes are created.
References
1. U. Titse, R. Shenk, Semi-Conductor Circuitry (Mir, Moscow, 1983) (in Russian)

2. M. Raufman, A.G. Sidman, in Handbook on schemes calculations in electronics, directory/
ed. by F.N. Pokrovskiy (M.: Energoatomizdat, 1991) p. 368 (in Russian)
3. V.M. Sharapov et al., Piezoelectric transducers of mechanical values with a piezoelement in
the scheme of a low-pass filter // Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological University - 2005.
No 1. - P.86-89. (in Russian).
4. V.M. Sharapov, M.P. Musienko, R.V. Trembovetskaya, Piezoelectric transducers of mechanical
values. Patent of Ukraine No 8606. Publication 15.08.2005. (in Ukrainian)
5. V.M. Sharapov, R.V. Trembovetskaya, Piezoelectric transducers of mechanical values. Patent
of Ukraine No 8609. Publication 15.08.2005. (in Ukrainian)
References 189
6. V.M. Sharapov, R.V. Trembovetskaya, Piezoelectric Transducers of Mechanical Values with a

Piezoelement in the Scheme of the High-Pass Filter. Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological
University, 12, pp. 32–35 (2005) (in Russian)
7. V.M. Sharapov, R.V. Trembovetskaya, Piezoelectric transducers of mechanical values. Patent
of Ukraine No 8613, (2005) (in Ukrainian)
8. V.M. Sharapov, R.V. Trembovetskaya, M.P. Musienko, Piezoelectric transducers of mechanical
vales. Patent of Ukraine No 8604, (2005) (in Ukrainian)
(Technosphera, Moscow, 2006) p. 632 (in Russian)
10. V. Sharapov, Vladisauskas, Bazilo K., Kunitskaya L., Sotula Zh. Methods of synthesis of
piezoceramic transducers: spatial energy force structure of piezoelement. ISSN 1392–2114,
Ultragarsas (Ultrasound). Kaunas. Technologia. 4(64), 44–50 (2009)
11. V. Sharapov, R. Kazys, A. Vladisauskas, L. Kunitskaya, Zh. Sotula, V. Ouz, K. Bazilo, Trans-
ducers with piezoelements in schemes of electric filters. ISSN 1392–2114, Ultragarsas (Ultra-
sound). Kaunas. Technologia. 1(65), 25–32 (2010)
12. V.M. Sharapov et al., Piezoelectric transducers of mechanical values. Patent of Ukraine No
U2010.00638 from 22.01.2010. (in Ukrainian)
Chapter 11
Devices to Control and Diagnose
Bimorph Piezoelements
Abstract Devices to control and diagnose of defects bimorph piezoelements by

amplitude frequency characteristic, by pulse characteristic and by transitive char-
acteristic, and also devices based on active oscillator circuit are described in this
chapter.
11.1 Defects of Bimorph Piezoelements
First of all certain terms should be specified in this chapter.

Control as a noun is translated from French as “supervision”, “observation to
check”; “check of anything” [1]. At the same time in technical literature, written
in English, “control” as a noun is used in the following meanings: control, check,
management, regulation and measurement [2].
Determination and study of signs, showing defects in machines, devices, their
nodes, elements etc.; development of methods and sensors for localization of defects
is called diagnostics (technological) [2].
Defect (from Latin)—defect, drawback, malfunction [3].
Thus, parameters and characteristics of bimorph piezoelements can be controlled
to detect defects, if any.
Results of bimorph piezoelements (BPE) serial production show that the following
manufacturing defects are possible [4, 5]:
1. No electric contact between the metal plate and the piezoelement electrode or in
the circuit, going from the piezoelement to the amplifier.
2. Short circuit between piezoelement electrodes. It occurs at the expense of various
metal conductors on the piezoelement external surface, and if the piezoelement
is broken down when polarized.
3. No piezoeffect in the piezoelement material.
4. Insufficient mechanical durability of piezoelement and metal membrane glued
connection.

192 11 Devices to Control and Diagnose Bimorph Piezoelements
Defects 1–3 reduce the transducer sensitivity practically to zero. However, “zero”
sensitivity also occurs if the preamplifier is not functioning or if there are errors in
its assembly: short circuit between the signal wire and the screen of the sensor cable,
false connection of the piezoelement to the general wire of the amplifier.
Change of bimorph piezoelement dynamic characteristics (AFC, pulse and tran-
sitive characteristics) is offered to use to detect defects.
Besides that, connection of the monomorph piezoelement with the metal plate or
other piezoelement causes flexural vibrations. Therefore, the level of these vibrations
can point out a defect if any.
The devices, used in bimorph piezoelements diagnostics and control, are consid-
ered below. They are grouped by the types of the controlled dynamic characteristic.
11.2 Defects Diagnostics by AFC
It was offered to activate flexural vibrations in bimorph piezoelements to control

them. In this case the amplitude of these vibrations at resonant frequency (other
conditions are equal) is proportional to durability of the piezoelement and the metal
membrane (or two piezoelements) connection in the bimorph element [6, 7].
The reservation of “other conditions are equal” narrows the application sphere of
this method to some extent. In fact, the amplitude of these vibrations should depend
on [5, 8] a number of piezoelement and metal plate characteristics. Therefore, these
characteristics should be known to receive quantitative information on the glued
connection durability. It is hard and time-consuming to get these data.
However, “yes/no” or “meets/doesn’t meet the requirements” information is often
enough for serial production.
Evaluation criteria can be developed if “improper” connection or any other BPE
defect is clearly simulated on a quite demonstrative statistical material.
As is known [9, 10], gluing quality and their efficiency can be determined by both
destructive and non-destructive methods of control.
Depending on the deformation type, there are several destructive method modifi-
cations to determine durability:
• at displacement;
• at separation;
• at torsion;
• at compression;
• at inflexion.
However, all these methods are not only considerably complicated and insuffi-
ciently exact, but also destructive, as their name suggests.
Acoustic, radiating, optical, electromagnetic methods can be named among non-
destructive methods of control. The device tested is exposed to electro-magnetic
(sound) vibrations. Radiation intensities on proper and improper device sites are
compared [11].
11.2 Defects Diagnostics by AFC 193
Acoustic (ultrasonic) methods are the most wide spread [3, 4, 12]. These methods
for layer-built constructions can be divided into two groups:
• special low-frequency acoustic methods, realized by dry dot contact between the
transducer of the device finding head and the product;
• ultrasonic methods, usually realized by contact liquid to create acoustic contact
between the device head and the product.
These methods belong to the first group: impedance, velocimetric (unilateral and
bilateral variants of the phase method, using a pulse meaning; time and phase ways
with use of pulse value), free vibrations (spectral method) and vibration-tomographic
methods.
Shadow (amplitude and time) and resonant methods belong to the second group.
Application of these methods is comparatively complicated. Besides that, the
transducer has to contact with a glued sample to activate vibrations. As a result,
prepressure force, elastic characteristics of transducer and sample contact, ultrasonic
losses in contact, etc. affect the characteristic measurement. These factors decrease
the accuracy of the results received.
The characteristics measured are determined by bimorph piezoelement proper-
ties in the ultrasonic method offered [1]. These characteristics are connected with
durability of glued joint [5–7].
The method is based on the idea that there are no flexural vibrations if the piezoele-
ment and the metal plate are not mechanically connected. The amplitude of these
vibrations depends on the connection durability [13].
The variants of this method realization are shown in Figs. 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3.
Monitoring circuits of symmetric and asymmetric bimorph elements are shown
in Figs. 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3, accordingly [14–16].
Generator 1 is connected to a symmetric bimorph piezoelement, and millivolt-
meter 2—to the other, in the variant, shown in Fig. 11.1. Bimorph AFC Is measured.
Bimorph AFC is shown in Fig. 11.4.
This experiment is demonstrative for this system. Firstly, bimorph piezoelements
contact with each other. Electric contact occurs as a result of the light pressure (0.2–
0.5 N) (“dry” contact). AFC is measured (Fig. 11.4a) [17–22].
3
1 3
1 2
4
4
2
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.1 Monitoring circuit of symmetric bimorph piezoelements a with middle output; b with
additional electrodes: 1 generator, 2 millivoltmeter, 3,4 piezoelements
1 2 1 2
4
3
4
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.2 Monitoring circuit of asymmetric bimorph piezoelements a with one additional electrode;
b with two additional electrodes: 1 generator, 2 millivoltmeter, 3 piezoelement, 4 metal plate
Then bimorph piezoelements are glued by 88H (Russian name). It is the glue,
based on dissolved rubber, assuring electric contact between the piezoelements. Then
AFC of this system is measured (Fig. 11.4b).
After that the glue is removed by an organic solvent (nonane or xylene, for
example). Then piezoelements are glued by incompletely hardening epoxy com-
pound. For example, 100 weight parts of "L-20 resin and 5 weight parts of poly-
ethylenepolyamine. AFC is measured (Fig. 11.4c). After that epoxy compound
is removed by the solvent again. Piezoelements are connected by Rose’s alloy
(Fig. 11.4d).
The analysis of characteristics shows, the higher the piezoelements connection
durability in bimorph, the higher the amplitude of resonant vibrations.
In the variant, shown in Fig. 11.1, a piezoelement electrode is split into two parts.
Generator 1 is connected to one of them, while millivoltmeter 2—to the other. Flex-
ural vibrations are also activated in this case. Their amplitude is proportional to the
piezoelements durability in the bimorph if other conditions are equal.
Midpoint extraction (junction points of piezoelements, shown in Fig. 11.1a) or
division of electrodes (Fig. 11.1b) are considered the disadvantages of these variants.
This is hardly acceptable in serial production.
Electrodes should be also divided in asymmetric bimorph variants (Fig. 11.2).
The device, shown in Fig. 11.3, does not have the drawbacks mentioned [6]. Addi-
tional piezoelement (piezotransformer) 5 is used to activate flexural vibrations in it.
Fig. 11.3 Device monitoring

of bimorph piezoelements 6
1 generator, 2 millivoltmeter, 3
3 piezoelement, 4 metal plate,
1 2
5 piezoelement with three
electrodes; 6 contact device
5 4
Fig. 11.4 AFC of symmetric bimorph a “dry” contact; b glue 88H, c not hardened epoxy compound;
d Rose’s alloy
Flexural vibrations can’t be recorded if AFC is measured, according to the res-

onators circuit known (Fig. 11.5).
Durability of glued connection, and the characteristics, mentioned below can be
determined by this device:
5
4
1 2 3 RH 6
Fig. 11.5 Resonators AFC measuring circuit 1 generator; 2 frequency meter, 3 millivoltmeter; 4
resonator; 5 load resistance; 6 millivoltmeter
1 2 1 2
Z3-4
3 4 6
5 Z3-5 Z4-5
RIS
RIS
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.6 Equivalent circuits of device (Fig. 11.3), if there is no contact between piezoelement and
metal plate
(a) no electric contact between the piezoelement and the metal plate (or between
two piezoelements);
(b) short circuit of the piezoelement electrodes;
(c) no piezoeffect.
In the first case the piezotransformer is loaded for big resistance—insulation resis-
tance (Fig. 11.6a). Then the generator voltage will be distributed between the piezodi-
electric resistance and electrodes 3–5, 3–4, 4–5 and R I N S , i.e. Z 3−5 , Z 3−4 , Z 4−5 , R I S
(Fig. 11.6a). As (Z 3−5 + R I S ) ◦ Z 3−4 then almost all the voltage will be applied
to millivoltmeter and will not practically depend on frequency.
The device is simply a piezotransformer, working in below resonance area
(Fig. 11.7a), if the piezoelement circuit is short. The transformation factor approxi-
mately equals 0.05–0.1 (Fig. 11.7b) in this area. Therefore, millivoltmeter will show
voltage equal (0.05–0.1) UGEN . This voltage hardly depends on frequency in the
given frequency area.
And finally, there is no piezoeffect if flexural vibrations are not activated. The
piezoelement is a condenser (Fig. 11.8). The millivoltmeter voltage will be deter-
mined by the correlation of Z 3−5 , Z 3−4 , Z 4−5 resistances and the bimorph piezoele-
ment capacitive resistance at the given Z P frequency (Fig. 11.8). Depending on the
piezotransformer and the bimorph piezoelement dimensions (and their capacitances),
A, rel
1 2 0,8
4 0,6
3 6
0,4
5
0,2 0,05…0,1
f, kHz
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.7 Equivalent circuit (a) and AFC (b) of device in Fig. 11.3 if circuit of bimorph piezoele-
ment electrodes is short
1 2
1 2 Z3-4
3 4 6
Z3-5 Z4-5
5
CPE XPE
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.8 Equivalent diagrams of device (Fig. 11.3) if there is no piezoeffect: (a) measurement
scheme; (b) equivalent scheme of measurement: 1 - generator; 2 - millivoltmeter; 3,4,5 - electrodes;
6 - piezoelement
this voltage can be (0.3–0.6) from UGEN and practically hardly depend on frequency
either.
Thus, there is at least one of the defects mentioned if there are no resonant vibra-
tions. The voltage value, measured by a millivoltmeter, can help determine the defect
in each case.
This method is useful to study glues polymerization (i.e. hardening) dynamics,
depending on concentration of components, fillers, temperatures, etc.
Dependences of flexural vibrations amplitude when epoxy compounds are poly-
merized are shown as an example in Fig. 11.9: without any filler at 60 ≥ C (curve 1),
with 20 % aluminum oxide at 60 ≥ C (curve 2) and without any filler at higher tem-
perature (curve 3).
These results are easily interpreted when compared with the data, received by other
methods [10]. So “hump” (plateau) at the characteristic beginning is explained by
the change of epoxy compound structure, while the amplitude (durability) reduction
at the end of the characteristic—by its thermal destruction.
Compounds with fillers are polymerized slowly (curve 2).
Fig. 11.9 Dependence of

bimorph piezoelement flexural
vibrations amplitude on epoxy
compound polymerization
time (10 weight parts of
"L-20 resin and 2 σ"σA
weight parts) 1 compound
without filler, t = 60 ≥ C;
2 filler (20 %), t = 60 ≥ C;
3 compound without filler,
t = 80 ≥ C
11.3 Diagnostics of Defects by Pulse Characteristic
Pulse characteristic is the system response on Π—impulse action (see Chap. 3).
For research normalization pulse action can be considered unit, i.e. the product
of the pulse duration and its dimension equals 1. Graphs of unit pulses are shown in
Fig. 11.10
g1 tu1 = g2 tu2 = n 3 tu3 = 1,
where tu1 —sufficiently small.

Unit pulse function is the limit to which the unit pulse tends when its duration
tends to zero
≤
0 npu t ≈= 0,
Π(t) = u Π(t)dt = 1, (11.1)
≤ npu t = 0
−≤
Unit pulse function belongs to the class of the generalized functions and is a derivative
of unit step function
d1(t)
Π(t) = . (11.2)
dt
Fig. 11.10 Graphs of unit g(t)

pulses
g3
g2
g1
0 tu3 tu2 tu1 t

11.3 Diagnostics of Defects by Pulse Characteristic 199
Element or system reaction on unit pulse function is called pulse characteristic

(weight function) Θ = Θ (t). It is known that the image of element or system pulse
characteristic equals transfer function of the element or system. Pulse characteristic
(weight function) equals derivative of transitive characteristic:
dh
Θ= . (11.3)
dt
The piezoelement behavior at pulse excitation is studied.
This problem can be also solved by Duamel and Fourier integrals, operational
method or, finally, classical method by voltage differential equation.
A transitive characteristic, i.e. the response to unit function-shaped action, is
found.
In this case the voltage equation looks like this
d 2U dU
LC + RC + U = e. (11.4)
dt 2 dt
Dividing by LC and using usual notations, the following is received
d 2U dU
2
+ 2a + Θ02 U = Θ02 e. (11.5)
dt dt
Equation (11.5) is rewritten in operational form
( p 2 + 2∂p + Θ02 )U = Θ02 e, (11.6)
Hence
Ū Θ02
K ( p) = = 2 . (11.7)
ē p + 2∂p + Θ02
Transitive function is found as the original for this image, considering, that e(t) =
κ (t), a U (t) = h(t).
e(t) = κ (t), a U (t) = h(t).
Firstly, characteristic equation is
H2 ( p) = p 2 + 2∂p + Θ02 = 0.
The roots of this equation
p1 = −∂ + iΘ1 , p2 = −∂ − iΘ1 ,
where

1
Θ= Θ02 − ∂2 = Θ0 1 − d 2 .
4
As it is seen, so-called own frequency is obviously lower than the resonant fre-
quency.
We have
H1 ( p) = Θ02 , H2√ ( p) = 2( p + ∂),

H2√ ( p1 ) = 2iΘ1 , H2√ ( p2 ) = −2iΘ2 ,
H2 (0) = Θ02 .
Substituting all this in Heaviside formula, we receive
Θ02 e(−∂+iΘ1 )t Θ02 e(−∂−iΘ1 )t

L(t) = 1 + − .
2(−∂ + iΘ1 )iΘ1 2(−∂ − iΘ1 )iΘ1
Removing common factors, reducing to the common denominator and using Euler
formulas, we finally have

∂
h(t) = 1 − e−∂t sin Θ1 t + cos Θ1 t (t > 0). (11.8)
Θ1
At small attenuation ∂/Θ ∼ 1, the first member in brackets can be neglected and
then
h(t) = 1 − e−∂t cos Θ1 t (t > 0).
Pulse characteristic can be found by differentiation (7.8)
Θ02 −∂t
g(t) = e sin Θ1 t (11.9)
Θ1
Or approximately at small attenuation
g(t) = Θ0 e−∂t sin Θ0 t. (11.10)
A device to diagnose bimorphs piezoelectric elements defects, based on trans-

former circuit, is developed. A controlled bimorph piezoelectric element is parallel
connected to it (Fig. 7.11). The device is activated by rectangular-shaped pulses of
small duration [5].
A bimorph element of electro-acoustic transducer Pσ-13 was used in experiments.
Rectangular impulses (amplitude—1 V, duration—1 ms, repetition frequency—
1 kHz) were supplied to the device input (Fig. 11.11) from pulse generator η5-72
[23, 24].
Pulse characteristics are shown in Fig. 11.12. The images from the screen of
oscillograph C1-55 were taken by camera Canon Power Shot G2.
L1 L2 BPE
Fig. 11.11 Device to diagnose defects of bimorph piezoelement based on transformer
0,1V/div
0,1V/div
20 ms/div 20 ms/div
(a) (c)
0,1V/div
20 ms/div
(b)
Fig. 11.12 Pulse characteristics for device, shown in Fig. 11.11, if a BPE is qualitative; b no
polarization in piezoelement; c no electric contact in piezoelement circuit
As it is seen from Fig. 11.12, the defect of a bimorph piezoelement (BPE) can be
determined by the pulse characteristic view [25].
A device, based on oscillatory contour circuit with transformer coupling (Fig. 11.13)
[26] is offered. The device is a series oscillatory circuit. The bimorph piezoelement
diagnosed is connected to its output (Fig. 11.14).
In this case the bimorph piezoelement defect can also be detected by the view
of pulse characteristic. One more device, based on series oscillatory circuit with
С1
L1 L2 BPE
Fig. 11.13 Device, based on oscillatory contour with transformer coupling, to detect BPE defects
0,1V/div
0,1V/div
50 ms/div 50 ms/div
(a) (c)
0,1V/div
50 ms/div
(b)
transformer coupling is represented in Fig. 11.15 [27]. In this case the piezoelement
is connected to the general point of the contour (Fig. 11.16).
The device, based on series oscillatory circuit with autotransformer coupling is
shown in Fig. 11.17 [28].
The piezoelement controlled is connected to the device output.
C1
L1 L2
BPE
Fig. 11.15 Device, based on oscillatory contour with transformer coupling, to detect BPE defects
(a) (b)
0,1V/div
0,1V/div
0,1 ms/div 0,1 ms/div

(c)
0,1V/div
0,1 ms/div
The bimorph piezoelement defects can be detected by the pulse characteristics

view, as it is seen from Fig. 11.18.
C1 L1
Input Output
L2
BPE
0,1 ms/div
Fig. 11.17 Device, based on oscillatory contour with autotransformer coupling, to detect BPE
defects
0,1V/div
0,1V/div
0,1 ms/div 0,1 ms/div

(a) (c)
0,1V/div
0,1 ms/div
(b)
11.4 Diagnostics of Defects by Transitive Characteristic
A bimorph piezoelement defect can be also detected if a step function-shaped signal

is supplied to it [12, 29, 30].
Depending on the reference point choice, the function can be odd (for the signal
in Fig. 11.19a) or even (for the signal in Fig. 11.19b) [31–35]. Fourier series for the
odd function signal (Fig. 11.19a) looks like this:
11.4 Diagnostics of Defects by Transitive Characteristic 205
Fig. 11.19 Meander-shaped s(t)

(a)
oscillation
S t
-T - T/2 0 T/2 T
(b) s(t)
S t
-T -T/2 0 T/2 T
≤

s (t) = · · · c−1 e−iΘ1 t + c0 + c1 eiΘ1 t + c2 e−iΘ2 t + · · · = cn einΘ1 t . (11.11)
n=−≤
where cn = cnc − icns , cnc = 0, cns = 2S

T nΘ1 (1 − cos(nΘ1 T /2))
Considering T Θ1 = 2ω :
≤

4S 1 1
s(t) = 2 |cns | cos (nΘ1 t − ω/2) = sin Θ1 t + sin 3Θ1 t + sin 5Θ1 t + · · ·
ω 3 5
n=1,3,5,...
(11.12)
For the signal of the even function:

4S 1 1
s(t) = cos Θ1 t − cos 3Θ1 t + cos 5Θ1 t − · · · . (11.13)
ω 3 5
The spectral density of a rectangular impulse (Fig. 11.20a), corresponding to the

single impulse of the even function of a meander-shaped signal (Fig. 7.20), is deter-
mined by the expression:
τ /2
B iΘτ iΘτ
A − 2B B 2A Θτ
S1 (Θ) = A e −iΘt
dt = e −e 2 = sin B
−iΘ Θ 2
−τ /2
B

sin(ΘτB /2)
= AτB . (11.14)
ΘτB /2
The wider (narrower) the pulse is, the smaller (larger) the distance between func-
tion S1 (Θ) zeros. This is similar to spectrum narrowing (spreading). Then value S1 (0)
increases (decreases). Thus, if the cycle of the meander-shaped signal, influencing
the piezotransformer, is changed the influencing signal spectrum is also changed.
This results in the change of the output signal type [36].
Pulse time (τi /2) shift towards delay should be considered, reading time from the
pulse middle. This corresponds to the signal meander-shaped odd function.
(a) S1
A t
– 0 τ i /2
S1(ω )/S1(0)
1,0
(b)
ωτ i /2
-3π -2π -π 0 π 2π
θ (ω )
(c)
2π ωτ i /2
π
-3π -2π -π 0 π 2π
Fig. 11.20 Rectangular pulse a shape; b spectral density module; c spectral density argument
(phase-frequency characteristic)
Activation of piezoelements by meander-shaped electric signal is offered as a

method of their control [37, 38].
This method, unlike the method of piezotransformer activation by a short pulse,
controls both traditional (oscillatory systems) and domain-dissipative piezoelements
(differentiating elements) [8].
Device, based on aperiodic networks
The operation principle of the device offered consists in the following: the BPE con-
trolled is switched in differentiating or integrating circuit instead of its condenser.
Meander-shaped voltage is supplied to this circuit input. BPE defects can be diag-
nosed by the network response form (transitive characteristic) chains can be judged
defects [39].
Elementary devices for BPE control are shown in Fig. 11.21.
The voltage on the differentiating circuit output
BPE
R
BPE
Uin(t) Uout(t) Uin(t) Uout(t)
R
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.21 Devices for BPE control, based on a differentiating circuit; b integrating circuit
11.4 Diagnostics of Defects by Transitive Characteristic 207
dUx (t)
U OU T (t) ∇ τ0 , (11.15)
dt
similarly—for integrating circuit

1
UOUT (t) ∇ UIN (t)dt, (11.16)
τ0
where τ0 = RCPE
CPE —piezoelement capacity.
The signal shape on the signal output depends on BPE state if meander influences
the circuits, to which BPE is connected (Fig. 11.21).
Differentiation (or integration) of meander occurs, studying useable BPE (an
oscillatory system with 10–100 order Q factor). Damped oscillations occur at the
same time in BPE (Figs. 11.22a and 11.23a).
It is experimentally found that this process occurs if the following condition is
observed:
T
τ0 , (11.17)
2
where τ0 = RCPE
T—meander oscillation cycle
The measurement results are given in Fig. 11.22, 7.23. BPE of Pσ-19 type, gen-
erator GZ-106, and oscillograph C1-55 (with resistor resistance equal R = 100
)
were used for measurements.
Fig. 11.22 Transitive characteristic of control unit, based on differentiating circuit (Fig. 11.21a) a
qualitative BPE; b no polarization in BPE; c short circuit in BPE circuit; d BPE open-circuit fault
(failure)
Fig. 11.23 Transitive characteristic of control unit, based on differentiating circuit (Fig. 11.21b) a
qualitative BPE; b no polarization in BPE; c short circuit in BPE circuit; d BPE open-circuit fault
(failure)
Piezoelement functions as a usual condenser, and devices (Fig. 11.21)—as differ-

entiating or integrating circuits (Figs. 11.22b and 11.23b) if the piezoelement material
is not polarized [40].
Voltage is meander-shaped and the voltage on the integrating circuit output equals
zero (Figs. 11.22c and 11.23c) if the piezoelement circuit on the differentiating circuit
output is short.
And finally, voltage equals zero (or meander) if the piezoelement open-circuit
fails on the differential (or integrating) circuit output.
In this case the transitive characteristic view gives an unambiguous idea of the
BPE defect, as it is seen from Figs. 11.22 and 11.23 as by the form.
11.5 Devices Based on Active Oscillator Circuit
In this case it is offered to connect BPE to an active oscillator positive FB to diagnose

defects [15].
Active oscillator oscillations occur if BPE is “qualitative” and “useable”. Oscil-
lations do not occur if there are some defects in the active oscillator [15].
It is a well-known fact that an active oscillator is an amplifier type device. A
frequency driving element is connected to it positive FB circuit [26]. BPE is this
element, discussed in the case. BPE is activated on the fundamental frequency of
flexural vibrations.
11.5 Devices Based on Active Oscillator Circuit 209
En BPE
R1
C доп
Cбл′ VT C1′
C2
Ce
R2 RE
Fig. 11.24 Circuit of active oscillator with BPE in FB circuit
The circuit of an active oscillator with a BPE in FB circuit is shown in Fig. 11.24.
The expression for operating resistance Ro and self-oscillations frequency can be
written for this circuit [15]:
K 0 A1 + B1 ∂ + D1 ∂ 2
R O = cos ξ S c Req ; (11.18)
1 + K 0 A2 + B2 ∂ + D2 ∂ 2
A + B∂ + D∂ 2
ϕ= , (11.19)
A1 + B1 ∂ + D1 ∂ 2
where: ξs —first harmonic slope phase of the collector current;
c = R5 /rR ;
2
C2
Req = 1/ Θk CC11+C 2
r —contour equivalent resistance, considering the losses,
introduced by the load;
1 1
r= 2 + C1 C2
;
ΘR C1 R2 ΘR C1 +C2 Q x x
Rne Rout
R2 = (11.20)
Rne + Rout
where: Q x x —contour Q factor shunting by resistances Z ne , Z 4 B Z 5 is not considered;
R0 = C1 /C2 ; C1 = C1√ + Cout ; C2 = C2√ + Cin

K 023
A = Π0 − τ5 − τ5 (1 + Π0 )2 b
(1 + K 0 )

K 02
+ 1 + c + Π0 (τ5 + Π0 c) + 1 + Π02 b tgξs ,
(1 + K 0 )

K 02 K 02
B = −1 + 2Π0 τ5 b − τ5 + Π0 c + 2Π0 b tgξs ;
(1 + K 0 )2 (1 + K 0 )2

K 02 K 02
D = Π0 − τ5 Π0 b
2
+ τ5 Π0 c + b
3
tgξs ;
(1 + K 0 )2 (1 + K 0 )2
b K
0
A1 = 1 + c + τ5 Π0 + τ5 1 + Π02
Q 1 + K0
b K
0
− Π0 − τ5 + 1 + Π02 tgξs ;
Q 1 + K0

b K0 b K0
B1 = − τ5 + 2Π0 c + τ5 − Π0 1 + Π0 tgξs ;
Q 1 + K0 Q 1 + K0

b K0 b K0
D1 = τ5 Π0 + Π02 c + τ5 − Π0 1 + Π0 tgξs ;
Q 1 + K0 Q 1 + K0
b K
0
A2 = (1 + c)2 + (τ5 + Π0 c)2 + cτ5 1 + Π02 + Π0 1 + τ52
Q 1 + K0
K0
+ 1 + c 1 + Π02 + τ52 b ;
(1 + K 0 )
b K K 02
0
B2 = −2c (τ5 + Π0 c) − 1 + τ52 + 2Π0 τ5 c − 2Π02 cb ;
Q 1 + K0 (1 + K 0 )2
K 02 b K
0
D2 = 1 + (τ5 + Π0 c)2 + Π02 cb + Π0 1 + τ52 + Π02 τ5 c ;
(1 + K 0 ) 2 Q 1 + K0
C1 C2 R √ Rin
b = Req /r ; Q = 1/ΘR r ; τ5 = Θk Cin R5 ; R5 = √ 5 ;
C1 + C2 R5 + Rin
Π0 = ΘR C0 rR .
As the experiments showed, oscillations are activated in the generator at the basic
flexural oscillations frequency (∼2.5 kHz for BPE of Pσ-19 type) if there are no
BPE defects.
There are no oscillations if one of the BPE electrodes is broken. If the circuit
between BPE electrodes is short oscillations are activated at the following frequency
1
f shc = ∗ .
2ω LCad
If BPE piezoelement is not polarized oscillations are activated at the following fre-
quency
1
f ap = ,
2ω LCeq
11.5 Devices Based on Active Oscillator Circuit 211
C C
where Ceq = C pepe+Cadad ,
C pe —interelectrode capacity of BPE piezoelement.
References
1. New Dictionary of Foreign Words (Sovremenny Literator, Minneapolis, 2005), 1088 p

2. C.I. Baskakov, Radio Engineering Circuits and Signals (Vyssh shk., Moscow, 1988), 488 p (in
Russian)
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Moscow, 1986), 280 p (in Russian)
4. I.N. Ermolov, Theory and Practice of Ultrasonic Control (Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1981),
240 p (in Russian)
(Technosphere, Moscow, 2006), p. 632 (in Russian)
6. V.M. Sharapov, R.-J. Kazys et al., Patent of USSR 1571795. Devices for piezosensors, control,
vol. 22, 1990 (in Russian)
7. V.M. Sharapov, E.A. Vasiltsov et al., Patent of USSR 1405813. Control of bimorph piezoele-
ment used in Korotkoff sounds sensor, vol. 24, 1988 (in Russian)
8. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Raevskiy, Zh.V. Sotula, V.M. Nikolaenko, Control of Bimorph Piezoele-
ments, vol. 1 (Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological University, Cherkasy, 2006), pp. 95–97
(in Russian)
9. M.S. Grizno, E.V. Moskalev, Glue and Gluing (Chemistry, Leningrad, 1980) (in Russian)
10. D.A. Kardahsov, Epoxy Glues (Chemistry, Moscow, 1973) (in Russian)
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1976) (in Russian)
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13. M. Kaufman, A.G. Cidman, Practical guidance by schemes calculations in electronics. Direc-
tory in 2 volumes (Energoatomizdat, Moscow, 1993), 288 p (in Russian)
14. V.M. Sharapov et al., Patent of Ukraine 22603. Method of bimorph piezoelements control.
Publication No 5, 2007 (in Ukrainian)
15. V.M. Sharapov et al., Patent of Ukraine 26614. Method of bimorph piezoelements control,
16. V.M. Sharapov, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 26614. H04R31/00. Way of the control bimorph
piezoelements, 25 Sept 2007 (in Ukrainian)
17. V.M. Sharapov, A.N. Gurziy, Zh.V. Sotula, Device for bimorph piezoelements control, based
on aperiodic circuits. Meas. Comput. Facil. Technol. Process. 2, 182–185 (2006) (in Russian)
18. V.M. Sharapov, A.N. Gurziy, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 24437. H04R31/00. Device for
bimorph piezoelements, control, 25 April 2007 (in Ukrainian)
bimorph piezoelements, control, 25 June 2007 (in Ukrainian)
bimorph piezoelements, control, 10 July 2007 (in Ukrainian)
bimorph piezoelements, control, 10 July 2007 (in Ukrainian)
bimorph piezoelements, control, 25 Sept 2007 (in Ukrainian)
23. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Raevskiy, I.G. Minaev, Device for bimorph piezoelements control. Patent
of Ukraine 17422 (in Ukrainian)
24. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Rayevskiy, Application of LC-contours for Bimorph Piezoelectric Ele-
ments Control (Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological University, Cherkasy, 2006), special
release, pp. 268–270 (in Russian)
25. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Rayevskiy, T.K. Ju, B.J. Ju, E.V. Malahov, Control of Bimorph Piezoelec-
tric Elements by Bimorph Piezoelectric Transformers (Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological
University, Cherkasy, 2006), special release, pp. 271–273 (in Russian)
26. V.P. Popov, Basics of Circuit Theory (Vyssh shk., Moscow, 1985), 496 p (in Russian)
27. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Raevskiy, Device for bimorph piezoelements control. Patent of Ukraine
20940 (in Ukrainian)
28. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Raevskiy, Bimorph Piezoelements Control by Bimorph Piezotransformers,
vol. 2 (Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological University, Cherkasy, 2006), pp. 95–97 (in
Russian)
29. V.M. Sharapov, V.Ya. Korr, O.G. Oymchik, Zh.V. Sotula, Device for Diagnostics of Bimorph
Piezoelements Defects, Based on Active Oscillator (Bulletin of Cherkasy State Technological
University, Cherkasy, 2007), Special release, pp. 270–273 (in Russian)
30. O.A. Tatur, Basics of Electric Circuits Theory. Manual (Vyssh shk., Moscow, 1980), 271 p (in
Russian)
31. V. Sharapov, M. Musiyenko, Zh. Sotula, L. Kunickaya, About the effect of expansion of repro-
duced frequency band by electroacoustic transducer. Ultragarsas (Ultrasound) 64(3) (2009),
ISSN 1392–2114
34. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Raevskiy, Zh.V. Sotula, Device for bimorph piezoelements control. Patent
37. V.M. Sharapov, A.N. Gurziy, M.P. Musienko, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 22603.
H04R31/00. Way of the control bimorph piezoelements, 25 April 2007 (in Ukrainian)
38. V.M. Sharapov, E.V. Malahov, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 26431. H04R31/00. Device for
bimorph piezoelements, control, 25 Sept 2007 (in Ukrainian)
39. V.M. Sharapov et al., Patent of Ukraine 17437. Device for bimorph piezoelements control.
40. V.M. Sharapov, N.V. Raevskiy, Zh.V. Sotula, Patent of Ukraine 28332. H04R31/00. Device fo
control bimorph piezoelements, 2007 (in Ukrainian)
Index
A Butterworth filter, 175

Acoustic load, 88
Acoustic oscillatory, 139
Acoustic resonator, 169–171 C
Active oscillator, 209 Capacitance, 135
Active oscillator circuit, 208 Chebyshev, 175
Active ultrasonic methods, 75 Chladni figures and transducers directional
Adder, 117, 124, 126 diagrams, 43
Additional inductance, 134, 135, 137, 139 Chladni figures for round transducer, 45
Advantage of quartz, 7 Chladni figures for triangular sample with
AFC of symmetric bimorph, 195 40 mm side, 49
Amplitude—frequency characteristics, 149 Circuit, 166, 168, 209
Amplitude-frequency characteristics of Filters, Classification and characteristics, 57
174 Classification EAT by an action principle, 3
Angular frequency, 120 Coefficient is received for the transducer, 54
Aperiodic networks, 206 Coefficient of electromechanical transforma-
Asymmetric bimorph, 141 tion, 79
Asymmetric bimorph element, 156, 160 Coefficients, 118
Asymmetric bimorph piezoelements, 30 Compelled fluctuations, 20
Attenuation of contour, 165 Computer modelling, 126
Conductivity, 150
Connected, 165
B Connected contours, 166, 168
Barium titanate structure, 5 Connection, 118
Basic characteristics PEAT, 3 Connection scheme, 177
Basic flexural oscillations frequency, 210 Consecutive connection, 122
Basic properties in PCM, 7 Consecutive contour, 163
Basic requirements, 63 Contour, 148, 165, 167, 209
Basic types of ultrasonic equipment Control, 206–208
transducers, 78 Coulomb friction, 151
Beating, 119 Cylindrical piezoceramic transducers, 60
Bessel, 175
Bimorph, 155, 160
Bimorph and trimorph piezoelement, 26 D
Bimorph element, 115, 129 Defects, 191
Bimorph piezoelement, 192, 198 Defects diagnostics, 192
Bimorph piezotransformer, 124 Definitions, 1

Microtechnology and MEMS, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-01198-1,
214 Index
Dependence of bimorph piezotransformer Equivalent scheme, 24, 180

EREV transfer coefficient on d/D, Equivalent scheme and sensor, 184, 185, 187,
52 188
Dependence of dimensionless sensitivity, 39 Equivalent scheme piezoelectric transformer,
Design of electro-acoustic transducers, 42 25
Designs of piezoelectric transformers, 24 Expansion, 167
Device, 10, 197, 206
Device monitoring of bimorph piezoelements,
194 F
Device to diagnose defects of bimorph FB, 209
piezoelement based on transformer, Firm body, 151
201 Flexural vibrations equation of the piezoce-
Diagnostics of defects by pulse characteristic, ramic, 28
198 Fluctuations, 119, 144
Diagnostics of defects by transitive Fluctuations of bimorph elements, 27
characteristic, 204 Fluctuations of piezoceramic, 13
Dielectric losses, 152 Fluctuations of radially, 18
Differentiating circuit, 187, 206, 208 Form of acoustic field created, 80
Directional diagram, 44 Frequency of fluctuations, 74
Directional diagrams of rectangular transducer, Frequency transfer coefficient, 175
48 Full conductivity of a disk, 16
Directional diagrams of round transducer, 46
Directional diagrams of triangular transducer,
50
G
Disk fluctuations, 17
Gelmgolts resonator, 139
Displacement on a thickness, 15
Gelmgolts resonator own frequency, 141
Dissipation, 150
Generalized Hamilton principle, 31
Domain-dissipative piezoelements, 135
Generator, 116
Domains, 6
Good quality, 148
E
H
Echo-method, 76
Harmonious, 119
Effective EMCC expression, 29
Heaviside formula, 200
Efficiency of electromechanical energy
High-pass filter, 178, 179
transformation, 28
Hollow cylindrical monomorph, 126
Elastic deformation, 150
Hydro-acoustic piezoceramic transducers, 69
Electric filter scheme, 173, 181
Hypothesis of electric potential change, 31
Electric scheme, 178
Electro-acoustic transducers, 1, 41, 48, 53
Electrodes, 153
Electromagnetic-acoustic, 76 I
Electromechanical oscillatory, 163 Impedance method, 75
Electrostatics, 35 Indicator of attenuation, 165
Electrostriction, 4 Inductance, 131
Element, 142, 155 Integrating circuit, 206
Energy, 150 Interelectrode, 135
Energy transformation, 2, 64 Interelectrode capacity, 147, 154
Equations, 35 Internal friction, 135, 149, 153, 154, 156
Equivalent circuit, 197
Equivalent circuits of device, 196
Equivalent diagrams of device, 197 K
Equivalent resistance, 209 Kinematic hypotheses, 30
Index 215
L Parameters of piezoceramics material, 8

Lamellar transducers, 62 Peak piezoelectric modulator, 128
Load-bearing (a) and compensated (b) units, 58 Peak-modulated, 129
Load-bearing units, 69 Phases, 122
Low-frequency, 116 Piezoadder, 123
Low-frequency acoustic fluctuations, 132 Piezoceramic adders, 128
Low-frequency area, 134 Piezoceramic elements for PEAT, 14
Low-pass filter, 177 Piezoceramic sensors, 182
Low-pass filters schemes, 180 Piezoceramic transducers, 67
Low-pass RC-filter, 176 Piezoeffect, 197
Piezoelectric adders, 121
Piezoelectric effect, 4
M Piezoelectric element, 134
Material correlations, 36 Piezoelectric losses, 152
Materials characteristics, 5 Piezoelectric materials, 7, 66
Materials for, 10 Piezoelectric peak, 128
Meander, 122, 126 Piezoelectric resonators, 21
Meander-shaped oscillation, 205 Piezoelectric transducers, 85
Measurement, 123 Piezoelectric transformer, 23
Measurements electrodes, 154 Piezoelement, 88, 126, 130, 139, 143, 153, 180
Mechanical friction, 152 Piezotransducer amplitude-frequency response
Mechanical pressure, 16 (AFR), 79
Method of acoustic issue, 75 Piezotransducer radiation field, 81
Modern hydro-acoustic transducer, 68 Piezotransducers, 86
Modulator, 128 Piezotransformer, 117, 122, 126, 128, 181,
Monitoring circuit of asymmetric bimorph 186, 187, 205
piezoelements, 194 Planar and flexural equations of bimorph
Monitoring circuit of symmetric bimorph vibrations, 37
piezoelements, 193 Planar factor, 15
Monomorph, 134 Pliability coefficient, 17
Monomorph piezoelement, 138 Polarizing, 152
Monomorph transducers, 134 Processes, 152
Multielectrode system, 132 Projectors, 116, 155
Pulse characteristic, 199, 202–204
Pulse characteristics for device, 201
N Pyroelectrysity, 5
Natural boundary conditions, 33
Nodal distribution when rectangular transducer
vibrates, 47 Q
Non-destructive quality control of materials Quality, 165
and products, 73
Non-resonant excitation of piezoelements, 84
Non-uniform electric field, 85 R
Radially polarised cylinder, 19
Ratios of electromechanical transformations,
O 59
Oscillatory circuit, 202 Reaction on unit pulse function, 199
Oscillatory contour, 147, 202–204 Receiving transducers specifications, 70
Oscillograms, 124 Rectangular, 62
Output voltage, 123 Rectangular pulse, 206
Reduce, 156, 165
Resonance frequencies, 22
P Resonant curve, 163
Parameters, 66 Resonant frequency, 115, 130, 143, 144, 165
216 Index
Resonant volume piezotransducers, 82 Thick, 86

Resonators, 144 Three piezoelements, 167
Resonators AFC measuring circuit, 196 Topology of piezotransformer electrodes, 53
Round, 62 Transducer, 166, 170, 171
Transducer-receiver equivalent scheme, 60
Transformer, 128
S Transient characteristics, 122
Schematics of connections of piezoelements, Transitive characteristic, 126, 207, 208
160 Transitive function, 199
Scheme, 186, 187 Trimorph, 137, 155, 160
Schemes of electro-acoustic transducers Typical oscillatory (vibrating) systems, 58
activation, 52
Sensor, 180, 181, 186
Sensors piezoelement, 173
U
Sensors with piezotransformers, 183, 184
Ultrasonic waves, 74
Shaped scheme, 179
Under condition, 34
Shift, 122
Use of electro-acoustic transducers, 2
Sign-sensitivite, 4
Signal spectrum, 205
Sound pressure, 137, 149, 156, 169
V
Spherical transducer calculation, 62
Vibrating systems, 62
Substituting correlations, 36
Vibration, 35
Surface active piezotransducer, 86
Vibrations and effective EMCC expression, 28
Surface active volume piezotransducer, 83
Voltage, 118
Symmetric, 142
Symmetric bimorph, 138, 143 Volume resonators, 167
Symmetric bimorph element, 137, 156 Volume transducers, made on the basis of
Symmetric bimorph piezoelements, 27 bimorph, 51
System, 139, 163
W
T Waves energy, 88
Theory of homogeneous elastic, 34 With boundary conditions, 20
About the Authors
Valeriy Sharapov doctor of technical sciences (doctor habil.), professor, depart-

ment head of Cherkasy State Technological University (Ukraine), authored more 400
articles, more 500 patents of inventions and 16 books in engineering and manage-
ment.
He graduated from Shostka Chemical Technological College (Ukraine) and
branch of the Moscow Engineering Physical Institute (Presently—Seversk State
Technological Institute of Ministry of Atomic Industry of Russian Federation),
received Candidate of Sciences degree in 1977 at Tomsk Institute of Automation,
Electronics and Control of System), Doctorate in Sciences awarded in 1996 in the
Odessa National Polytechnic University.
Some devices, sensors and systems developed by him used in industry. Teaches
courses on Sensors, Technology of instrument-making, Technology of management,
Scientific interests: piezoceramic sensors, devices, atomic systems, rocket industry,
medical devices, system analysis, management technology, non-destructive methods
control.
Zhanna Sotula Ph.D., senior teacher. Cherkasy State Technological University.
She graduated from Cherkasy State Technological University. Authored more 50
articles and 50 patents of inventions.
Larisa Runickaya Ph.D., senior teacher. Cherkasy State Technological University.
She graduated from Kyiv Technological institute. Authored more 30 articles and
20 patents of inventions.

Authors’ Patents
Initial data Figures

1 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 17437 Device for bimorph
piezoelements control, 2006
2 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 19643 Electro-acoustic

transducer, 2006
3 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 19644 Electro-acoustic

transducer, 2006


(continued)

220 Authors’ Patents

6 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 22603 Method of
bimorph piezoelements control, 2007
7 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 24437 Device for




(continued)
Authors’ Patents 221

11 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 24815
Electro-acoustic transducer, 2007


14 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 26614 Method of


(continued)

17 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 47073 Piezoelectric

transducers of mechanical values,
2010

2010

2010
(continued)

2010
21 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 56930 A method of

creation of acoustic vibrations with
help piezoelement, 2011


adder, 2011
(continued)

adder, 2011

adder, 2011

adder, 2011

(continued)


30 Patent of Ukraine N◦ 59475.


(continued)

Electro-acoustic
transducer, 2011

Electro-acoustic
transducer, 2011

Electro-acoustic
transducer, 2011

Piezoelectric adder,
2011

Piezoelectric adder,
2011
(continued)


creation of acoustic vibrations, 2011

creation of acoustic vibrations with
help piezoelement, 2011

(continued)



(continued)


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+-
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(continued)

49 GaNeYN ERpaïY B N◦ 72740

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Microtechnology and MEMS

Professor Dr. Dorian Liepmann

For further volumes:

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013947377

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Cherkasy, Ukraine Valeriy Sharapov

1 General Information About Electro-Acoustic Transducers. . . . . . . 1

2 Piezoceramic Elements for PEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . 13

4 Hydroacoustic Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 57

5 Transducers with Non-Destructive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6 The Technologies of PEAT Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 91

7 Methods of Low-Frequency Acoustic Vibrations Creation . ...... 115

8 Methods of Increasing Sound Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 147

9 Methods of Expansion of Pass-Band PEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

10 Sensors with Piezoelements in Shemes Electric Filters . . . . . . . . . . 173

11 Devices to Control and Diagnose Bimorph Piezoelements . . . . . . . 191

About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Authors’ Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

1.1 Terms and Definitions. Classification EAT

Electro-acoustic transducers (EAT) are intended for transformation of electric energy

V. Sharapov et al., Piezo-Electric Electro-Acoustic Transducers, 1

Fig. 1.1 Classification of

Fig. 1.2 Use of electro-

Sound reproduction Hydroacoustics

Technics of Non-destructive control

Acousticelectronics Sensors of physical sizes

Ultrasonic introscopy Safety systems

Ultrasonic devices Security devices

Fig. 1.3 Energy transforma- 1 2 3

of electric resistance of a sensitive element under the influence of sound pressure,

Fig. 1.4 Classification EAT

Fig. 1.5 Classification EAT Electro-acoustic

Transducers Transducers for non-

anchor; magnetostrictive transducers, using a straight line and a boomerang effect

1.2 Basic Characteristics PEAT

Transducers-radiators are evaluated by the following work quality indicators.

Input electric resistance Z—the ratio of voltage applied U to current I in the

1.3 Materials for PEAT

The principle of action of piezoelectric sensors is based on use of direct or return

tion polarisation is proportional to a square of the enclosed mechanical pressure and

Fig. 1.6 Barium titanate

Fig. 1.7 Domain structure -E

WTC-19 0.8 2.8 - 0.2 0.7 3.0 300 3.0 80

• presence of hysteresis loops in dependences, e.g. polarization-electric fields and

Materials for frequency-selective devices for superficial acoustic waves include

Abstract Mathematical models of fluctuations, which arise in piezoceramic

2.1 Fluctuations of Piezoceramic Disk Polarised on a Thickness

The analysis of fluctuations of thin piezoceramic disk is executed by N.A. Shulga

V. Sharapov et al., Piezo-Electric Electro-Acoustic Transducers, 13

Fig. 2.1 Piezoceramic elements for PEAT

Fig. 2.2 Piezoelement in the

about a flat intense condition, in which

where κ = −s12 E /s E —Puasson’s coefficient. The density of reserved electric energy

The density of brought mechanical energy is defined as

Considering (2.3), for planar coefficient of communication is received

Radial fluctuations of a disk are described by the movement equation

To substitute parities (2.2) in the movement equation, it is necessary to express

The Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5)

where k 2 = ηω2 s11

As at r = 0 function Y1 ◦ −≥, that B = 0. From the second condition (2.8) it is

Thus, full conductivity of a disk on a radial mode is defined under formula

dependence τr 0 /τr 1 from Puasson’s coefficient, we will define it on measurement

u r (r, z) = u(r ) + zψ (r ) ; u z (r,z) = (r ) (2.34)

Here u and —tangential and normal displacement of initial surface, ψ—rotation

Ux = u (R) − h p γ0 − (R) . (2.57)

u and —dimensionless movements, divided by radius; and dimensionless

N x (1) = 0; (1) = 0; Mx (1) = 0, (2.64)