OUTLINE

• Trees • Mechanical Properties

– Components of Tree Trunk – Flexural, Compressive, Tensile, and
– Wood Cells Shear Strengths
– Hardwood vs. Softwood – Factors Affecting Strength

• Physical Properties • Deteriorations & Preventions

– Mechanical, Physical, Chemical, and
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS – Wood Defects Microorganisms deteriorations
TIMBER – Moisture & Shrinkage – Wood Protection Products
– Density & Specific Gravity – Fire Protection
• Lumbering • Wood Products
– Conversion of Timber – Plywood
– Seasoning – Particle Board
– Hard Board

Leonardo da Vinci timber footbridge, Norway

© 2009 Praveen Chompreda, Mahidol University 1 Source: www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk
2001, 40 m main span2

COMPONENTS OF TREE TRUNK

Pith
ใจ Xylem
Cambium เนือ้ ไม้
แนวแม่ เซลล์
Phloem
TREES
เปลือกชัน้ ใน
Components of Tree Trunk
Bark
Wood Cells
เปลือกไม้
เปลอกไม
Tree Growth
Hardwood vs. Softwood

3 4
TREE TRUNK–BARK&PHLOEM TREE TRUNK–XYLEM&PITH

• Outer Bark ((เปลือกไม)้) is a • Xylem

y can be further categorized
g
protective layer consisting of dead into Sapwood (กระพีไ้ ม้ ) and
Cambium cells Cambium Heartwood (แก่ นไม้ )
Pith Pith
แนวแม่่ เซลล์์ ใจ Xylem
X l • Can be very thick or quite thin แนวแม่่ เซลล์์ ใจ Xylem
X l • Sapwood is a lighter color layer
เนือ้ ไม้ เนือ้ ไม้
depending on wood species used for transporting water and
Phloem Phloem foods
เปลือกชัน้ ใน เปลือกชัน้ ใน
• Phloem or Inner Bark (เปลือก • Heartwood is the inner part of
Bark Bark
เปลอกไม
เปลื อกไม้ ้ ใน) is a thin layer of living cells
ชัน
ชนใน) เปลอกไม
เปลื อกไม้ Xylem
y actingg as a reservoir for
used for transporting sugars to wastes and is darker in color
other parts of the tree
• Pith is the soft thin-walled cells at
• Cambium (แนวแม่เซลล์) is a thin the center of the trunk
l
layer separating
i the
h Phl
Phloem (Inner
(I
Bark) from the Xylem
Heartwood
Sapwood
5 6

WOOD CELLS TREE GROWTH

• Wood Cell consists of 4 major components • Trees ggrow both in height

g and diameter
– Height growth is through elongation of trunks only at
– Cellulose – Long chain of glucose molecules, supply wood strength the tip
– Hemicellulose – Shorter chain of glucose and other sugar molecules, – Diameter growth is through the cambium,
cambium which
providing framework for cellulose produces Xylem towards the center of the trunk and
Phloem towards the bark
– Lignin – Large molecule that acts as binder to cellulose and
hemicellulose chains and make them rigid • In temperate regions,
regions trees grow mostly in early
spring season
– Extractives – Other chemicals presented in small amounts and – Springwood (Earlywood) has lighter color large thin-
responsible
ibl ffor color,
l odor,
d taste, and d decay
d resistance
i off different
diff walled cells
woods – Summerwood (Latewood) has darker color small
thick-walled cells
Different – The different color of springwood and summer wood
Extractives creates Annual Rings (วงปี )
• In tropical regions (including Thailand)
Thailand), trees grow
continuously throughout the year. Thus, the annual
ring is not well-defined
C d
Cedar Redwood

7 8
 PC1

COMPONENTS OF TREE TRUNK HARDWOOD VERSUS SOFTWOOD

UNITED STATES
• Hardwoods are woods from broad- • Softwoods are woods from coniferous
leaved trees such as Oak, Poplar, trees such as Pine, Douglas Fir, Cedar
Maple, Ash, Walnut, Cherry
The word Hard and Soft is not indicative of its hardness property !!!

THAILAND (มอก. 421- 2525)

• ไม ้เนื
ไ ้ อ ้ื แข็็ง (Hard
(H d Wood)
W d) คือ ื ไม
ไ ้ที
้ ม่ี ี • ไม ้เนื
ไ ้ อ ้ื อ่อ
่ น (Soft
(S ft Wood)
W d) คือ ื ไไม ้ที
้ ม่ี ี
ความต ้านทานแรงดัดโค ้งสูงสุดเกิน ความต ้านทานแรงดัดโค ้งสูงสุดตํา่ กว่า
100 MPa ในสภาพทีเ่ ป็ นไม ้แห ้งและมี 60 MPa ในสภาพทีเ่ ป็ นไม ้แห ้งและมี
ความทนทานตามธรรมชาติเกิน 6 ปี ความทนทานตามธรรมชาติไม่เกิน 2 ปี
• ไม ้ใบกว ้าง (Hardwoods) คือไม ้ • ไม ้ใบแคบ (Softwoods) คือไม ้ประเภท
ประเภทใบกว ้างทีม
ประเภทใบกวางทมเมลดอยู ่ เี มล็ดอย่ในรั
นรงไข
งไข่ ม มี ใบแคบทีม
ใบแคบทมเมลดอยู ่ เี มล็ดอย่นอกรั
อกรงไข
งไข่ และไมม
และไม่ม ี
ใบเลีย ้ งคู่ และมีทอ
่ ส่งนํ้ าในเนือ้ ไม ้ ท่อส่งนํ้ าในเนือ ้ ไม ้ขยายใหญ่เป็ นพิเศษ
ขยายใหญ่เป็ นพิเศษ

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 9 10

Slide 10
HARDWOOD VERSUS SOFTWOOD
PC1 ไม ้สน?
Praveen Chompreda, 19/11/2005

• Softwood ((in the US sense), ), has

almost uniform cell structures and
most of the cells (about 90%) are
aligned
li d ini the
h llongitudinal
i di l
direction. The cells that align
transverselyy are called rays.
y

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

11
HARDWOOD VERSUS SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD VERSUS SOFTWOOD

• Hardwood ((in the US sense)) has • วิศวกรรมสถานแห่งประเทศไทยฯ แบ่งไม ้ออกเป็ น 5 ประเภท ตามกําลังรับแรง
nonuniform structure. It has ของไม ้
vessels (or pores) structure for
conduction.
d i This
Thi is
i not found
f d in
i
softwood. ไม้ เนือ้ อ่ อนมาก ไม้ เนือ้ อ่ อน ไม้ เนือ้ แข็งปานกลาง ไม้ เนือ้ แข็ง ไม้ เนือ้ แข็งมาก
• Also,
Also only 80-95% of hardwood กะท้ อน จาปา-
กะทอน จําปา กราด กระเจา กวาว
กว้ าว กักนเกรา
นเกรา แดง กระพีเ้ ขาควาย
กระพเขาควาย
cells are in the longitudinal ป่ า จิกนม ยม- กะบาก ตะปูน- ตะเคียนทอง ตะคร้ อไข่ เขล็ง ตีนนก
direction. หอม ยางขาว ขาว พะยอม ตะเคียนหมู ตะคร้ อหนาม บุุนนาค
สองสลึง ยางแดง สัก ตะแบก ตาเสือ เต็ง ประดู่
อินทนิล นนทรี พลวง มะค่ าโมง
Vessel มะค่ าแต้
มะคาแต ยมหิน รง
ยมหน รั ง
เลียงมัน
หลุมพอ สัก-
ขีค้ วาย เคี่ยม

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

12 13

WOOD DEFECTS

• The lesser the defects,,

the more desirable is
the wood
• Natural defects occur
by the nature of the
wood such as knot,
knot
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES irregular grain, and
some types of shakes
Wood Defects • Artificial defects are
Moisture & Shrinkage caused by mishandling
Density & Specific Gravity of the timber or
incorrect seasoning
techniques
q

14 15
MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE

– The weight
g and volume of wood change g as the moisture condition of
the wood changes
– Moisture Content is calculated as:

Wm -Wd
MC = ×100%
Wd

– Wd = weight of oven-dry wood, Wm = moist weight

– W
Water may be b in cellll walls
ll (called
( ll d Imbibed
I bb dW Water)) or cellll cavities
(called Free Water)
– The point when cell walls is saturated and no free water is called Fiber
Saturation Point
– Shrinkage
g occurs when moisture content drops p below fiber saturation
point
16 17

MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE

• Another way of plotting moisture content v.s. relative humidity v.s. temperature
• Moisture content in the
wood changes with the
ambient relative humidity
until it reaches the
equilibrium condition
• Equilibrium moisture
content isi the
h moisture
i
content at which wood
neither gains nor loses
moisture to air at a given
relative humidity and
temperature
p
• For the same relative
humidity, the equilibrium
moisture content
decreases as the
temperature increases
Source: Wilcox et al. (1991)

18 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 19

MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE

– Tangential
g Shrinkage
g > Radial Shrinkage
g > Longitudinal
g Shrinkage
g (~0)
( ) • Shrinkageg varies
greatly among
different species of
woodsd
• Tangential
shrinkage is
significantly greater
than Radial
shrinkage for most
woods
• Different in rate of
shrinkage in two
direction mayy
result in warping
and/or shake
Source: Wilcox et al. (1991)

20 21

MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE MOISTURE & SHRINKAGE

Source: Wilcox et al. (1991)

Source: Forest Products Laboratory (1990) 22 23

DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY DENSITY

• Density & Specific Gravity • Densityy = M/V

– Density is calculated as: • Mass (M) can be obtained by T = Wwater
weighing the specimen in air
• Volume (V) cannot be accurately
Oven-Dry Weight computed by measuring the Water
Density =
Volume at 12% MC dimensions of the specimen
Wood
• Obtain the volume by weighing
Specimen
the specimen in water
– Specific gravity is calculated as:
Wair = Mg B = ρwVwood g
Density of Wood Wair -Wwater
Specific Gravity = Vwood =
Density of Water at 4 °C
ρg
• Density of water is 1 g/cm3. Therefore, density of wood in g/cm3 is
numerically identical to its specific gravity

24 25

DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY

• Density & Specific Gravity ไม้ Specific

p Gravityy
– Wood substance (cell wall แดง 1.05
material)) has specific
p ggravityy ตะเคียนทอง 0.76
of about 1.5 regardless of ตะเคียนหนู 0.87
species
เต็ง
เตง 1 07
1.07
– Density
D or Specific
S f Gravity
G off
wood is an indication of the ประดู่ 0.83 LUMBERING
amount of wood substance มะค่ าแต้
มะคาแต 0 99
0.99 Conversion of Timber
presented in the piece มะค่ าโมง 0.85
– Typical Range of Specific
Seasoning
มะฮอกกะนี
มะฮอกกะน 0 66
0.66
Gravity of Thai Woods: 0.5-
1.2 ยาง 0.69
รงั 1 11
1.11
สัก 0.63

26 27
LOGGING LOGGING
• Use band saw or chain saw to cut Source: Wikipedia
the tree
• After the tree is felled, the
branches and leaves are removed
and the logs are cut to length
• The logs are then transported to a
saw mill to be cut into wood Source: Wikipedia

Logs are cut to length before transport

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

Modern Harvester Machine Log transport by road Log transport by river

Lumberjacks circa 1910 28 29

LOGGING CONVERSION OF TIMBER

Logs waiting to be cut at sawmill • There are two broad ways of cutting
timber into planks
• Plainsawing – is a cut tangent to the
Source: Wikipedia annual rings
g exposing
p g tangent
g surface
f
(obtaining flat-grained lumber)
• Quatersawing – is a cut in the radial
direction from the center of the log
exposing radial surface (obtaining edge-
Source: Wikipedia grained lumber)
• Which method is to be used depends
on:
– Strength desired (radial cut plank is
stronger, stiffer, and less likely to
warp)
– Wood grain (some wood exhibit
Finished product! beautiful ggrain when cut radially)
y)
– Shape and defects of the timber
– Costs (radial cut is more difficult and
ggenerates more waste))

Source: Wikipedia Small-scale portable sawmill Source: Forest Products Laboratory (1990)

30 31
CONVERSION OF TIMBER CONVERSION OF TIMBER

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wilcox et al. (1991)

• In wood such as oak, a desirable feature called “medullary ray” is exposed Source: Wilcox et al. (1991)

when cut radially

• Experience is needed to select the most economic way to cut the timber
• Different parts of the section may be suitable for different applications
• Wood defect also plays an important role in the selection
32 33

CONVERSION OF TIMBER S E A S O N I NG O F T I M B E R
Source: Wikipedia

• The objective of seasoning (การอบผงไม)

(การอบผึง่ ไม ้) is to reduce the moisture
inside the “green” wood to equilibrium moisture content
– If unseasoned wood is used, shrinkage will occur
– Natural drying of wood through evaporation can take years
– Even if seasoned,, wood can still shrink or swell under changes
g in
humidity
– There is no need to completely eliminate the moisture inside the wood
(i.e. to oven-dry) because wood will reabsorb the ambient humidity
• Two main types
– Air Seasoning
– Kiln (Artificial) Seasoning

Modern sawmill uses computer to calculate the most economic pattern and
has laser-guided blades
34 35
S E A S O N I NG O F T I M B E R S E A S O N I NG O F T I M B E R

• Air Seasoningg
– May take about 1 year for 1
inch-thick wood and much
l
longer ffor thi
thicker
k wood d
– Control the rate of drying
byy changing
g g the spacing
p g
between pieces of wood

Source: Wikipedia

36 Source: Wilcox et al. (1991) 37

S E A S O N I NG O F T I M B E R

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Flexural Strength
• Kiln Seasoning
Compressive Strength
– Kiln is a chamber which has fans to blow heated air and jets to introduce steams
– Steam is needed to control the rate of drying at the surface Tensile Strength
• prevent the “case hardening” in which the surface is dried and shrunk while the core Shearing Strength
is still wet
• Prevent splitting from rapid drying Other Properties
– Kiln seasoning is much faster than air seasoning – usually takes about 2-10
Factors Affecting Strength
weeks depending on the wood species and thickness

38 39
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES TENSILE STRENGTH

• Tensile Strength
g
– Parallel to grain
– Perpendicular to grain
• Compressive Strength
– Parallel to grain
– Perpendicular
P d l to grain
– Oblique to grain
• Flexural Strength (Modulus of
Rupture)
• Shearingg Strength
g • Tensile strength
g pparallel to ggrain is much larger
g (in
( the order of 50:1)) than
– Parallel to grain tensile strength perpendicular to grain
– Perpendicular to grain • Example of tension parallel to grain is a truss; however, wood rarely fails by
direct tension
d

40 41

TENSILE STRENGTH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

• Formula for Tensile Strength:

g • Compressive
p strength
g pparallel to
grain is higher (in the order of
10:1) than the compressive
T strengthh perpendicular
p p di l to grain i
σt =
A
• Wood compressed perpendicular
to grain never “fails” even at large
• For the tensile strength perpendicular to grain, wood is stronger when the deformation Æ often used as
failure plane is in tangential surface than the radial surface – average value is support or bearing plate
usually reported
• For compression perpendicular to
> grain, wood is stronger when load
is applied in the tangential
> direction than the radial -- average
value is usually reported

42 43
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BENDING STRENGTH

• Wood under compression

p pparallel to ggrain,, such as columns,, is often • Wood under bendingg usuallyy fails
limited by the buckling strength, rather than the compression strength of on compression side before the
the wood tension side (unless the grain is
not parallel with the longitudinal
• Formula for compressive strength direction of the member)
• Maximum bending stress is called
C modulus
d l off rupture
σc = ≤ σ critical
A
M× c
MOR =
where σ critical is the critical stress where buckling occurs. Within the I
proportional limit (linear elastic behavior),
behavior) this can be calculated using
Euler’s formula. σ critical depends on the elastic modulus (E), length (L), and • This is really not the stress in the
cross-sectional dimensions (r) top or bottom wood fiber because
the compressive stress is
C Eπ 2 nonlinear near the maximum
σ critical = = strength
A (L/r)2 • Comp // < MOR < Tens //
44 45

BENDING STRENGTH SHEARING STRENGTH

• Bending Failure Modes

• Shear strength parallel to grain (either longitudinal or rolling shear) is much

smaller
ll than
h theh shear
h strengthh perpendicular
p p di l to grain i ((vertical
i l shear)
h )
• Shear failure perpendicular to grain rarely occurs as it often precedes by
bending failure or compression failure at load point

46 47
SHEARING STRENGTH OTHER PROPERTIES

• Shear Strength
g Formula: • Modulus of Elasticityy
– Slope of the linear portion of the
compression stress-strain curve
V within
ithi th
the elastic
l ti range
τ =
A
Δσ
E=
Δε
• Shear strength parallel to grain is
critical in designing bolt holes
• Hardness Test
– Measure the hardness of the
surface by pushing a metal ball on
the surface to a certain depth and
measure the force

48 49

OTHER PROPERTIES FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

• Cleavage
g Test • The strength
g (compressive,
( p , Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

– Measure the potential that the wood can be tear along the grain tensile, or shear) and stiffness
• Nail Withdrawal Test (modulus of elasticity) of wood is
– Measure the ability of wood to hold a nail
generally
ll affected
ff d bby the
h
followings:
• Impact and Toughness Test
– The grain angle relative to loading
– Using a drop mass or pendulum to apply impact force to a simply-supported direction (therefore, wood is said
beam specimen to be an Anisotropic material)
– Toughness is the work required to fail the specimen which,
which together with the
strength, can indicates how ductile the wood is

50 51
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

– Knots ((Defects):
) knots cause the – Densityy (or
( Specific
p
distortion of grain, thus reduce Gravity): The higher
the strength capacity. The sizes, the density, the greater
distributions, and locations of the strength. The
knots are the key factors. The density is affected by
strength of a real structural-size the species of the
timber is lower than the strength wood and,
and for each
of small clear test specimens due specie, the rate of
to the presence of knots. growth. The latewood
i stronger and
is d denser
d
than the earlywood
due to the thicker cell
walls.

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

52 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 53

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

– Moisture Content: The general trend

is that the strength decreases as the
moisture content increases. However,
different strength properties are
affected at various degrees.

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 54 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 55
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

– Temperature:
p The strength
g
decreases as the temperature
increases. The effect is greater at
high moisture content.

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

56 57

DETERIORATION OF WOOD
• Deterioration of wood mayy be divided into 5 categories
g
– Mechanical
– Physical
y
– Chemical
– Microorganisms
DETERIORATIONS & PREVENTIONS – Insects

Mechanical • Different species of wood has different resistant to deteriorations due to

Physical different in cell structures and extractives presented. Sapwood part is less
Chemical durable than the heartwood because it has no extractives.
extractives

Microorganisms
Insects
Preventions
Wood Protection Products
58 59
DETERIORATION OF WOOD DETERIORATION OF WOOD

• Deterioration of wood mayy be divided into 5 categories

g • Deterioration of wood mayy be divided into 5 categories
g
– Mechanical – Floors subjected to heavy equipments rolled – Mechanical – Ultraviolet exposure (especially at high
– Physical
y on them – Physical
y elevations) - causes the breakdown of lignin,
– Wood in desert was blown by sand which holds the wood cell together
– Chemical – Chemical
– Structural member at loose joint rub against – Repeated cycles of wetting and drying –
– Microorganisms – Microorganisms causes shrinkage failures and warping
each other when
hen ssubjected
bjected to vibration
ibration
– Insects – Insects – High heat (in the order of 200 °C) or lower
– Creep of wood under sustained load causes
loss of strength heat (at > 120 °C or so) but for a long period
of time.

60 Damage due to UV Rays 61

DETERIORATION OF WOOD DETERIORATION OF WOOD

• Deterioration of wood mayy be divided into 5 categories

g • Deterioration of wood mayy be divided into 5 categories
g
– Mechanical – Wood is quite resistant to acids but can be – Mechanical – Fungi
– Physical
y destroyed by alkalis due to the dissolution of – Physical
y • Mold
lignin and hemicellulose
– Chemical – Chemical • Stain
– Contacts with alkaline vapors in petroleum or • Soft Rot Fungi
– Microorganisms chemical plants
– Microorganisms
– Insects – Insects • Decay Fungi
– In some woods, iron in rusting fasteners can
cause iron-catalyzed hydrolysis that destroy – Bacteria
wood

62 63
MICROORGANISM DAMAGES DETERIORATION OF WOOD
Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia
• Deterioration of wood mayy be divided into 5 categories
g
– Mechanical – Termite
– Physical
y – Beetles
– Chemical – Wood borers
– Microorganisms – Etc…
– Insects

Mold Fungi Soft Rot (Alligator Skin Pattern & Soft)

Source: UNEP (2000)

Source: UNEP (2000)

Source: Wikipedia
Source: Wikipedia
White Rot from Decay Fungi Source: UNEP (2000)
Brown Rot from Decay Fungi (Cubic cracks) 64 65

TERMITES TERMITES

• There are more than 2600 species

p of termite but theyy can be broadlyy
classified into 4 main types:
– Dampwood Termite
– Drywood Termite
– Subterranean Termite
– Arboreal/ Mound Builders Termite
• Protection strategies and extermination vary among types

Source: UNEP (2000) Source: UNEP (2000)

Source: UNEP (2000)

Ki
King • Dampwood Termite
Workers
– Most of the species like very damp wood
– Their colonyy is often small and the damage
g is usuallyy slow (decay
( y fungi
g mayy be
Queen more of a problem in the same environmental condition)
Soldier

66 67
TERMITES TERMITES
Source: Wikipedia

Source: UNEP (2000) Source: UNEP (2000)

• Drywood Termite • Subterranean Termite

– Most species attack dry wood and can live in a low moisture environment – Live in soil underground or in moist condition, sometimes live in a tree
– Difficult
Diffi lt tto d
detect
t t as it lilives iinside
id th
the wood
d – They
Th travel
t l to
t th
their
i ffood
d source th
through
h ttunnels
l in
i wood
d or shelter
h lt tubes
t b
– Sign of drywood termite is its fecal pellets near their nest (which made up of soil, bits of wood, and their fecal material)

68 69

TERMITES PREVENTIONS OF DETERIORATION

• Keyy to the pprevention of wood deteriorations:

WAT ER WAT E R WAT E R ! ! !

• Microorganisms, especially fungi, need water to live

Source: Wikipedia
• Arboreal/ Mound Builders Termites
– Usually build their nest on trees, fences, under roof etc…
– Reach the building through aboveground tunnel
• Subterranean termite and manyy insects like moist condition
• Moisture causes shrinkage and swelling
• Water dilutes wood cell structure in the ppresent of some
Source: Wikipedia
chemicals (such as alkali)
• Water washes away wood protection agents

70
They call all happen at the same time! 71
PREVENTIONS OF DETERIORATION WOOD PRESERVATIVES

• Wood structure should be designedg such that water will not accumulate • Wood ppreservatives provide
p pprotections from Insects/ Microorganisms
g
anywhere (termite, fungi, & moisture from soil)
• Avoid direct ground contact with wooden parts (termite & moisture from • Types
soil) • Ways
y to apply
pp y wood ppreservatives
– At lumber manufacturing plants • Oilborne Preservative
• Foundation and attic should be dry and well ventilated ((insects and
microorganisms) • Pressurizing • Water Soluble Preservative
• Dip, Hot/Cold Soaking • Leechable
L h bl Type
T
• Select the right kind of wood for the job (durability)
– At construction sites • Fixed Type
• Apply wood protection and/or finishing chemicals (insects and
microorganisms) • Dip
• Building should be designed such that inspection can be done easily • Brush, Spray
• Provide physical barrier and/or screens between building and surrounding
area (insects especially termite)

72 73

WOOD PRESERVATIVES WOOD PRESERVATIVES

• Oilborne Preservatives
– Utilizes oil to carry preservatives into the wood
– Examples:
• Coal-Tar Creosote/ Petroleum Creosote
– Heavyy black-brown liquid q pproduced byy condensingg vapors
p
from heated carbon-rich sources, such as coal or wood. It
is sometimes mixed with tar oils and petroleum oils.
– Advantages: Very effective, Very toxic to insects & fungi,
not water-soluble, good absorption to wood, inexpensive
– Disadvantages: Strong odor, odor flammable,
flammable impart a dark
color to the wood, wood is unpaintable, may cause
irritation when contacted with skin. Long-termg exposure
p
may lead to skin cancer
Pressure Chamber – Mostly used for railroad ties, bridge timbers, piling, and
utility
l polesl
74 75
WOOD PRESERVATIVES WOOD PRESERVATIVES

• Pentachlorophenol
p ((C6HCl5O))
– White organic solid with needle-like crystals and a phenolic
odor
– Advantages: Toxic to insects & fungi, not water-soluble
– Disadvantages: Environmental damage issues – if only low level
is contaminatedd in the
h water sources, it may cause damages
d to
Source: Wikipedia
liver or kidney, cancer, damage to nervous system; strong odor;
flammable; impart a dark color to the wood; wood is
unpaintable; may cause irritation when contacted with skin
– Mostly used for railroad ties, bridge timbers, piling, and utility
Source: Wikipedia
poles

Creosote Treated Wood • Copper Naphthenate

– Advantages: Moderately effective
– Disadvantages:
D d Can
C induce
d corrosion in metals
l suchh as
Source: Wikipedia
fasteners and hinges
76 77

WOOD PRESERVATIVES WOOD PRESERVATIVES

• Water
Water-Soluble
Soluble “Leachable”
Leachable Preservatives • Water Soluble “Fixed”
Fixed Preservatives
– Dissolved in water but also can be washed away so – Dissolved in water but fixed on wood once applied
theyy are not suitable ffor exterior applications
pp – Examples:
– Examples: • Copper Chrome Arsenate (CCA) – most popular
• Zinc Chloride, Sodium Fluoride • Ammoniacal Copper pp Arsenite (ACA)
( )
– Advantages: Inexpensive, help paint attach Source: Wikipedia • Ammoniacal Copper Zinc Arsenite (ACZA)
to wood better, odorless, not flammable, • Acid Copperpp Chromate (ACC)( )
Zinc Chloride
easy to handle
h dl and d transport (white
( hi
powder to be dissolved in hot water) • Copper Chrome Boron (CCB)
• Fluor Chrome Arsenate Phenol (FCAP)
• B
Borates
• Copper Azole
– Naturally occurring minerals that exist in small amounts in rock,
– Advantages: Will not be leached out by water, does not change color of wood
soil water and all living things
soil, things.
at low levels, odorless, wood can be painted
– Advantages: Effective fungicide/ insecticide, low toxic to human, low
– Disadvantages: Effectiveness varies among wood species, should not be used
environmental impact,
p odorless, colorless, non corrosive to metals
where it is in contact with food or water

78 79
WOOD PRESERVATIVES WOOD FINISHES

• Manyy of the wood ppreservatives has environmental and health issues • Wood finishes pprovide pprotection from the environment

– European Union ban the non-commercial use of creosote in 2003 – Water-repellent

p ppreservative is a non-film-formingg liquid
q consistingg of
– Pentachlorophenol general public purchase in the USA was restricted in 1980s wax/resin in solvents and sometimes with fungicide
– CCA use in USA is currently restricted by Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to only certified applicator
applicator. No residential wood treated with CCA was
– Stain is a non-film-forming liquid consisting of wax in solvents, some
sold since 2003.
pigments, and usually with preservatives. Pigments not only dye the
wood color but also help preventing photodegradation of wood cells. cells

– Penetrating Oil is a non-film-forming finish often used in furniture to

protect wood from staining and hot dishes

80 81

WOOD FINISHES WOOD FINISHES

– Film-formingg clear finishes (Lacquer,

( q , Varnishes,, Shellac,, Polyurethane)
y )
form a thin film on the surface which repel water. They are not suitable
for exterior finish because light can pass through and damage wood as
wellll as the
h finishing
fi i hi itself,
i lf which
hi h eventually
ll causes the
h fil
film to peel-off.
l ff

– Paint (Oil-based
(Oil based or Water-based
Water based (latex) paint) contains color pigments,
pigments
binder (hold the pigment and provide glossy finish), and solvent. It
pprovides film finish and also prevent
p photodegradation
p g of wood. Oil-
based paints can penetrate wood better than the water-based types and
may be used as a primer

• They may be used in combination with each other

Furniture with Penetrating Oil Finish

Various Colors of Wood Stain

82 83
 BURNING OF WOOD

• There are 3 pprocesses involved when wood is exposed

p to elevated
temperature
1. Drying of Wood
• The water
Th t iinside
id th
the wood
d (in
(i cavities
iti andd cellll walls)
ll ) bboils
il up att 100 °C
and releasing steam
• This process consumes a lot of heat energy and helps delay the next step
• No loss of mass in wood – wood reabsorbs moisture when cooled
FIRE PROTECTION OF WOOD 2. Thermal Degradation (Pyrolysis)
Burning of Wood • Occurs at the temperature over 70 °C C and ends at about 480 °C C
• No oxygen is needed in the process
Fire Retardants • There is a loss in mass and strength – wood constituents decompose to
gases (such as carbon monoxide, formic acid, acetic acid, and methanol)
and charcoal
• Charcoal pproduced resists further burningg (charcoal
( has onlyy 30-50% of
thermal conductivity of normal wood)
• Slow pyrolysis occurs at low temperature, Rapid pyrolysis occurs at much
g
higher temperature
p (150-250
( °C))
• Strength loss of wood is much slower than steel or aluminum
84 85

BURNING OF WOOD BURNING OF WOOD

3. Ignition
g
100 1000 • Pyrolysis product reacts with oxygen (exothermic reaction) and progress to
90 900 combustion and burning of fire. Fire becomes self-supporting.
80 800 • Ignition occurs only under favorable conditions:
70 Aluminum 700 – Gases from pyrolysis must be combustible
ngth

Steel
– Gases and oxygen
yg must be in appropriate
pp p concentration
Temperature ((C)

60 600
% Initial Stren

W ood
d
50 Temperature 500 – Must have sufficient heat
40 400 • Large section of wood burns slowly because oxygen cannot reach the inside
• Spontaneous Ignition (no pilot fire) occurs over 430 °C but may occurs over
T

30 300

20 200 long period of slow pyrolysis at low temperature

10 100 • Induced Ignition occurs by pilot fire raise the temperature at contact point
0 0 to ignition level
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
• Combustibility of wood depends on the species of wood
Time ((Minutes))
– Flammable extractives that may present
– Density (affect thermal diffusivity)
• Spreading of fire is a series of ignition (one area is acting as a pilot fire for the
adjacent area)
86 87
IMPROVING FIRE CHARACTERISTICS FIRE RETARDANTS

• Retardingg pyrolysis
py y (prevent
(p strength
g loss)) • Currently,
y, there is no pperfect fire retardant for wood
– Minimize heat of combustion – Poor retention capacity
– Insulate wood from heat of fire – Costs
– Promoting charcoal formation – Many reduce only flame spread but do not reduce pyrolysis
• Reduce flame spread or surface flammability – Many attract moisture into the wood (raise the equilibrium MC)
– Minimize
M or dilute
dl combustible
b bl gas produced
d d – C
Corrosion
i off metals
t l
– Blanket surface with non-combustible gas to prevent reaction with oxygen • Examples are:
• Prevent afterglow of charcoal – Ammonium phosphate
– Blanket surface with non-combustible gas – Ammonium sulfate
• Reduce formation of smoke – Ammonium chloride
– Most people are killed by smoke inhalation, not the heat of fire – Borax (sodium tetraborate)
– However, most of the smoke are produced from building contents that burn before – Zinc chloride
the wood structure • Fire retardants are usually pressure-treated at the manufacturing plant with
wood preservatives

88 89

WOOD PRODUCTS

• Besides lumber, following products are also derived from

wood:
– Plywood
– Particle Board
– Hardboard
WOOD PRODUCTS – Paper
– Resin Products ((turpentine,
p tannins, volatile oils, dyes)
y )
Plywood
– Sugar
Particle Board – Plastic
Hard Board – Etc…

90 91
PLYWOOD PLYWOOD

• Plywood
y is a crossbanded assemblyy • Properties
of wood (veneer) layers joined – Tensile strength of plywood is between that of solid wood in the
with adhesive transverse direction ((small)) and longitudinal
g direction ((large)
g )
• Crossbanding = arrangement of – Shrinkage of plywood is between that of solid wood in the fiber
wood fiber in alternating direction direction (very small) and solid wood across the grain (high shrinkage)
– Warping may occur due to different moisture condition of face and
• Layers may have different back or due to differences in species, thickness, and natural variability
thicknesses, or of different species on both sides
• More layers are needed to achieve – There are interior and exterior grades, depending on the adhesive used
thick plywood
• The number of layers is usually
the same on each side of the core
(
(center layer).
l ) Th
Therefore,
f there
h
are odd number of layers

Source: Wilcox et al. (1991) 92 93

PARTICLE BOARD PARTICLE BOARD

• Particle Board is obtained byy • Mat-Formed Particle Board swell/shrink in pplane slightly
g y more than plywood
py
bonding fragments of wood with but less than lumber in tangential/radial directions
glue (binder/ resin) and
compressing under pressure to • Mat-Formed Particle Board swell in thickness much more than timber and
form a sheet (Extruded or Mat- plywood. This is because the particles that were compressed during the
Form) manufacturing try to “spring back” Æ moisture protection is important,
• The
Th hihigher
h the h pressure, the
h especially around the edges
stronger the board (particle board • Extruded Particle Board swell very little in thickness but much more in
may have 20-30% greater in pplane Æ considerable warping
p g mayy occur
density than wood it made up of)
• Glue only coats fractions of the
particle surface • Particle board often used as a core with veneered surface such as cabinets,
countertops
• Particle board may have layers
containing different particle size,
or have
h particle
l size gradually
d ll
changes from the middle to the
surface ((the core will have cheapp
coarse particles)
Source: Wilcox et al. (1991) 94 95
HARDBOARD STANDARDS FOR TIMBER PRODUCTS

• Hardboard is made upp of wood • มอก 421-2530 ไม ้แปรรป:

ู ข ้อกําหนดทั่วไป
pulp (lower-grade than those used ้ คุณภาพไม ้ สําหรับไม ้ทีไ่ ด ้จากการ
– กําหนดประเภท ขนาด การแปรรูป การแบ่งชัน
for paper making) compressed แปรรูปด ้วยเครือ
่ งจักร
under
d heat
h • มอก 424-2530 ไม ป ปสําหรับงานก่อสร ้างทั่วไป
ไ ้แปรรู
• No glue is used. The heat and ่ ้องนํ าไปใช ้ในการรับแรงอัดหรือแรงดึง เช่นทําคาน เสา จันทัน แป
– สําหรับไม ้ทีต
pressure activates lignin inside the • มอก 178-2538
178 2538 แผนไมอด
แผ่นไม ้อัด
pulp to act as a binder – กําหนดประเภท ขนาด ชัน ้ คุณภาพไม ้ ส่วนประกอบ การผลิต และคุณสมบัตท
ิ ี่
• Examples
p of applications:
pp ต ้องการ สําหรับไม ้อัดทีท ้ ขึน
่ ําจากแผ่นไม ้บางตัง้ แต่ 3 ชัน ้ ไป
perforated board (for ventilation
or sound absorbing), interior
siding panels,
panels picture frame
backing

96 97

STANDARD FOR SAWN TIMBER STANDARD FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBER

• มอก 421-2530 ั ้ คณภาพ

• มอก 424-2530 แบ่งไม ้ออกเป็ น 3 ชน ุ
– ไม ้ทีใ่ ช ้แปรรูปแบ่งเป็ น 2 ชนิด คือไม ้สัก และไม ้กระยาเลย (ไม ้อืน ่ ๆนอกจากไม ้สัก) ้ 80 คือไม ้ทีม
– ชัน ่ ค ี วามต ้านทานแรงอัดและแรงดึงไม่น ้อยกว่าร ้อยละ 80
– ความหนามาตรฐาน 12 16 19 22 25 32 38 44 50 63 75 88 100 113 125 138 ของไม ้ชนิดเดียวกันทีป
เกินขนาดทีก
เกนขนาดทกาหนดไวในคุ
่ ําหนดไว ้ในคณลั
่ ราศจากตําหนิ และมีขนาดของตําหนิตา่ งๆไม่
ณลกษณะทตองการในมาตรฐาน
กษณะทีต ่ ้องการในมาตรฐาน (เชนไมท
(เช่นไม ้ที่
80
150 200 มิล ิ ลิเิ มตร
– ความกว ้างมาตรฐาน 25 38 50 63 75 88 100 113 125 150 175 200 225 250 รับแรงดึง ต ้องมีตาไม่เกิน 1/8 ของความกว ้างหรือความหนาทีม ่ ต
ี า
275 300 350 400 มลลเมตร มิลลิเมตร เป็ นต ้น)
– ชัน ้ 67 คือไม ้ทีม ่ ค ี วามต ้านทานแรงอัดและแรงดึงไม่น ้อยกว่าร ้อยละ 67
– ความยาวมาตรฐาน ไม ้สัก เริม ่ ที่ 0.30 เมตร และเพิม ่ ช่วงละ 0.15 เมตร
ไม ้กระยาเลย เริม ่ ที่ 0.30 เมตร และเพิม ่ ช่วงละ 0.30 เมตร ของไม ้ชนิดเดียวกันทีป
เกินขนาดทีก
เกนขนาดทกาหนดไวในคุ
่ ําหนดไว ้ในคณลั
่ ราศจากตําหนิ และมีขนาดของตําหนิตา่ งๆไม่
ณลกษณะทตองการในมาตรฐาน
กษณะทีต ่ ้องการในมาตรฐาน
67
– เรียกขนาดตาม ความหนา x ความกว ้าง x ความยาว
– ชัน้ 50 คือไม ้ทีม ่ ค ี วามต ้านทานแรงอัดและแรงดึงไม่น ้อยกว่าร ้อยละ 50
– การแปรรูปไม ้จะมีการเลือ ่ ยเผือ
่ ขนาดทัง้ ความหนาและความกว ้าง ตัง้ แต่ 1.5 ของไม ้ชนิดเดียวกันทีป ่ ราศจากตําหนิ และมีขนาดของตําหนิตา่ งๆไม่
มิลลิเมตรสําหรับไม ้สักและไม ้กระยาเลยขนาดเล็ก ถึ
มลลเมตรสาหรบไมสกและไมกระยาเลยขนาดเลก ถงง 15 มลลเมตรสาหรบไม
มิลลิเมตรสําหรับไม ้ เกิน ิ ขนาดทีก ่ี ําหนดไวในคุ ไ ้ใ ณลัก ั ษณะทีต ่ี องการในมาตรฐาน
้ ใ 50
กระยาเลยขนาดใหญ่

98 99
STANDARD FOR PLYWOOD REFERENCES

• มอก 178-2538 แบ่งไม ้อัดออกเป็ น 3 ประเภท • ASTM (1994), Standard Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber, D
143-94,
143 94 West
W Conshohocken,
C h h k PA
– ภายนอก - ใช ้กาวทีท ่ นทานต่อลมฟ้ าอากาศ • ASTM (1994), Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Wood and Wood-
– ภายใน - ใช ้กาวทีท ่ นพอสมควร Based Materials, D 2395-94, West Conshohocken, PA
– ชัว่ คราว – ใช ้กาวทีม
่ คี วามทนทานจํากัด เหมาะกับงานชัว่ คราว • F
Forest P
Products
d LLaboratory
b (1990),
(1990) Wood
W d Engineering
E i i Handbook,
H db k 2nd Edition,
Edi i
Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
ั ้ คุณภาพได ้เป็ น 4 ชน
• แบ่งชน ั ้ โดยแต่ละชน
ั ้ จะกําหนดขนาดใหญ่ทส
ี่ ด
ุ ของ • Microsoft Corporation (1999), Encarta Encyclopedia, Richmond, WA.
ตําหนิทจ
ตาหนทจะมได
ี่ ะมีได ้ • S ih R
Smith, R. C
C., A
Andres,
d C
C. K
K. (1989),
(1989) Materials
M i l for
f Construction,
C i 4th Edition,
Edi i M
McGraw-
G
้ คุณภาพ 1 (เกรด
– ชัน I) เหมาะสําหรับงานทีต
่ ้องการแสดงผิวหน ้าไม ้ Hill, New York, 401 pp.
• Watson, D. A. (1986), Construction Materials and Processes, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill,
– ชนคุ
ชัน ้ คณภาพ
ณภาพ 2 (เกรด II) เหมาะสาหรบงานทควรทาสทบผวหนาไม
เหมาะสําหรับงานทีค่ วรทาสีทับผิวหน ้าไม ้ New York,
York 486 pp.
pp
– ชัน้ คุณภาพ 3 (เกรด III) เหมาะสําหรับงานทีต ่ ้องทาสีทับผิวหน ้าไม ้ หรือทีๆ่ ไม่ • Wilcox, W. W., Botsai, E. E., Kubler, H. (1991), Wood as a Building Material: A Guide
อาจเห็นผิวหน ้าได ้ for Designers and Builders, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 215 pp.
– ชัน ้ คุณภาพ 3 (เกรด III) เหมาะสําหรับงานทีผ
่ วิ หน ้าไม ้ไม่มค
ี วามสําคัญ • UNEP FAO,
UNEP, FAO Global IPM Facility Expert Group (2000) (2000), Finding Alternatives to
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) for Termite Management, http://www.chem.
• ความหนา 2 3 4 6 10 12 15 และ 20 มิลลิเมตร unep.ch/pops/termites/termite_fulldocument.pdf, 47 pp.
• http://www wikipedia org
http://www.wikipedia.org
• http://www.ccaresearch.org

100 101

RECAP

• Trees ((components
p of tree,, wood cells,, ggrowth of wood,, hardwood &
softwood)
• Physical characteristic (defects, moisture & shrinkage, density & specific
gravity)
• Timbering (conversion of timber, seasoning)
• Mechanical
M h l Properties
P (bending
(b d strength, h tensile
l strength,
h compressive
strength, shear strength)
• Deterioration of wood (fungi,
(fungi termites,
termites etc)
• Wood protections
• Other wood products (plywood,
(plywood particle board
board, hardboard)

102