Music and Astronomy in the Muslim World

Author(s): Jozef Pacholczyk

Source: Leonardo, Vol. 29, No. 2 (1996), pp. 145-150
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1576351
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INSAP CONFERENCE PAPERS

Music and Astronomy

in the Muslim World
ABSTRACT

In the Muslim world, the r

Jozef Padc tionship between music and

tronomy can be seen on two
els. On one level, the connec
is indirect, involving an under
system of symbolism in num
proportions and geometric f
that penetrates most areas o
I,,m;, r,. t4 c,-.. thnrLe, Chin .i; h ..,.

SYMBOLISM IN ISLAM nature was the idea of numbers. mathematics, geomtr,

mathematics, geometry, alchemy
Mathematics
Islamic art, including music, is deeply symbolic. It contains a represented pure, and medicine. It can be und
absolute truth, in its most beauti- stood as a unifying element
code of symbols that reflects and explains the totality of the
ful
cosmos and the essence of God. The symbols are used asform.
a This idea was broadly ac- Islamic culture. On another
the connection between music
cepted by Muslim philosophers the connection between m
way of explaining the unexplainable. Much Islamic symbol- d apt ledb o Mul hielos, g and astronomy is direct, with a
and applied to all fields, including tronomical concepts direct
ism developed under the direct impetus of Greek philosophy
and scholarship. Many of its elements, however, can be the arts, regardless of medium. plied to music and some m
traced
Equally
back even further to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, strong was the influ- concepts applied to astronom
Sumerians, Chaldeans and Manicheans. These beliefs wereence of the Pythagoreans and both cases the relationship
understood only in the context of
incorporated into Greek thought and gained authority Neo-Pythagoreans. Like
and Neo-Pythagoreans. Like the
the the Islamic culture, its philosop
acceptance within Islamic philosophy and scholarship.
Platonists, they gave importance and art.
to the
Early Islamic philosophy and scholarship developed in the role of numbers in explain-
centers of the Omayyad (661-750 A.D.) and Abbasid (750-nature, but developed a phi-
ing
1258 A.D.) empires, such as Damascus, Baghdad and Kufa. losophy that gave numbers an
Muslim Arabs first had contact with the Hellenistic worldesoteric
in significance. This philosophy developed into a ph
losophy
the early days of Islam, during the reign of the first dynasty of of arithmetic and arithmology. By attributing a
the Omayyads, whose capital was established in Damascus, chemical and magical values to numbers, arithmology at
the former seat of the Byzantine governors. During thetemptedrule to explain metaphysics and theology. This idea w
of this dynasty, Islamic armies conquered a large amount ofapplied to a variety of fields, such as astrology, alchemy an
medicine,
territory, from the Iberian peninsula to the Eastern Turkestan and had a profound influence on the developmen
(Xinjiang). Some of this land was populated by Greeks of or the
by Muslim worldview. It especially influenced the gnost
Hellenized Christians. During this conquest, the Muslims branches of Islam: Shi'a and sufism.
came into possession of a number of philosophical and scien- Numerology became an essential part of the entire suf
tific works by such writers as Pythagoras, Aristotele, movement, in which esoteric and hermetic secret knowledg
Aristoxenes and Plato. Muslim rulers quickly recognized thecould be passed on only through gradual initiation. Nume
value of these works and collected a large number of ology manu- is best explained in the encyclopedic work of the tent
century by the Ikhwan as-Safa' (the Brotherhood of Purity
scripts for their libraries. Interest in Greek writings continued
which
under the Abbasids, and in the eighth century the Bait al- is a synthesis of Platonic, Pythagorean, Neo-
Hikma (House of Wisdom) was established in Kufa andPythagorean and gnostic ideas.
This
Baghdad to function as an astronomical observatory and significance of numbers can be summarized as follow
house of translation. There the best minds from all over the [1]:

empire translated the works of the Greeks into Arabic (either

* One symbolizes the Creator: one, eternal, indivisible, un
directly from Greek or through Aramaic). Thanks to the in- changeable.
troduction of paper from China, books were copied in large * Two symbolizes Intellect ('aql). It allows for pairs of oppo
numbers and disseminated to the major centers of the em- sites (light/darkness, good/bad, form/matter, spirit/
body, etc.).
pire. Soon, local and provincial rulers established their own
libraries (Dar al-Hikma or Dar al-'Ilm, the House of Science) in * Three symbolizes the Soul (nafs).
cities such as Cairo, Toledo, Bukhara and Samarqand. ? Four symbolizes Matter (hayyula). It has mathematical
These Greek works in Muslim libraries inspired the devel- completeness. It contains all numbers that add up to the
decade (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10), the base of the entire decimal
opment of Islamic philosophy and science. What started as
translations of the works led to commentaries and, eventually, system. It is a perfect number.

to independent scholarship in mathematics, alchemy, medi- * Five symbolizes Nature (tabi'ah).

cine, philosophy, geometry, music and other disciplines. * Six symbolizes the Body (jism).
The first major influence was that of Plato. His was essen- * Seven represents the seven planets.
tially a theory of ideas-that truth is eternal and can be recog-
Jozef Pacholczyk (ethnomusicologist), University of Maryland/Baltimore County, 5401
nized by humans in themselves. The reality of the world is a re- Wilkens Avenue, Catonsville, MD 21228, U.S.A. E-mail: <pacholcz@umbc.edu>.
flection of ideas and constitutes the entire truth. For the Originally presented at the conference "The Inspiration of Astronomical Phenomena,"
Villa Mondo Migliore, Rocca di Papa, Italy, 27June-2July 1994.
Platonists, the most important factor in the understanding of

? 1996 ISAST This content downloaded from 195.220.216.80 on Sun, 24LEONARDO, Vol. 29, UTC
Dec 2017 07:22:23 No. 2, pp. 145-150, 1996 145
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 * Eight represents eight qualities (ac- tions), as well as the result of the multi-
cosmological models. Papadopoulo dis-
tually four qualities combined two by covered that in the miniatures of Persia
plication 7 x 4. This number supports
two with four elements): Earth: cold and India from the thirteenth century
the idea of its perfection as the alphabet
and dry; Water: cold and wet; Air: of Qur'an. on, space is organized in such a way that
warm and wet; Fire: warm and dry). the most important elements of the
Sufi poetry, especially that of Persia, is
* Nine represents Beings, such as min- paintings, such as figures, faces and/or
full of the imagery of terrestrial and sen-
erals, plants and animals. suous love and the drinking of wine (inhands, are placed so that they can be
This hierarchical model contains an Islam a forbidden drink). It can be read
connected by a spiral or arabesque.
analogy to the Islamic model of theoncos- several levels. To the uninitiated Sometimes two paintings placed on op-
mos represented in astronomical catego- reader, a text may appear to deal with
posite pages of a book create a spiral to-
ries. In this model, the Earth is at earthly
the gether. Sometimes figures are placed
matters of human relationships
center, surrounded by nine concentric and love. To a sufi, the same text behindcanmountains to complete the
spheres: seven spheres of planetshave (the a different meaning, referring curve oftothe spiral [6].
moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, the Jupi- relationship between man andThe God.
spiral represents descending and
ter, Saturn), an eighth sphere of Love, fixed wine and intoxication represent diminishing series of circles, parallel to
stars, and a ninth, outer sphere (muhit) the love of man for God and the the circles (spheres) of heaven, which
rapture
of the Zodiac. At the bottom of the hier- of mystical union with God, as inbecome the be-smaller as they approach the
archy is the Earth, on which everything ginning of this poem by Hafiz: Earth [7]. It is thus a model of the cos-
is organized in tetrads (elements, sea- mos, but it also has other esoteric signifi-
Saqiya barkhiz-o-dardejamra
sons, winds, cardinal directions, fluids in cance. It represents the arc of descent
Khak bar sarkun ghame ayyamra
the human body, etc.); at the top is theSagar-e-mey bar kafam ne ta ze bar from God to man and the arc of ascent
Zodiac, with its numerical value of 12. Bar kasham in dalq-e-azraq fam ra from man to God, which is so promi-
Between the Zodiac and the Earth Garche badnamist nazde 'aqilan
nent in the shi'a [8]. It symbolized the
Ma name khwahim nango namra
there are seven planets, with the spiri- "Great South Wind," or "Whirlwind,"
tual power to change matter within Oh, known to both Christian and Muslim
wine bearer, stand up and pour
their
the wine into my cup
domains. Seven is also a perfect number. gnostics. It symbolizes the circumam-
Seven is connected to the Moon, theThrow
fe- dirt on the sorrows of days bulation (of Ka'ba) of a sanctuary and
Bring me the cup of wine and you will
male aspect, and is opposed to the Sun, see entering it. It represents the alchemical
which is masculine. In the cosmological How I will take off my blue garb Opus [9]. It is associated with the vine
model, the female Moon is closest to Ifthe doing so in front of the wiseand, man is
through it, intoxication (in sufism,
bad
Earth and is an intermediary between the entrance to the state of ecstasy, the
Then we do not need honor or respect
the Earth and all other spheres, includ- [3] motive strongly visible in the sufi po-
ing the Zodiac. Seven is the symbol of etry). As Papadopoulo said, "The spiral
the Universal Man, himself the arche- The true meaning of the poem, hid- became in a real sense the materializa-
type of the Universe [2]. Among the den to the uninitiated reader, can be tion of esoterism, the secret mandala or-
numbers, the "most noble" are 4, 7, 9, understood from the numerical symbol- ganizing at one and the same time uni-
12 and 28. These numbers either corre- ism of the individual letters of the alpha- verse and art" [10].
spond to the "most noble beings" (4bet. = The numerical interpretation of
the number of tetrads; 7 = planets; 9Arabic
= words can be seen in the ex-
muhit; 12 = the Zodiac; 28 = number of ARCHITECTURE
ample of the word sufi. Four letters of
mansions of the Moon) and are unique this word: Sad, Waw, Fa and Ya have Inthe
architecture, which is intimately re-
because they can be generated by the numerical equivalents of 90, 6, 80 andto geometry, the forms of some
lated
arithmetical operations that use the 10. The sum of those numbers is 186. edifices are the representations of cos-
numbers associated with those noble be- 186 is also the sum of 100, 80 and 6, mic models. Some minarets are built in
ings (7 = 3 + 4; 12 = 3 x 4; 28 = 7 x 4 or 7
numbers that correspond to the lettersthe form of a spiral-for example, the
+ 9 + 12). Qaf, Fa and Waw. These three letters minaret of the Great Mosque, the
The numerical implications in math- form the Arabic word FUQ, meaning Mawliya, in Samarra.
ematics, astronomy, geometry and al- "above" or "transcending." Sufism is In other mosques, the spirals are in-
chemy are perhaps easier to understand. thus meant to be a transcendent phi- corporated inside the minarets in the
Those in the arts are more difficult. Al- losophy [4]. form of multiple staircases, invisible
though it is beyond the scope of this pa- Numerology, a science of the numeri-from the outside.
per to mention all the ways that numeri- cal symbolism of letters ('ilm al-jafr), Many Muslim mausoleums and tombs
cal symbolism is reflected in the arts,gave I birth to the so-called balabailan lan-of the marabouts, sufi saints, in North Af-
will mention a few aspects. guage. Schimmel [5] said that sufi po-rica are built in a form of a cube with a
etry cannot be fully understood and en-cupola in the shape of the half-sphere.
joyed without knowledge of the The base of the cube of the building is a
LITERATURE
numerical meaning of the letters. square representing the earth, with four
In literature, the mystical and numero- seasons and four cardinal directions. It
logical connections are very strong. The represents terrestrial life. In the upper
THE ART OF MINIATURE
Arabic alphabet has 28 letters, corre- part the symbolism is intensified by in-
PAINTING
sponding to the number of mansions of terlocked squares-that is, octagons.
the Moon, which could be interpreted The symbolism of numbers in Islamic The structure is topped with the dome.
as the sum of 7 (planets), 9 (spheres of miniature paintings is related to the Based on the circle, it represents the ce-
the universe), and 12 (Zodiac constella- symbolism of geometrical figures and lestial aspect of the universe, the firma-

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ment, heaven, an eternity. The structure four strings, each thicker then the one them, the soul finds pleasure and the
before. Their respective thickness spirit rejoices, for the said movements
is thus a visual representation of the
should be in noble proportion to each and rests which separate the notes then
transition from the temporary, terres- other, that is, the thickness of the became the measure and quality of
trial life to the eternal, celestial one fourth string (bamm) should be in the time. They thus imitate the continuous
and harmonious movement of the ce-
[ 11 ]. Examples of such structures can be proportion of 4:3 with the third string
seen in numerous mausoleums in old (mathlath); the thickness of the third lestial beings. In effect, the movements
Cairo and in the mausoleum of the string in the proportion of 4:3 with the of the heavenly bodies and spheres are
second string (mathna); the thickness also the measure of and quantity of
Samanids, in Bukhara, in the ninth of
and
the second string in the proportion time. If one establishes the measure of
tenth centuries A.D. of 4:3 with the first string (zir). The (musical) time by regular, harmonious
Similar symbolism can be observed in fourth string should be composed of and proportionate succession of mo-
64 silk threads, the third of 48, the sec- tions and silences, the notes resulting
the structures of many mosques, tekke-s ond of 36 and the first of 27 [14].
will be comparable to the notes pro-
(sufi meeting places), madrasa-s (religious duced by the movements of the
schools) and other religious edifices. The four strings of the lute are tuned spheres and the heavenly bodies and
in the interval of the fourth, thus in the will be in concordance with them [16].
ratio of 4:3. The frets of the lute divide
MUSIC The Ikhwan also argue that the corre-
the length of each string in the ratios
spondence of the proportion of the mu-
The relationship between astronomical2:1, 3:2, 4:3, 5:4, and 9:8, thus providing
sical intervals with the proportions of the
phenomena and music can be seen the on principal intervals of the octave,
spheres make them audible to the inhab-
the two levels mentioned earlier, thefifth,
in- fourth, third and second.
itants of the spheres and thus show the
direct symbolic one and the direct one The proportion of the instrument,
direct application of the musical ideas to
involving the application of astronomi-
the tuning of its strings and the intervals
astronomical models. They write:
cal concepts to music and musical con-
produced were seen as the musical re-
cepts to astronomy. Often both levelsflection of a universal order; these quali- [The celestial bodies] touch, brush
appear simultaneously. ties were the reason that the instrument against each other, rub and resound as
iron and copper resound. Their notes
The application of the symbolic
was considered perfect and given itsare concordant and harmonious, their
model of the universe to music is best noble status. melodies are well balanced. We have
presented in the Risala fi'l-MusiqaThis universal order was also seen in shown their symbolic correspondences
(Epistle on Music) of the Ikhwan the
as- nine cosmic spheres. The diameters in speaking of notes produced on the
Safa.' In the opening of the preface of strings of the lute and their propor-
thethe nine cosmic spheres, the Earth
tions [17].
Ikhwan wrote: and the sphere of air were given numeri-
cal values. The proportions (ratios) be-
And continue:
We propose in this Epistle called "Mu-
tween some of those values-those of
sic," to study the art which is consti-
It clearly emerges from what we have
tuted at one and the same time of the Earth and the spheres of air, Moon, Ve-
expounded that the movements of the
corporeal and the spiritual. This is thenus, Sun, Jupiter and the Fixed Stars-
spheres and heavenly bodies produce
art of harmony (ta 'lif) which can be de-
correspond to the proportions (ratios)
rhythms and melodies that are sweet
fined in terms of proportions [12].
and rejoice the souls of their inhabit-
of harmonic (perfect) musical intervals
ants, that these rhythms and melodies
(Table 1). The proportions of others-
In the Islamic 'Ilm al-Musiqi (Science remind the souls of non-composite
those of Mercury, Mars and Saturn-do
of Music), from the time of early theo- bodies inhabiting the spheres of the
not
rists al-Kindi (ninth century A.D.) and al- [15]. beatitude of the world of the spirits
The Ikhwan as-Safa' find similarwhich
Farabi (tenth century A.D.), the lute, al- pro- is above the spheres and whose
substances are more noble than those
'ud, was considered to be the most portions in the rhythms and continue:
of the world of the spheres [18].
noble, perfect instrument and best-
Now, that these meanings contained in
suited for the theoretical explanation of
the notes and the melodies reach the The mystical, esoteric and symbolic
music. Although early writers do not hearing, human nature takes delight in aspects of music are also incorporated in
provide an explanation for the reasons
behind such an exalted position of this
Table 1. The correspondence of the ratios between the diameters of the Earth and some
instrument, the Ikhwan as-Safa' provideof the spheres to the ratios of musical intervals.
us with such an explanation. In their
Risala fi'l-Musiqi they wrote: SPHERES RATIO INTERVAL
At all events the instrument closest to
Earth - Moon 3:2 fifth
perfection to have been invented by
the philosophers and the best that they Moon - Air 4:3 fourth
have made is that called ud [13].
Venus - Earth 16:8 (2:1) octave
They continue: Venus - Moon 4:3 fourth

We say then that the people of this art Sun - Air 18:9 (2:1) octave
maintained that the instrument called Sun - Moon 3:2 fifth
ud should be made of wood, and that
Jupiter - Moon 24:12 (2:1) octave
its length, breadth and depth should
be in a noble proportion to each other, Jupiter - Earth 24:8 (3:1) octave and a fifth
that is to say, that its length should be Sun- Venus 24:16 (3:2) fifth
in the proportion of 3:2 with its
breadth; its depth should be equivalent
Fixed Stars - Jupiter 32:24 (3:2) fifth
to half its breadth and its neck should Fixed Stars - Venus 32:16 (2:1) octave
be one quarter of the total length of Fixed Stars - Earth 32:8 (4:1) two octaves
the instrument. .... Then one chooses

Pacholczyk, Music and Astronomy in the Muslim World 1

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ilm al-musiqi (the science of music, or Known in Europe as Alfarabius, he was much of the materi
music theory). Ilm al-musiqi originated the first Muslim scholar of truly renais- lationship of the m
in the ninth century. It also developed sance profile who grasped the totality of the musical interva
under the stimulus of Greek philosophy the knowledge of the period. He was the consonance, with the
and scholarship. From the ninth century author of works on philosophy (he was ratios of 2:1 (octave), 3:2 (fifth), 4:3
on, there was a steady stream of theorists recognized as al-failasuf [mu'allim] ath- (fourth) being the most perfect-could
who worked in all parts of the Islamic thani, the second philosopher [scholar], be interpreted in that way.
world, from Muslim Spain to Central after Aristoteles), mathematics, alchemy, The first treatise that organizes the
Asia. Music theory dealt with the techni- medicine and astronomy. His work on musical modes in the duodecimal sys-
cal aspects of the music-that is, the music, Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir (the Great tem is a little-known treatise by
structure of the melodic modes (what Book on Music), is perhaps the most im- Muhammad Nishapuri (12-13 c. A.D.)
later was named maqam: a concept simi- portant work on the subject. The core of Risala dar 'Ilm-e-Musiqi in Persian-Tajik
lar to the Western concept of major and the book consists of a discussion of inter- language [19]. The system was later pre-
minor tonalities), the structure of the vals, their mathematical ratios, the de- sented in the well-known Kitab al-Adwar
rhythmic modes (iqa'a), the rules of gree of their perfection or consonance of Safi ad-Din 'Abd al-Mu'min (ca. 1258
composition of melodies and musical in- and the construction of the modes
A.D.). It stops short of the association of
struments-as well as the extramusical within the framework of the
these modes with the extramusical phe-
association. Pythagorean Great Perfect nomena.
System. However,
Al- from the fifteenth
One of the most important early au-
though al-Farabi does not explain
century on,his
such associations began to
thors was al-Farabi (872-950 A.D.). theory in terms of numericalappear in numerous writings. The ex-
symbolism,
ample is the ar-Risala al-Fathiya (Epistle
of Victory) by Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-
Table 2. Association of musical modes (maqam-s, avaz-s and shuba-s) with the
Hamid al-Ladhiqi Zodiac,
(15-16 c. A.D.).plan-
In this
ets and elements, after al-Ladhiqi.
work, al-Ladhiqi writes that the oldest
musicians of modern times attributed to
MAQAM-s
some modes the name maqam; to others,
Maqam Zodiac Element avaz; and still to others, shu 'ba-and that
these musicians had observed certain
1. Rast Aries fire
ideal relationships between the maqam-s,
2. 'Iraq Taurus earth Zodiac constellations and the elements,
3. Isfahan Gemini air between avaz-s, the planets and the ele-
4. Zirafkand Cancer water ments, and the shu'ba-s and the elements
[20] (Table 2). The maqam-s are divided
5. Buzurg Leo fire into three groups. Within a group, each
6. Zengiulah Virgo earth maqam is associated with a different ele-
7. Rahawi Libra air ment [21].
8. Husaini Scorpio water This modal system shows the direct
application of astronomical concepts to
9. Hijaz Sagittarius fire music. Aside from providing the
10. Abu Salk Capricorn earth extramusical-especially astronomical-
11. Nawa Aquarius air association, the system is also numeri-
cally significant, featuring the numbers
12. 'Ushshaq Pisces water
12, 7, 4, and 3, the numbers particularly
AVAZ-s important in Islamic numerology.
Djumaev, an Uzbek scholar, suggests
Avaz Planet Element on the basis of a unique manuscript
from the eleventh century by Nishapuri
1. Gawasht Saturn earth that this system of 12 maqam-s is a result
2. Naw Riz Jupiter fire of the transformation of the pre-Islamic
3. Salmak Mars fire Persian system of seven modes, parde-s,
4. Shahnaz Sun fire associated with the seven planets into
5. Hisar Venus water the 12-mode system associated with the
Zodiac [22]. The system of al-Ladhiqi
6. Gardaniya Mercury mixed temperaments
actually presents the combination of
7. Mayah Moon air
both systems.
SHU'BA-s Subsequent writers continue to com-
plete the system, associating the modes
Shu'ba Element with elements, cardinal directions, hu-
man body fluids, utterances of the
1. Yakgah water prophets or animal sounds, assigning
2. Ddigah air them appropriate times for their perfor-
3. Sahg h earth mance and ascribing to them therapeu-
4. Chahargah fire tic properties, thus creating the system
of ethos connecting music with the cos-

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mos. The selection of music in particu- tory training dominates, musiciansed-Din are Rumi, founder of the order and
lar modes performed in appropriate only vaguely aware that such associa- a poet), taqsim (instrumental prelude)
manners at the appropriate time assures tions had existed in the past. The and peshrev (orchestral piece). The core
the proper harmony with the universe. younger generation of Egyptian musi- of the ritual is a sema section with four
This harmony is beneficial to listeners cians, although capable of reading theo- salam-s (salutations), in which the der-
and is the basis for the therapeutic prop- retical treatises on music in Arabic, are vishes, with the accompaniment of a
erties of specific musical modes, maqam- generally unaware of the ethos. A simi- classical music ensemble, perform a
s. The therapeutic properties of music lar situation exists in Turkey. "dance." After greeting the sheikh, they
were recognized widely. In Turkey, Mo- There are two questions to which cur- begin to rotate, whirling with the out-
rocco and other places, both in the past rently I can give only fragmentary an- stretched arms around their own axis, at
and at present, hospitals prescribe the swers: the same time encircling the space in a
listening of music to patients as part of 1. To what extent are thecounterclockwise
symbolic direction. It is under-
their treatment [23]. and specifically astronomicalstood, at least among some practitio-
associa-
Theoretical treatises on music were ners, to
tions in music consciously applied that the dance represents the
the
generated in all parts of the Islamic movement
variety of musical performances andof celestial
rec- bodies with which
world, from Morocco to Central Asia the dervishes, through the dance, iden-
ognized as such by the practitioners?
(Bukhara, Samarqand, Kashmir and 2. To what extent are the symbols
tify themselves. In the fourth salam, the
other places). Some elements of the sys-encoded in musical structure, sheikh joins the dervishes and whirls in
perhaps
the center
without being recognized as such
tems presented in these treatises were de- of the circle of the brothers,
by the
veloped in the centers of the Islamic carriers of the traditions? in a position similar to Earth (or the
world and spread to the peripheries; oth- The awareness of extramusical asso-
sun) in the cosmological system.
ers developed in the peripheries and Similar symbolism can be seen in the
ciations of music is greater among musi-
ritual of another Turkish brotherhood,
later were accepted in the centers. Thecians associated with the sufi movement.
treatises often underwent various Throughout history in many places that of the Jerrahi-Halveti. There, dur-
changes and sometimes acquired the Islamic world, the sufi-sing
within ele- were the ritual dance, the concentric
ments of systems from surrounding cul-
the main supporters of music. Whilecircles
the of dervishes move around the
Islamic legal
tures-for example, systems developed in sheikh, who stands in the center of the
orthodoxy was generally
Kashmir absorbed some Indic elements. unsympathetic to music, considering circle.
itHere also some of the dervishes
to be one of the malahi (forbiddeninterpret
In the central part of the Islamic world plea- this dance as a representation
(Turkey, Egypt, Iraq), the development sures), the sufi-s actually used music of celestial
and bodies.

of music theory emphasized the techni- dance as a part of their ritual and as It a
is perhaps more difficult to deter-
cal aspects of music-the problemsmeans of to achieve ecstasy. Consequently, mine the extent cosmological symbolism
scale, mode, rhythm and composition. many musical genres, including some is present in musical structure. During
Mystical aspects were disappearing classical traditions, were developed the formative period, some stylistic fea-
gradually from the mainstream of theo- within sufi circles. For example, intures Tur- of specific genres could have been
retical treatises. In the peripheries, espe-
key a branch of the classical Turkish consciously
mu- developed in concordance
cially in Central Asia, the situation wassic sanat musikasi was developed within with the symbolic system. Transmitted
reversed. After the seventeenth century, the circles of the Mevlevi-s, the so-called orally, the symbolic significance may
perhaps as a result of a diminishing"Whirling
of Dervishes." Similarly, much have ofbeen lost while the stylistic ele-
the Persian classical tradition that exists
the general level of musical literacy dur- ments were preserved. A number of
today as the dastgah system was devel-
ing a difficult historical period, the treat- ethnomusicologists have searched for
ment of the technical aspects of music oped within sufi circles and was associ- such hidden symbolism. I will mention
had disappeared, while the extramusical ated with sufi mystical poetry, as was the here the research done by Slawomira
association of music remained. In places Kashmiri classical tradition sufyana Zeranska-Kominek of the University of
such as Kashmir, theoretical treatises musiqi (sufi music). Warsaw [24]. She has analyzed the struc-
emphasizing the classification of the The Mevlevi ritual begins with the ture of the instrumental sections of the
modes and their association with the Zo- naat Mevlana (hymn to the MevlanaJelal Tajik-Uzbek shashmaqam tradition. She
diac constellations, utterances of the
prophets, sounds of objects and animal
Table 3. Extramusical associations of maqam-s in Ramuz-e-Musiqi by Aziz.
voices continue to be written today-for
example, Ramuz-e-Musiqi of Sheikh MAQAM ZODIAC VOICE PROPHET DISEASE
Abdul Aziz of Kashmir.

Table 3 illustrates the summary of the 1. 'Ushshhaq Scorpio cock Musa smelly winds
2. Nava Aquarius nightingale sciatica
system of Aziz.
Much work needs to be done to estab-
3. 'Araiq Gemini cow Yaqub cooling the heat
4. Hijaz Virgo alaq bird Ibrahim ear and left side pain
lish the extent to which extramusical as-
5. Husayni Sagittarius horse Da'iid fever
sociations of music have been and are 6. Busalik Libra lioness Yunis headache
7. Zengola Capricorn camel tick of the face and
known to music practitioners. The level
diarrhea
of literacy of musicians varies greatly
8. Isfahan Taurus goat Yusuf influenza and headache
throughout the vast area of Islamic
9. Rast Aries elephant Adam paralysis
countries. The education of musicians
10. Rahavi Pisces crow Muhammad kidneys
has shifted from traditional oral trans-11. Kchak Cancer infant cry heat of the heart
mission to more systematized conserva- 12. Buzurg Leo chakur bird intestines
tory training. In places where conserva-

Pacholczyk, Music and Astronomy in the Muslim

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I!|o

noticed that the individual phrases
(khona) of these sections became in-
creasingly longer and that their range
was increasingly expanded. She was able
to quantify the data and find that the
mathematical algorithm underlying this
expansion corresponds to those of some
spirals. I do not know whether the
spirality of the form is understood by the
carriers of the tradition as the represen-
tation of the cosmic model. The regular-
ity of the model, however, indicates the
purposefulness of structure and strongly
suggests such an interpretation.
Ahmet Yurur, in his work on the music
of the Turkish Alevi-s, found that the
structure of some pieces of ritual music
of the miraclama, the miraculous journey
of Muhammad to heaven, is organized
according to the model of the arc of as-
cent and arc of descent-the concepts
essential in the worldview of the Alevi-s- certainly suggest such a possibility. We10. Papadopoulo [6] p. 102.
which is also understood by scholars are
the representation of a spiral [25].
The spiral as a model can be seen in
mic mode and consisting of a series of References and Notes
songs (san'a-s). Although the succession 1. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cos-
of the mizan-s only to some extent shows mological Doctrines (Boulder, CO: Shambhala, 1978).
acceleration, within the mizan-s the prin-2. Nasr [1].
ciple of acceleration is clear. Each mizan
3. Shamsu'd-Din Muhammad Hafiz, Divan, Nazir
begins with slow songs. After several Ahmad and S.M. RezaJalali Na'ini, eds. (Tehran:
songs, the speed increases in the section Amir Kabir, 1982) p. 9. Translation by M. Hajarian
named al-qantra al-ula, the first bridge. It andJ. Pacholczyk. The line "How I will take off my
blue garb" literally means "How I will cast away my
remains generally steady for the next hypocrisy."
few songs, and then increases again dur-
4. Idris Shah, The Sufis (New York: Doubleday,
ing al-qantra ath-thania, the second1977).
bridge. Toward the end of a mizan the
5. Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Is-
speed again increases rapidly. lam (Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina
Are we, in the absence of a direct con-Press, 1975).
firmation of the understanding of such6. Alexandre Papadopoulo, Islam and Muslim Art
cosmological models by practitioners (New York: Harry Abrams, 1979).
and carriers of the traditions, justified to 7. Papadopoulo [6] p. 102.
interpret musical structures symbolically?
8. Henry Corbin, Histoire de la Philosophie Islamique,
The overwhelmingly strong symbolism in 2 Vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1964).
all the Islamic arts and philosophy pro-
9. Papadopoulo [6] p. 102.
vides great circumstantial evidence and
as faced with the same dilemma that 11. Amnon Shiloah, The Epistle on Music of the Ikhwan
al-Safa (Tel-Aviv: Tel-Aviv Univ., 1978) p. 247.
Papadopoulo faced in his interpretations
of the design of miniatures through 12. spi-
Shiloah [11].

the music of many parts of the Islamic rals. He realized that direct confirmation 13. Shiloah [11].
world. I found it as an underlying model does not exist and, perhaps, even could 14. Shiloah [11].
in the process of acceleration, for ex- not exist. The underlying structures be-
15. Shiloah [11] pp. 44-45.
ample, within suites in the sufyana musiqi longed to a hidden, secret knowledge
of Kashmir and in the structure of the that is not available to everyone and16. is Shiloah [11] p. 34.
mizan sections of the Andalusian suites maintained in the hands, or rather 17. Shiloah [11] p. 36.
of Morocco. In the Sufyana of Kashmir,
minds, of the few initiated persons. Such
18. Shiloah [11] p. 37.
the suite (maqam) is a succession knowledge
of often can prove to be very
19. Alexander Djumaev, "Traktat o Muzyce
songs in one melodic mode (maqam),fragile. Papadopoulo was fortunate toMuhammada Niszapuriego, Unikatowy Zabytek
grouped according to rhythmic modes find some indirect support for his inter-
Sredniowiecznej Kultury Wschodu," Muzyka, No. 3,
pp. 45-55.
(ta-s). Songs in slower and longer rhyth- pretation. In India, during the Mughal
mic modes are followed by songs period, in at the courts of the rulers, the
20. Rodolfe (Baron) d'Erlanger, La Musique Arabe,
shorter and faster ones. There is thus an Vol. 4 (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1939).
production of miniatures was performed
overall acceleration on the level of the on a large scale, and the workshops de-21. d'Erlanger [20] pp. 428-441.
entire suite. Additionally, each of veloped the specializations. There were arti-
22. Djumaev [19].
two sections (asta'i and antara) of indi- sans specializing in backgrounds, land-23. Yetkin Ozer, personal communication.
vidual songs begins at a slow speed and scapes, figures, faces, etc. Others
accelerates towards the end. Thus the 24. Slawomira Zeranska-Kominek, Symbolika Struktur
designed the miniatures. He found that Modalnych (Warsaw: Instytut Muzykologii, 1986).
acceleration can also be seen on the these designers, who actually did not
25. Ahmet Yurur, "Miraclama in the Liturgy of the
level of the individual pieces.paint In the
anything, were paid the highest Alevi of Turkey," doctoral dissertation, Univ. of
Andalusian tradition of Morocco, the amounts of money [26]. Perhaps they Maryland Baltimore County; Ann Arbor, MI: Univ.
Microfilms, 1989.
suites (nawba-s) are composed of sec- were the ones who knew. We are still
tions (mizan-s), each in a different rhyth- looking for such evidence in music. 26. Shiloah [11] p. 101.

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