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Foulcher - Struggle in Indonesian Literature
Foulcher - Struggle in Indonesian Literature
Foulcher - Struggle in Indonesian Literature
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Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
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A SURVEY OF EVENTS
SURROUNDING "MANIKEBU"*
The Struggle For Cultural and Intellectual Freedom
in Indonesian Literature
* This is the first chapter of a thesis entitled " "Manifes Kebudajaan" : The
Struggle for Cultural and Intellectual Freedom, and its Relation to Modern
Indonesian Poetry", submitted to the Department of Indonesian and Malayan
Studies, University of Sydney, as part requirement for the Degree of B.A.
(Hons.) 1968.
1 Jassin (1951, p. 11) mentions Gelenggang as a gathering of artists founded on
19th November, 1946 by Chairil Anwar. Rather than an actual organisation,
it was a spiritual bond existing among artists who used a supplement to the
periodical Siasat as their mouthpiece.
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430 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 431
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432 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 433
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434 KEITH R. FOULCHER
Antara ('Seni untuk Seni' dan 'Seni untuk Keindahan') itu terdapat perbedaan
antara siang dan maiam, seperti djuga perbedaan antara wanita tj antik jang kita
biarkan melintas didalam kehidupan kita dan wanita jang kita sekap didalam
kehidupan kita, artinja jang kita peristeri. Jang satu jang kita biarkan melintas
itu hanja memuaskan mata kita sadja untuk seketika sadja, sedangkan jang lain
itu memberikan kejakinan kepada kita, bahwa ia akan memperkaja djiwa kita,
membantu kehidupan kita. Jang satu tj antik kosong, jang lain tj antik berisi, jang
satu beautiful, tapi jang lain beauty. Keindahan kosong, jang dangkal dan jang
seketika itu sadja, itulah hasil daripada "Seni untuk Seni", sedangkan keindahan
jang diberikan "Seni untuk Keindahan" adalah sesuatu jang memperkaja djiwa,
jang berisi, jang kekal, pendek kata jang berguna bagi manusia.13
The conflict has been rather, as Burton Raffel expresses it, a question
of 'this sort of awareness, this intensely communal feeling' as. opposed
to 'an insistence upon certain prescribed forms of social awareness,
certain kinds of literary expression as opposed to certain other kinds'.14
Jassin, himself a member of the group which later came into head-on
political conflict with Lekra was, in the early years of its: inception,
hesitant about the contribution which an art having the obligation to
educate, and increase the spirit of the people's struggle, could make
to the development of literature, but at the same time prepared to
acknowledge that the ultimate criterion for the validity of a work
of art was the honesty of its conceptor.15 On the side of the artists and
critics opposing Lekra, the basic issue has always been, a defence of
the artist's rights as an individual having adequate freedom and means
of expression, and a recognition of the contribution he can make as an
individual to an art which is national, and at the same time, universal.
It is the common belief of those writers who opposed Lekra on its
inception and those who fought it during the political conflicts of the
early I960's that art must serve humanity and not a political ideal.
While it is my intention to avoid, as far as possible, subjectivity in
13 'Between ('Art for Art's sake' and 'Art for Beauty') there is the difference
between night and day, or the difference between a pretty woman we let flash
by in our lives and a woman we lock up in our lives, i.e., whom we marry.
The one, whom we let flash by, is only satisfying to our eyes for a moment,
while the other gives us the conviction that she will enrich our minds, con
tribute to our lives. The one is empty charm, the other is meaningful charm.
The one is beautiful but the other beauty. Empty beauty, which is shallow
and ephemeral, is the product of 'art for art's sake', while the beauty which
comes from 'art for beauty' is something which enriches the mind, which is
meaningful, eternal, in short, which has some usefulness for mankind'.
"Voice of Malaysia" interview with Idrus, Kuala Lumpur, 8-7-1964. Idrus was
replying to an attack by Adnan Basalaman in Bintang Timur, 10th May, 1964.
* Raffel (1967), p. 140.
15 Jassin, Gema Tanah Air (Echoes of our Homeland), Djakarta, 1959, p. 13.
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 435
approach, I think it fair to say that Lekra, on the other hand, has
accepted the artist only in as much as his work contributes to the
political advancement of a socialist state.16 And whatever the motives
of the artists who did adopt this ideal, if we continue to' regard them as
artists, it is difficult to understand the loss of individuality and decline
in artistic value in the works they produced, as well as; the vehement
and narrow-sighted attacks they continued to level against the 'non
aligned' writers of the 1960's grouped together around the literary
periodical Sastra, and defending their freedom as creative artists.
It is this conflict between the years 1961 and 1965 which represents
the climax of the problem, and for our overall understanding, requires
a more detailed discussion.17
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436 KEITH R. FOULCHER
The Lekra attacks were extended to any writers outside its sphere
of influence, and a general attack on Islamic writers was launched
through accusations that Hamka's Tenggelamnja Kapal van der Wijk
was a plagiarism.24
In December 1962, Sastra announced its literary awards for the
year. Among those cited for awards were Motinggo Boesje, Virga
Belau and M. Poppy Hutagalung. Each of these three in turn rejected
the award, their letters of rejection appearing in the leftist daily, Bintang
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 437
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438 KEITH R. FOULCHER
30 ..the indispensable conditions for a writer are freedom and inner joy, which
implies that the writer serves... universal humanity. The writer is not
responsible to his publisher, as in a capitalist society. Also he is not responsible
to his government as in a communist society. But he is responsible to the
society formed by his readers, as universal humanity. For that reason, in a
capitalist society, the obstacle for the writer is the commercial tendency of
his publisher, while in a communist society it is the authoritarian tendency
of his government'. Minggu Pagi, 7-7-63.
31 My notes on the actual recording of events are taken from D. S. Muljanto
(1967).
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 439
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440 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 441
Soedjatmo'ko addressed the group's first meeting, and urged the young
leaders who composed it that they should above all not lose confidence
in themselves. He advocated rationalism in discussion and comparative
studies of modernisation in other parts of the world, in order for them
to understand the present situation and how it had come about. Some
of the members of the group (among themi Wiratmo Sukito and
Gunawan Mohamad) rejected this approach in favour of immediate
and direct action. The group, split, and it was this faction, feeling the
need for political action, which headed in the direction of the Manifesto.36
The remainder of the group, holding to' the guidelines set down, by
Soedjatmoko, considered the political situation and President Sukarno
to be merely a phenomenon in the process of modernisation which
Indonesia was experiencing. For this reason they did not consider the
political situation a necessary hindrance to their continued development.
So it was that they continued to reject the Manifesto in principle.
Thus, to a certain extent, Manijes Kebudajaan represents only one
aspect of the situation, and must be seen in the context of a broad
frame of suppressed intellectual activity current in society. It should
not be imagined that it was the only reaction to1 the political domi
nation of art.
36 It was probably at this point that Wiratmo Sukito and his colleagues became
involved in the proposed liason with SOKSI (Central Organisation of Socialist
Workers of Indonesia). See Wiratmo Sukito (stencilled), p. 6.
37 'With the aesthetics of the "universal humanism" group, who deny the dividing
lines between friend and foe of the revolution, we have no similarity or
contact : they are our enemies, whom we will resolutely crush, because they
serve the enemies of the revolution, behind all kinds of masks and variations
of term, among them the mask of 'in the name of aesthetics'.' (in a report
of the plenary session of LEST RA/Lekra, Surabaja, 3-11-63.)
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442 KEITH R. FOULCHER
Virga Belati claimed that it was not only the concept which had
to be fought, but in addition its supporters, had to be destroyed and
all trace of them removed from Indonesia.38 Rejection of the concept
was even reported from the Surakarta head of IKAT (Ikatan Keke
luargaan Anggauta Tentara - League for Family Spirit Among Army
Members), who declared that universal humanism as proposed in the
Manifesto did not belong in the revolutionary spirit which had to be
possessed by troops of the People's Army.39
A conference of artists belonging to the Lekra-^KN group in Medan,
North Sumatra, on 30th January, 1964, declared its joint intention, to
crush the Manifesto and the Malaysia concept.40 Clearly, the Manifesto
was considered a political issue. The concept of 'universal humanism'
was dubbed reactionary, because it was. anti-Manipo?. Sastra still
asserted that its confrontation was a literary and cultural one, which
was aimed not at individuals, groups, or the state, but at a principle.
As the conflict was a matter of principle, they had no alternative but
to continue their creative activity. Still holding to its original declared
belief that art was not bound to any political ideology, it had, in 1963,
included poetry by Dodong Djiwapradja, one of the prominent social
realist poets. In a letter to* the editors, the poet had expressed his
objection to the inclusion :
Dalam madjalah Sastra no. 9/10 - Th. Ill - 1963 pada halaman 21 dst.nja sdr.
telah memuat sadjak saja "Pasir Putih, Pantai Sanur". Saja berkeberatan atas
pemuatan sadjak tsb. Keberatan saja itu pada pokoknja didasarkan atas. hal2 sbb. :
Bahwa sadjak saja itu tidak tjotjok untuk madjalah saudara jang sudah mem
punjai pendirian politik a la "Manifes Kebudajaan" dan a la "KKPSI".41
38 (in) Sekali lagi tentang Hum?num? Universil (Once again on the subject of
Universal Humanism), Berita Indonesia (BI), 10-11-63.
39 Warta Bhakti (WB), 27-2-64.
40 Har?an Harap an (Medan), 3-2-64.
41 'In Sastra, No. 9/10 - Th. Ill - 1963, p. 21 f., you included my poem, 'White
Strand, Sanur Beach'. I object to its inclusion, and my objection is based
fundamentally on the following grounds: That poem of mine is not fitting
for your magazine, with its political standpoint ? la "Cultural Manifesto" and
? la "KKPSI'V (Published in HR, 23-2-64.)
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 443
success, and the Afro-Asian Conference was never held. In its place,
Sitor Situmorang led the organisation of a film festival, which was
attended by President Sukarno. The KKPSI was discredited by
Sukarno, and his statements in support of Communist China were
seen as a reaction to KKPSI's repudiation of the participation and
leadership of the PKI.42
What may once have appeared a safety-valve for Manikebu, the high
importance placed on the official state ideology of Pantjasila, was now
no longer valid. Hesitantly, its supporters had declared themselves
followers of Manipol, but refused to commit themselves to1 the new
concept of NASAKOM. This was sufficient basis for a continuation
of the attack by Aidit, in March, 1964 :
Sekarang ini ternj ata ada golongan jang dikenal umum sebagai "kaum
Manikebu", jang merasa ber hak berbitjara tentang "revolusi" tanpa menjebut
Manipol, jang merasa tjukup menjatakan dirinja pendukung Pantjasila tanpa
mendukung Manipol, dan baru setelah diganjang dari kiri dan kanan, mereka
memproklamisasikan dirinja sebagai "pendukung Manipol". Tapi mereka tetap
berkepala batu tidak menjatakan persetudjuannja pada Nasakom. Padahal perso
alannja sederhana sekali : setudju Pantjasila harus setudju Manipol, dan setudju
semuanja ini harus setudju Nasakom".43
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444 KEITH R. FOULCHER
Clearly, the political left considered the Manifesto and its adherents
a danger to> the national struggle, and had used their influence to impart
this fear to the President. For on 8th May, 1964, the following
Presidentical decree was issued, banning the Manifesto:
"Kami, Presiden Republik Indonesia, Panglima Tertinggi Angkatan Perang,
Pemimpin Besar Revolusi, dengan ini menjatakan bahwa, demi keutuhan dan
kelurusan djalannja Revolusi dan demi kesempurnaan ketahanan Bangsa, apa jang
disebut "Manifesto Kebudajaan" jang disingkat mendjadi "Manikebu" dilarang.
Sebab2 larangan itu ialah karena Manifesto Politik Republik Indonesia sebagai
pant jaran P?ntja Sila telah mendjadi garis besar haluan Negara dan tidak
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 445
mungkin didampingi dengan Manifesto lain, apalagi kalau Manifesto lain itu
menundjukkan sikap ragu2 terhadap Revolusi dan memberi kesan berdiri disam
pingnja, padahal demi suksesnja Revolusi, maka segala usaha kita, djuga dalam
lapangan kebudajaan, harus kita djalankan diatas rei Revolusi menurut petundjuk2
Manipol dan bahan Indoktrinasi lain2nja".47
Two days after the decree, Jassin and others forwarded a letter of
apology to the President, pledging obedience to the ban.48 Nevertheless,
this did not decrease the ardour of the leftist press, which, feeling itself
in possession of the victory laurels, wasted no time in declaring its
support for the ban. Har?an Rakjat took the decree as a stern warning
from the President that any activities not on the rails of the Revolution
would immediately be crushed by those with political power.49 Bintang
Timur described the ban as proof that Manikebu was a threat to the
course of the Revolution in the field of culture.50 Warta Bhakti added
its voice to the approval of the ban, insinuating that the Manifesto1 had
been an attempt by banned political parties to keep alive their influence
in the field of culture.51 On the previous day, it had included a report
of the first Dies Natalis of Bakri Siregar's Akademi Sastra dan Buda ja
'Multatuli' ('Multatuli' Academy of Literature and Culture). On this
occasion, joto, one of the founders of Lekra, and by now a prominent
PKI figure, had been invited to deliver a lecture on 'The Concepts
of Multatuli52 and Modern Democratic Literary Movements'. This
provided another ideal opportunity for an attack on Manikebu. He
discussed Multatuli as a revolutionary democrat, not a nationalist, yet
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446 KEITH R. FOULCHER
53 ?we regret that Multatuli has passed on prematurely; but the Manikebuis
thank God for it, because if Multatuli were still alive, Manikebu would
certainly not last any longer than 24 hours". (WB, 10-5-64.)
54 Reported extensively in BT, 12-5-64.
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 447
jang diberikan set jara tertulis maupun li san oleh tokoh2 jang linearecta berla
wanan dengan konsepsi2 Bung Karno, sehingga membingungkan dan mengatjaukan
mahasiswa2.55
Within a short time, Jassin had been dismissed (or 'retooled'), and
a general purge was underway.56 The second edition of Sastra for 1964,
which proved to be the second-last edition, appeared with its leading
article Manijes Tidak Mati (The Manifesto is not Dead) completely
blacked in. On the surface, the battle was over and the Manifesto1 and
its supporters were crushed. Unofficially, the movement was continued
underground. Interestingly enough, since it indicates a basic unity of
aim, the split occurring among the study groups which had led to the
declaration of the Manifesto was to all intents healed. The two groups
now worked together underground as one. There were regular meetings
and interchange of views and reports.57
The complete domination of art by a political ideal, which the banning
of Manikebu officially brought into reality, can be clearly seen in Aidit's
collection of reports presented to the National Conference of Revolu
tionary Literature and Art, held in Djakarta on 28th August, 1964.58
The supporters of Manikebu were condemned as enemies of the
people's struggle:
Menurut kaum Manikebuis, se-djelek2 manusia, misalnja Tengku Abdul Rach
man dan Lyndon Johnson, masih bersinar ctj ahaja Ilahi' didalam dirin ja, masih
ada segi2 baiknja. Oleh karena itu orang2 sematjam itu djangan dimusuhi, malahan
harus diselamatkan.
55 'The first revolutionary duty is to place all institutes of higher education, both
state and private, on the lines of Manipol-Usdek. Through indoctrination. In
addition special supervision of the implementation of lectures on Manipol
Usdek in each University or educational institution must be organised.
The second revolutionary duty is to plan and implement laws for the higher
institutes. As a basis or a guide in leading and developing higher institutes
in the broad sense. Leading and developing the basis and direction of the state
in higher institutes in general.
The third revolutionary duty is to organise a purge, in a small way at
first, of the elements of banned parties, counter-revolutionaries, enemies (Dutch),
intrigue and subversion, elements hostile to the President's concepts, the
symptoms of which are still clearly visible in state universities. There are
still lectures given in written and oral form by figures who stand in direct
opposition to the concepts of Bung Karno, so that they confuse and disturb
the students'. (Editorial, Berita Indonesia, 19-5-64.)
56 For information on this period, told from personal experiences, see True
Story of an Indonesian Student (no author named), stencilled by the Depart
ment of Indonesian Languages and Literatures, Australian National University.
57 See note 35.
58 Aidit, (1964).
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448 KEITH R. FOULCHER
Demikianlah tjara mereka mengebiri adj aran Manipol agar Rakj at tidak
mengenal dan tidak melawan musuh2nja.59
The artist now had to master the party's policies before he could
produce art which would serve the People :
... politik adalah panglima... untuk mengerti inti aspirasi2 Rakj at pekerdja,
sastrawan2 dan seniman2 harus mengetahui, bahkan harus menguasai politik
Partai. Sastra dan seni han ja akan bisa mend j adi sendjata jang ampuh ditangan
Rakj at, djika sastrawan dan seniman mampu memadukan politik jang tepat
dengan ketjakapan artistik.60
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 449
pression,63 and brought into the open once again the supporters and
the ideals of Manikebu.
63 ibid., p. 7.
64 Tirarvi (Tyranny), by Nur Fadjar (Taufiq Ismail).
Benteng (Fortress), by Taufiq Ismail.
Mereka Telah Bang kit (They have Arisen), by Bur Rasuanto.
Perlawanan (Opposition), by Mansur Samin.
Pembebasan (Liberation), Abd. Wahid Situmeang.
Kebangkitan (Resurgence), by five students of the Faculty of Arts, University
of Indonesia.
65 The following notes on the cultural standpoint are a summary of a report
of the symposium in Kesakstan (bulletin of the Indonesian Council of Churches),
May, 1966.
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450 KEITH R. FOULCHER
66 Jassin, (1966).
67 Satyagraha Hoerip, (1966).
68 Aoh K. Hadimadja, (1967).
69 Rachmat Djoko Pradopo, (1967).
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 451
70 ibid., p. 168.
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452 KEITH R. FOULCHER
REFERENCES
Boejoeng Saleh, Kearah Seni Berisi : Sekitar Soal Tendens (Towards Meaningful
Art; Concerning the Problem of Tendency), in Indonesia IV, 6/7, 1953,
pp. 337-344.
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 453
Appendix
a
MANIFES ? KEBUDA
? Kami, para seniman dan tjend
mumkan sebuah manifes kebu
tjita-tjita dan poiitik kebudajaa
:? agi kami kebudajaan adaiah p
manusia. Kami tidak menguta
diatas sektor kebudajaan jang la
sama untuk tudjuan kebudajaan
? Dalam melaksanakan kebudaja
dengan kesungguhan jang sedju
untuk mempiertahankan dan m
sebagai bangsa indonesia ditenga
? pantjasila adaiah falsafah keb
Djakarta, 17 Agu
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454 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 455
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456 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBu" 457
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458 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 459
LITERATUR PANTJASILA
ter diri dari:
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460 KEITH R. FOULCHER
Translation*
CULTURAL MANIFESTO
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 461
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462 KEITH R. FOULCHER
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 463
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464 KEITH R. FOULCHER
that is, that the true history of the working people could not be studied
without a knowledge of their folklore, which continuously and surely
brings into being literary works of high quality, such as Faust, The
Wanderings of Baron von M?nchhaussen, Gargantua and Pantagruel,
Coster's Thyl Eulenspiegel, and Shelley's Prometheus Tortured, because
the ancient folklore goes hand in hand with history without becoming
obsolete and in a very special way.
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EVENTS SURROUNDING "mANIKEBU" 465
PANTJASILA LITERATURE
consists of:
1. bung KARNo: "Nasionalisme, Islamisme danMarxisme".
2. BUNG KARNO "Pidato Lahirnia Panti asila".
3. dr. h. ROESLAN ABDULGANi : "Maniool-Usdek, Pidato Radio".
4. wiRATMO SOEKITO: "Peranan Institusi2 dalam memperkem
bansfkan Sosialisme Kreatif".
5. har?an semesta: "Realitas kelas dan persoalan sosial".
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