Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

Topic 7 Stress-Strain Relationship

The design of machines and structures so that they will function properly requires that we
understand the mechanical behaviour of the material being used. Ordinarily, the only way to
determine how materials behave when they are subjected to loads is to perform experiments
in the laboratory, such as uniaxial tensile test. Any material body deforms when it is
subjected to external forces. The deformation is called elastic if it is reversible, i.e. if the
deformation vanishes instantaneously when forces are removed. The deformation is called
plastic if it is irreversible or permanent.

Stress-Strain Diagram

A typical stress-strain curve under uniaxial tension

for mild steel is shown in Fig. 1. The diagram σ
F
begins with a straight line from the origin O to σU
point A, which means that the relationship between D
stress and strain in this initial region is not only σY B C
linear but also proportional. Point A is called the A
proportional limit. Beyond this point, the stress-
strain curve begins to have a smaller and smaller
slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes
horizontal. Beginning at point B, considerable
elongation of the test specimen occurs with no
noticeable increase in the tensile stress, forming a E
O
plateau until point C. This phenomenon is known ε
as yielding of the material, and point B is called the εp εe
yield point. The corresponding stress is known as Figure 1
the yield stress σY. After undergoing the large strain
that occur during yielding in region BC, the steel material begins to strain hardening. The
elongation of the test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile load. The load
eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point F) is called the
ultimate stress σU. Lateral contract becomes clearly visible after point F and a pronounced
necking of the bar specimen occurs, leading to the final fracture.

Within the region OB the material is elastic; it can be loaded, unloaded, and reloaded along
the same path OB without changing the behaviour. However, when loaded beyond point B
into the plastic range, say, at point D, the unloading will follow the path DE which is parallel
to the initial linear elastic path OA. As a result, only part of the strain, called elastic strain ε e,
is recovered, while the other part of the strain will remain as the permanent strain or plastic
strain ε p. When reloading from point E, the response will be along the elastic unloading
line ED upward to point D, the point at which unloading began during the loading cycle. The
material then follows the original stress-strain curve toward point F. The proportional limit is
now at point D, at a higher stress than the original elastic limit (point B).

In the case of aluminium and of many other ductile materials, the onset of yield is not
characterized by a horizontal portion of the stress-strain curve. Instead, the stress keeps
increasing, although not linearly, until the ultimate strength is reached. Necking then begins,
leading eventually to rupture. See Fig. 2a. For such material, the yield strength can be defined

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by the offset method. The yield strength at 0.2% offset, for example, is obtained by drawing
through the point of the horizontal axis of abscissa ε=0.2%, a line parallel to the initial
straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram. The stress corresponding to the point Y
obtained in this fashion is defined as the yield strength σY at 0.2% offset.
σ σ
σU σU
Y
σY
A

O 0.2% ε O ε
Figure 2(a) for aluminium Figure 2 (b) for brittle material
Brittle materials which comprise cast iron, glass and stone, fail with only little elongation
after the proportional limit (the stress at point A in Fig. 2b). The strain at the time of rupture
is much smaller for brittle than for ductile material.

Linear Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress and
strain, it is said to be linear elastic, see region OA in Fig. 1. This type of behaviour is
extremely important in engineering for an obvious reason – by designing structures to
function in this region, we avoid permanent deformations due to yielding.

Hooke’s Law for uniaxial stress

The linear relationship between the axial stress σ and the axial strain ε in simple axial tension
or compression is expressed by equation
σ = Eε (1)
in which E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of elasticity for the material,
the slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region OA in Fig. 1. This equation
is commonly known as Hooke’s Law. E is often called Young’s modulus.

The axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contract (contraction normal to the direction of
the applied load), which is proportional to the axial strain if the material is linearly elastic.
The ratio of these strains is a material property known as Poisson’s ratio, denoted by ν,
lateral strain ε′
ν =− =− (2)
axial strain ε
The minus sign is inserted in the equation because ε′ and ε normally have opposite signs. The
lateral strain ε′ caused by the axial stress σ can then be expressed as follows:
ε ′ = −νε = −ν σ E (3)

Hooke’s Law in Shear

The properties of a material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct shear tests

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or from torsion tests. The shear stress-strain diagrams plotted from the results of these tests
are similar in shape to tension-test diagram (σ−ε) for the same material, although they differ
in magnitudes.

For the initial linearly elastic region, the shear stress τ and shear strain γ are proportional, and
therefore we have the following equation for Hooke’s law in shear:
τ = Gγ (4)
in which G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of rigidity).

Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress

Let us begin by considering the normal strain εx, εy, and εz in plane stress (σz = 0) in Fig 3a.
y y
aεx
σy a
cεz c
bεy

τxy
b
σx
O O
x x

z z
Figure 3(a) Stress element in plane stress Figure 3(b) deformation under normal stresses

Normal stresses σx and σy elongate or shorten

the element in the x, y and z directions but cause y
no distortion of the element as shown in Fig.3b.
The shear stress τxy has no tendency to elongate
or shorten the element in x, y and z directions, in
other words, the lengths of the sides of the
element do not change, as shown in Fig. 3c. The 0.5π-γxy
shear stress causes only a distortion of the O
element such that each z face becomes a x
rhombus. 0.5π-γxy
z
As already mentioned before, a uniaxial stress,
e.g. σx, not only produces elongation in x Figure 3(c) deformation under shear stress
direction, but also causes lateral contraction in y
and z directions, respectively. Hence, the strain εx in plane stress is caused by both σx and σy.

According to Hooke’s Law for uniaxial stress, the strain εx in x direction due to the stress σx is
equal to σx/E. Also, the strain εx in x direction due to the stress σy (lateral contraction) is
equal to −νσy/E. Thus, the resultant strain in the x direction is
σx σy
εx = −ν (5a)
E E

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In a similar manner, we have

σx σy
ε y = −ν + (5b)
E E
σx σy
ε z = −ν −ν (5c)
E E
The shear strain is related to the shear stress by the Hooke’s law in shear as follows
τ xy
γ xy = (6)
G
These equations can be solved simultaneously for the stresses in terms of the strains:
E
σx =
1 −ν 2
(ε x + νε y )
E
σy =
1 −ν 2
(ε y + νε x ) (7)

τ xy = Gγ xy
They are known collectively as Hooke’s law for plane stress.

Generalised Hooke’s Law (for general state of stress)

If the material follows Hooke’s law, we can obtain the relationships between the normal
stresses and normal strains by using the same procedure as for the plane stress. The strains
produced by the stresses acting independently are superimposed to obtain the resultant strains.
Thus we arrive at the following equations for the normal strains:
σx σy σz
εx = −ν −ν
E E E
σx σy σz
ε y = −ν + −ν (8)
E E E
σx σy σz
ε z = −ν −ν +
E E E
These equations can then be solved simultaneously for the stresses in terms of the strains:
E
σx =
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
[ ]
(1 − ν )ε x + ν (ε y + ε z )
E
σy =
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
[
(1 − ν )ε y + ν (ε x + ε z ) ] (9)

E
σz =
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
[ ]
(1 − ν )ε z + ν (ε x + ε y )
The relationships between the shear stresses and shear strains are simply expressed by the
Hooke’s law in shear as follows
τ xy = Gγ xy τ xz = Gγ xz τ yz = Gγ yz (10)

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Example 1 The homogeneous plate ABCD is subjected to a biaxial loading as shown

below. It is known σy = σ0 and that the change in length of the plate in the x direction must be
zero. Denoting by E the modulus of elasticity and ν Poisson’s ratio, determine (a) the
required magnitude of σx (b) the ratio σ0 /εy.

D
B y
x
C
σy
σx

Solution

The stresses at each material point are in plane stress and the components are:
σx, σy = σ0, τxy = 0
Because the change in length of the plate in the x direction is zero, we have
εx =0
According to Hooke’s law in plane stress
σx σy
εx = −ν
E E
We obtain
σx σ0
−ν =0
E E
Thus
σ x = νσ 0
According to Hooke’s law in plane stress

εy =
σy
−ν
σx
=
1
( σ 1 −ν 2
)
σ 0 − ν 2σ 0 = 0
( )
E E E E
Therefore
σ0 E
=
ε y 1 −ν 2

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Example 2 The given state of plane stress is known to exist on the surface of a machine
component. Knowing that E=200GPa, ν = 0.3 and G=77GPa, Determine the directions and
magnitudes of the three principal strains.

y εx=300
X
200MPa
R −974
F C 2β
B
x O E A ε
150MPa −γxy/2
S
Y
Solution εave
Plane stress state εy= −1000
γ /2
σx =0, σy = −200MPa, τxy = −150MPa
Hooke’s law for plane stress
σx σy σx σy
εx = −ν = 300 µ ε y = −ν + = −1000 µ
E E E E
σx σy τ xy
ε z = −ν −ν = 300 µ γ xy = = −1948µ
E E G
Draw Mohr’s circle for strain
2 2
εx + εy εx − εy   γ xy 
ε ave = = −350 µ R =   +   = 1171µ
2  2   2 
Principal strains
ε 1 = ε ave + R = 821µ
ε 2 = ε ave − R = −1521µ
ε 3 = ε z = 300µ
Principal directions
− γ xy
tan 2 β = = 1.4985 β = 28.1°
εx −εy
θ p1 = −28.1° θ p 2 = 61.9°
Maximum shear strain
γ max = ε max − ε min = ε 1 − ε 2 = 2342µ

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Plasticity, Idealisation of Stress-Strain Relationship

Real material behaviour in the plastic region is very complex, e.g. as shown in Fig. 1.
Sometimes for the purpose of analysis and design we often represent the actual stress-strain
curve of a material by an idealized or approximated stress-strain curve that can be expressed
as a mathematical function. Some of the most commonly used idealizations are presented
below. The adequacy of a particular idealisation depends on the actual application.

(a) Elastoplastic material (elastic-perfectly-plastic material)

The stress-strain diagram frequently used for structural steel is shown in Fig. 4a. Because
steel has a linearly elastic region followed by a region of considerable yielding, its behaviour
can be represented by two straight lines. The material is assumed to follow Hooke’s law with
Young’s modulus E up to the yield stress σY, after which it yields under constant stress, the
latter behaviour being known as perfect plasticity. The perfectly plastic region continues until
the strains are 10 or 20 times larger than the yield strain εY (strain when yielding first starts).
A material having a stress-strain diagram of this kind is called an elastoplastic material (or
elastic-perfectly-plastic material). By the time strain hardening begins in mild steel material,
the displacements are so large that the structure will have lost usefulness. Consequently, it is
common practice to analyze steel structures on the basis of the elastoplastic diagram.

σ σ

σY σY E′

E E

O εY ε O εY ε
Figure 4a Elastoplastic model Figure 4b Bilinear material model

(b) Bilinear stress-strain diagram

Fig. 4b shows a stress-strain diagram consisting of two lines having different slopes, called a
bilinear stress-strain diagram. In both parts of the diagram the relationship between stress and
strain is linear, but only in the first part the stress is proportional to the strain (Hooke’s law).
This idealized diagram may be used to represent materials with strain hardening.

(c) Ramberg-Osgood Stress-Strain Law

Stress-strain curves for several metals, including aluminium and magnesium, can be
approximated by a single mathematical expression for the entire stress-strain curve. The best
known expression of this kind is the Ramberg-Osgood stress-strain law:
n
σ σ 
ε = + H  (11)
E E
where H and n are constants of the material obtained from tension tests. Most metals have an
n value between 2 and 10.

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Bauschinger Effect

Consider a specimen of a material loaded in tension or compression into the plastic region.
The load is then removed, and the specimen is reloaded in the reverse direction until yield. It
has been observed that the yield stress obtained in the reloading in the reversed direction is
substantially less than the yield stress in the original direction. This phenomenon is called the
Buaschinger effect and is illustrated in Fig. 5a.

σ σ

∆σY
σY σY
2σY

O ε O ε
σY′
∆σY

(a) experimental observation (b) kinematic hardening

model
Fig. 5 The Bauschinger effect

The presence of this effect greatly complicates the modelling of plastic deformation; therefore
a simplified model, called the kinematic hardening model, is usually used to describe it. This
model, as shown in Fig. 5b, assumes that the reduction of the yield stress in the reversed
direction is equal to the stress increment by which the specimen is loaded beyond yield stress
in the original direction.

Example 3 A L=750 mm long cylindrical rod of cross-sectional area Ar = 48mm2 is placed

inside a tube of the same length and of cross-sectional area At = 65mm2. The ends of the rod
and tube are attached to a rigid support on one side, and to a rigid plate on the other, as shown
in the longitudinal section of the following figure. The rod and tube are both assumed to be
elastoplastic, with moduli of elasticity Er = 208GPa and Et = 104GPa, and yield strength (σr)Y
= 248MPa and (σt)Y = 310MPa. If the load P is increased from zero to 25 kN and then
decreased back to zero, determine (a) the maximum elongation of the assembly, (b) the
permanent set after the load has been removed, (c) the corresponding residual stress in the rod
and tube.
Tube Plate
Solution
Rod
The load and displacement of the rod-tube P (δ)
combination are
P = Pr + Pt δ = δr = δt
δ
The strain in the tube and rod is ε=
L

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The yield strains for rod and tube rod are

(σ ) (σ t )Y
(ε r )Y = r Y == 248MPa = 0.00119 (ε t )Y = ==
310MPa
= 0.00298
Er 208GPa Er 104GPa
Therefore, the rod will start to yield first.

When the rod first begins to yield:

(
Pr = (σ r )Y Ar = (248MPa ) × 48mm 2 = 12kN )
Pt = σ t At = Et ε t At = Et (ε r )Y At = 104GPa × 0.00119 × 65mm 2 = 8.04kN

P = Pr + Pt = 20.04kN
(a) Maximum Elongation. According to above analysis, when the load Pmax =25kN, the rod
has reached the plastic range, Pr = 12kN, and the load and stress in the tube are
Pt = P − Pr = 25kN − 12kN = 13kN
Pt 13kN
σt = = = 200MPa (tube is still in the elastic range)
At 65mm 2
The maximum elongation of the assembly is
σt 200 MPa
δ max = δ t = ε t L = L= × 750mm = 1.44mm
Et 104GPa
(b) Permanent Set. As the load P decreases from 25 kN to zero, the unloading is elastic. The
recovered deformation of the assembly δ′ can be determined as follows

δ′ δ′ Er Ar + Et At
Pmax = Er Ar + Et At = δ′
L L L
Pmax L 25kN × 750mm
δ′ = = = 1.12mm
Er Ar + Et At 208GPa × 48mm 2 + 104GPa × 65mm 2

The permanent set after the load P has been removed is

δ p = δ max − δ ′ = 1.44mm − 1.12mm = 0.32mm

(c) Residual stresses

The tube is still in elastic region and the residual stress is
δp 0.32mm
σ t = Et ε t = Et = 104GPa × = 44.37 MPa
L 750mm
The residual internal force in the rod is
Pr = P − Pt = − Pt = −σ t At
The residual stress in the rod therefore is
Pr σ A 44.37 MPa × 65mm 2
σr = =− t t =− = −60.08 MPa
Ar Ar 48mm 2

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Tutorial Questions (set 7)

7.1 Knowing the principal strains on a free surface are 400µ and −50µ, determine (a) the
in-plane maximum shear strain, (b) the maximum shear strain in 3D, using ν=0.30.
Answer: (a) 450µ, (b) 550µ

7.2 For the state of stress shown, knowing that the

σy = −20MPa
E=200 GPa and ν=0.3, determine
(a) the strains, (b) the principal strains, principal
τxy =30MPa
directions and maximum shear strain, (c) the
principal stresses.
Answer: (a) 270µ, −250µ, 140µ, 390µ, 0, 0
σz =40MPa σx =60MPa
(b) 335µ, −315µ, 140µ, 650µ
(c) 70 MPa, −30MPa, 40MPa

7.3 The strain on the surface of an experimental device

made of aluminium (E=70GPa and ν=0.33) were y
measured by means of strain gages. The gages were
oriented as shown on the right, and the measured
strains were: B C
εA =1100µ, εB =1496µ, and εC= −39.44µ.
Determine (a) the principal stresses, (b) the
maximum shear stress and the maximum shear strain. O 40° 40° x
A
Answer: (a) 115.3MPa, 20.5MPa
(b) 57.7MPa, 2190µ

σy
7.4 A rectangular metal plate with thickness t=10mm
is subjected to uniform normal stresses σx and σy,
as shown left. These stresses produce normal
y
strains εx = 480µ and εy = 130µ. Knowing that
E=200GPa and ν=0.3, determine the stresses and σx
O x
the change ∆t in the thickness of the plate.
Answer σx = 114.1 MPa
σy = 60.2 MPa
∆t = −2.61×10-3 mm

7.5 A thin-walled cylindrical steel tank contains

pressurised gas. The tank has a medium radius of
r=500mm and wall thickness of 5mm. The
30°
material has properties: E=210GPa, ν=0.30.
Determine the magnitude of the pressure p when
the reading of the strain gauge in the tank as shown
is 480µ.
Answer: 2.78MPa

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7.6 A rectangular bar with a 40×150 mm A

rectangular cross section supports a
load P at B. A single gauge forming an
angle of 45o with the horizontal is 50mm
C
attached at C located 400mm from the 100mm
end B and 50mm below the bar’s upper
edge. Knowing E = 200GPa and ν=0.3, 400mm
determine the magnitude of the P by a
gauge reading of 240µ.
Answer: P=80kN

7.7* The rigid bar ABC is supported by two links, AD and BE, of uniform 37.5mm×6mm
rectangular cross section and made of mild steel that is assumed to be elastoplastic
with E=200GPa, σY = 250 MPa. The magnitude force P applied at B is gradually
increased from zero to 260 kN. Knowing that a=0.640m, determine (a) the value of the
normal stress in each link, (b) the maximum deflection of point B.
Answer (a) σAD = 250 MPa, σBE = 124.3 MPa (b) 0.622 mm

1.7 m E
1m
A C
B

a
P
2.64 m

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