Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

Topic 8 Failure Criteria

In this part, we will study the yield criteria for ductile materials and fracture criteria for brittle
materials. These criteria are used extensively in the industry for design/assessment purposes.
Only the classical idealisations are discussed here. The precise yield response of real materials
defies accurate formulations.

Safety factor

Structural elements and machine components made of a ductile material are usually designed
so that the material will not yield under expected loading conditions, brittle material not
rupture. Only a fraction of the ultimate-load capacity of the material is utilized when working
load is applied. The ratio of the ultimate stress to the working stress is used to define the
safety factor:
ultimate stress
Safety factor = SF = (1)
working stress

Maximum shear stress criterion (Tresca criterion)

This criterion is based on the observation that the yield in ductile materials is caused by
slippage of material along oblique surfaces and is due primarily to shear stresses. Therefore,
the maximum shear stress criterion, or Tresca criterion (after a French scientist), assumes
that yielding in a ductile material element begins when the maximum shear stress reaches a
critical value τY of a material. Mathematically it is written
τ max = τ Y (2)
τY usually is set equal to the maximum shear stress measured in a simple tensile test (tension
of a bar) or pure shear test (torsion of a shaft). For tensile-test specimen, the yielding of the
material commences at the tensile yield stress σY. Since the maximum shear stress is half of
the tensile axial stress, we have τY = τmax =σY/2.

The maximum shear stress criterion can then be rewritten as follows

τ max = σ Y 2 (3)
For a given state of stress at a material point, there are three principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 as
discussed in the topic of stress analysis. The maximum shear stress is
τ max = Max[ σ 1 − σ 2 2 , σ 2 − σ 3 2 , σ 3 − σ 1 2]
or (4)
τ max = (σ max − σ min ) 2

Maximum shear stress criterion in plane stress

When applying this equation to plane stress, σ3=0, from equation (4) we have
τ max = Max [ σ 1 − σ 2 2 , σ 2 2 , σ 1 2] (5)

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Therefore, if σ1 and σ2 have same signs, we have criterion

σ1 = σ Y or σ2 = σY (6)

And if the signs of σ1 and σ2 are opposite. We have

σ1 −σ 2 = σY (7)

Now draw the yield criterion in the principal stress plane

we have a hexagon for the maximum shear stress criterion σ2
or Tresca criterion as shown in Fig. 1. σY
If a point defined by the principal stresses falls on the
lines of the hexagon, a material begins and continues to
yield, which means plastic (non-recoverable) deformation
will start and continue until the stress level is reduced. -σY σY σ1
Stress points within the hexagon indicate that a material
behaves elastically. No stress points can lie outside the
hexagon for elastoplastic materials. Note that the material -σY
is assumed isotropic, so its stress-strain curves under
tensile and compression are identical. Figure 1

Distortion energy criterion (von Mises criterion)

Another widely accepted criterion of yield for ductile isotropic materials is based on energy
concepts. In this approach, the total elastic energy is divided into two parts: one associated
with the volumetric changes of the materials, and the other causing shear distortions.
Experimental observations show that stresses which only cause volumetric changes, such as
hydrostatic stresses, would not yield the material. It is the shear distortion in the material
which leads to the yielding.

The distortion strain energy, which is the cause of yielding, is expressed by

1
Ud =
12G
[
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 )2 ] (8)

Distortion energy criterion assumes that material starts to yield when the distortion strain
energy at a material point reaches a critical value. By equating the distortion strain energy to
the distortion strain energy in simple tension, one obtains

(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 )2 = 2σ Y2 (9)
This is the mathematical expression for distortion energy criterion for yielding and is often
referred as von Mises yield criterion. It is also convenient to express this criterion as
σ eff = σ Y (10)
where
1
σ eff =
2
[
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 )2 ] (11)

is called as equivalent stress or von Mises stress.

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Distortion energy criterion in plane stress

For plane stress, we have the following criterion

σ 1 2 − σ 1σ 2 + σ 2 2 = σ Y2 (12)
This is an equation of an ellipse. Now draw the yield σ2
criterion in the principal stress plane we have an
ellipse for the maximum distortion energy criterion σY (σY, σY)
as shown in Fig. 2. Any stresses falling within the
ellipse indicate that the material behaves elastically. −σY
Points on the ellipse mean that the material is σY σ1
yielding with the material starts or continues to
deform plastically. And no points are allowed (−σY,−σY)
outside the ellipse for elastoplastic material. This is −σY
the same as that given in the Tresca criterion.
Figure 2

Example 1 For a plane stress of σx = 250MPa, σy = 145MPa and τxy = 124MPa, knowing
the tensile yield stress is σY = 310MPa, determine the safety factor with respect to yield, using
(a) Tresca criterion, (b) von Mises criterion.
Solution
Construct Mohr’s circle for the given state of stress and find
2
1 σ x −σ y 
σ ave = (σ x + σ y ) = 197.5 MPa R =   + τ xy2 = 134.7 MPa
2  2 
Principal stresses
σ 1 = σ ave + R = 332.2 MPa σ 2 = σ ave − R = 62.8 MPa
Because σ3 = 0, therefore maximum shear stress is
1
τ max = σ 1 = 166.1 MPa
2
(a) Tresca criterion
The shear stress at yield is
σY τY 155
τY = = 155 MPa SF = = = 0.933
2 τ max 166.1
(b) von Mises criterion
Introducing a factor of safety into von Mises criterion we write
2
 σY 
σ 12 − σ 1σ 2 + σ 2 2 =   SF = 1.014
 SF 

Example 2 The drive shaft AB on a helicopter may be subjected

to a maximum axial tensile load of 300kN. The 50 mm diameter
drive shaft is made of grade of steel for which the yield strength is σY
= 290MPa. Determine the magnitude of the torque T for which yield
first occurs according to (a) Tresca criterion, (b) von Mises criterion.

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Solution

τxy
y σx
x T
P

Stresses at the material point on the surface are in plane stress and the components are
P 300000 N T
σx = = = 152. MPa, σ y = 0, τ xy = r
A π × (0.025m )2 J
Construct Mohr’s circle for the given state of stress and find
2
1 σx −σ y 
σ ave = σ x = 76.4 MPa, R =   + τ xy
2
= 76.4 2 + τ xy2 MPa
2  2 
Principal stresses
σ 1 = σ ave + R = 76.4 + R , σ 2 = σ ave − R = 76.4 − R
Because σ1 > 0, σ2 < 0 and σ3 = 0 therefore
τ max = R

(a) Tresca criterion. The shear stress at yield is

σY
τY = = 145 MPa
2
At yielding we have

τ max = τ Y i.e. R = 76.4 2 + τ xy2 = τ Y

τ xy = τ Y2 − 76.4 2 = 145 2 − 76.4 2 = 123.2 MPa

Finally we have
4
J 0.5 × π × (0.025m )
T = τ xy = × 123.2 MPa = 3023.8 Nm
r 0.025m

(b) von Mises criterion

Substituting σ 1 = σ ave + R and σ 2 = σ ave − R into von Mises yielding criterion leads to
(σ ave + R )2 − (σ ave + R )(σ ave − R ) + (σ ave − R )2 = σ Y2
3R 2 = σ Y2 − σ ave
2
= 290 2 − 76.4 2 = 78263 , R = 161.5 MPa

Therefore τ xy = R 2 − 76.4 2 = 161.5 2 − 76.4 2 = 142.3 MPa

4
J 0.5 × π × (0.025m )
Finally we have T = τ xy = × 142.3MPa = 3492.7 Nm
r 0.025m

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Maximum normal stress criterion

The maximum normal stress criterion assumes that failure or fracture of a brittle material
occurs when the maximum normal stress (the absolute value) at a point reaches the ultimate
strength σU of the material, regardless of other stresses:
Max[ σ 1 , σ2 , σ3 ]= σ U
(13)

The value of ultimate strength σU is usually determined in a tensile fracture test.

For plane stresses, the structural component will be safe as long as the absolute values of the
principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are both less than σU
σ1 < σU and σ 2 < σU (14)
The maximum normal stress criterion can be expressed
σ2
graphically as shown in Fig. 3. If the point obtained by
plotting the values of the principal stresses falls within the (σU, σU)
square area, the structure component is safe. If it falls
outside that area, the component will fail.
−σU
Experimental evidence indicates that this theory applies σ1
well to brittle materials in all range of stresses. Failure is
characterised by the separation, or cleavage, fracture. The −σU
mechanism differs drastically from the ductile fracture in
which large deformation occurs due to slip along the plane Figure 3
of maximum shear stress.

Mohr’s criterion

In the maximum normal stress criterion discussed above, it has been assumed that the
properties of material in tension and compression are alike. For materials having different
properties in tension and compression, e.g. concrete, Mohr provided an important attempt to
rationalise fracture in brittle material of different tensile and compressive strengths.

Mohr’s criterion is based on Mohr’s circle for stress, because for any state of stress, it can be
represented by Mohr’s-circles (within the largest one in 3D). The criterion assumes:

(1) A rupture test has been conducted under a given state

of stress and the rupture strength determined. The Mohr’s circle for
corresponding Mohr’s circle is then drawn. a state of stress

(2) A state of stress is safe if it is represented by a Mohr’s σa

circle located entirely within the Mohr’s circles
corresponding to the above available tested state of stress. O σb σUT
σ
For example, assume that the tensile test has been conducted
on a given material, and that the value σUT of the ultimate Mohr’s circle
strength in tension has been determined for that material. τ for tensile test
The state of stress corresponding to the rupture of the Figure 4
tensile-test can be represented on Mohr-circle diagrams by

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the circle intersecting the horizontal axis at O and σUT as shown in Fig. 4. For any state of
stress, if its Mohr’s circle is within the tensile test Mohr’s circle, this state of stress is safe.

Several different tests must be conducted on the Failure (tangent) envelope

same material, such as tension, compression
(ultimate strength σUC) and torsion (ultimate τU
strength τU), to represent fractures under different
stress states. The results are represented on the
same plot using their respective largest Mohr’s
stress circles. The points on the envelope of the σUC σUT σ
area covered by these stress circles define the state
of stress at a fracture as shown in Fig. 5. If more
experimental results are available, more accurate Linear approximation τ
envelope can be produced. If only the simple using tension and
compression data
tension and compression test results are available,
then a linear approximation is made by drawing Figure 5
two lines tangent to the two circles representing
the tension and compression stress state at fracture.
σb
Now draw the failure envelope in Fig. 5 in the σUT
principal stress plane (the two principal stresses σa
and σb, which define the largest Mohr’s circle), we
have the failure envelope for Mohr’s criterion as
shown in Fig. 6. Any stresses falling within the σUC O σUT σa
envelope indicate that the material is safe. If it falls
outside that area, the component will fail.

In application of the Mohr’s criterion, there are σUC

three cases when a stress state is considered safe:
Figure 6
Case I σa and σb are both positive, then

σ a < σ UT and σ b < σ UT (15a)

Case I σa and σb are both negative, then

σ a < σ UC and σ b < σ UC (15b)

Case III σa and σb have opposite sign. We can always assume σa > 0 and σb < 0, then

σa σ
− b <1 (15c)
σ UT σ UC
Equation (15c) is for linear approximation.

Example 3 A plane stress state σx = 0, σy = −150 MPa, τxy = 100MPa is expected to occur
in a cast-iron machine base. Knowing that for the grade of cast-iron used σUT = 160 MPa and
σUC = 320 MPa. Using Mohr’s criterion to determine whether rupture of the component will
occur.

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Solution
Construct Mohr’s circle for the given state of stress and find
2
1 σx −σ y 
σ ave = × σ y = −75 MPa R =   + τ xy
2
= 125 MPa
2  2 
Principal stresses (σ3 = 0)
σ a = σ ave + R = 50 MPa σ b = σ ave − R = −200 MPa
Because σa > 0 and σb < 0, using Mohr’s criterion for case III
σa σ
− b = 0.9375 < 1
σ UT σ UC
Therefore, point (σa, σb) is within the failure envelop, No rupture

Example 4 The cast-aluminium rod shown is made

2r=38mm
of an alloy for which σUT = 55MPa and σUC = 110 MPa. y
Using Mohr’s criterion, determine the magnitude of x
axial force P for which rupture should be expected. T
Solution P
Stresses at the material point on the surface are in plane
stress and the components are
P T 170 × 0.016
σx = MPa, σ y = 0, τ xy = r= = 26.42 MPa
A J 0.5π × 0.016 4
Construct Mohr’s circle for the given state of stress and find
2
1 σx −σ y 
σ ave = σ x = 0.5σ x R =   + τ xy
2
= (0.5σ x )2 + 26.42 2
2  2 
Principal stresses
σ 1 = σ ave + R , σ 2 = σ ave − R
Because R > σ ave , therefore σ1 > 0 and σ2 < 0
Plane stress state, σ3 = 0. σa = σ1 > 0, σb = σ2 < 0, using Mohr’s criterion for case III
σa σ σ ave + R σ ave − R
− b =1 − =1
σ UT σ UC 55 110

0.5σ x + (0.5σ x )2 + 26.42 2 0.5σ x − (0.5σ x )2 + 26.42 2

− =1
55 110
Finally
σ x = 33.04 MPa P = σ x A = 26.57 kN

σ x = −88.04 MPa P = σ x A = −70.81 kN

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General comments on material failure and application of failure criteria

(d)

(a) (b) (c) (e)

Figure 10 Failure surfaces for (a) cube specimen of stone or mortar (shear cone);
(b) cast iron or concrete (diagonal shear); (c) concrete (shear cone with column splitting);
(e) shaft of ductile material; (f) shaft of brittle material

There are different failure types under various scenarios (Fig. 10). Different materials may
fail in different mode under a same stress state. The same material may fail in different mode
under different stress state. Appropriate failure criterion should be employed to a specific
material under a specific stress state.

Applicability of failure criteria

1) Triaxial tension (i.e. σ1>σ2>σ3>0)

Failure: brittle fracture
Criterion: maximum stress

2) Triaxial compression (i.e. 0>σ1>σ2>σ3)

Failure: ductile yielding
Criterion: Tresca or von Mises

3) Other stress states

Brittle materials: maximum stress or Mohr’s criterion
Ductile materials: Tresca or von Mises criteria

Warning

1) No criterion is perfectly correct or accurate.

2) Failure mode can be as informative as failure stress.
3) Many aspects vary from material to material.
4) There is no absolute brittle or ductile material.

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Tutorial Questions (set 8)

8.1 For a plane stress of σx =80MPa, σy = −40MPa and τxy =25MPa, knowing the tensile
yield stress is σY =250MPa, determine the safety factor with respect to yield, using (a)
Tresca criterion, (b) von Mises criterion.
Answer: (a) 1.92 (b) 2.19
σy =82MPa
8.2 For the state of stress shown, determine the value
of σz for which yielding first occurs, using (a) τxy =54MPa
Tresca criterion, (b) von Mises criterion. Knowing
that the tensile yield stress is σY =190MPa.
Answer: (a) −90MPa, 110MPa σz
σx =−62MPa
(b) −98.63MPa, 118.63MPa

8.3 A 36mm diameter shaft is made of steel with a σY

=250MPa tensile yield stress. Using the maximum 36mm
shear stress criterion, determine the magnitude of
the torque T at which yield first occurs when T
P=200kN. P
Answer: 708Nm

8.4 A thin-walled cylindrical steel tank contains

pressurised fuel. A strain gauge records the
longitudinal strain in the tank. The material has
properties: E=210GPa, ν=0.30 and σY =300MPa.
Using the von Mises criterion, determine the
reading of the strain gauge when yield first occurs.
Answer: 329.9µ

8.5 A crank is fixed at A and subjected to a vertical

force P at D. The crank has a solid circular cross z y P
section of a 20mm diameter. Knowing that
AB=CD=150mm, BC=300mm and the tensile yield C D
stress σY =250MPa. Using Tresca criterion,
determine the magnitude of the force P when yield
first occurs. A x
B
Answer: 462.8N

8.6 A rod is made of an aluminium alloy for which σUT

38mm
=70MPa, σUC =140MPa and is subjected to a
torque T and axial force P=50kN. Using Mohr’s
criterion, determine the magnitude of the torque T T
for which rupture of the rod will occur. P
Answer: 351Nm

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