Department of Civil Engineering

Course: CIVL 3120

Course Title: Hydraulics

Laboratory 03 – Drag and Energy Dissipation

Due Date: November 28, 2019

Group members:
Roble Mohamed – 215368012
Abstract

Understanding external flow and the relationships between the external flow with objects is
essential in hydraulics and engineering. These applications can range from airplanes in the sky to weirs
used to control water levels, as well as many other every day applications. The following experiment
allowed students to apply the concepts of drag characteristics, and energy dissipation and hydraulic
jumps learned in class within a laboratory setting, to better understand how the concepts apply outside
of the classroom.

This experiment consisted of two parts of which involved experimenting with distinct aspects of
a flowing fluid. The main purpose and objectives for the first part of this lab was to examine how drag
and lift forces around an aerofoil are affected depending on the angle of attack the aerofoil is set at as
well as the speed of the air flowing around it. The objective for the second part of the lab was to study
the relationship hydraulic jumps have with various elements such as Froude number, energy loss, length
of the jump, and upstream and downstream depths at varying flow rates. These values were then
compared to theoretical values based on calculations to see how closely the experimental results
obtained in the lab were to the theoretical results.
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................2
List of Figures...............................................................................................................................................4
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................4
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................5
Objective and Methods...............................................................................................................................5
Procedure....................................................................................................................................................5
Apparatus....................................................................................................................................................6
Data Collected & Numerical Analysis...........................................................................................................7
Part 1.......................................................................................................................................................7
Part 2.....................................................................................................................................................10
Raw Data...........................................................................................................................................10
Questions...........................................................................................................................................11
Discussion Questions.................................................................................................................................13
References.................................................................................................................................................14
Appendix...................................................................................................................................................15
List of Figures
Figure 1: Air Flow Bench Apparatus.............................................................................................................7
Figure 2: Hydraulic Bench Apparatus...........................................................................................................7
Figure 3: Net Drag Force vs Pressure Difference.........................................................................................9
Figure 4: Drag Coefficient vs Reynold's Number........................................................................................10
Figure 5: Drag Force vs Drag Coefficient....................................................................................................10
Figure 6: Froude Number vs h2/h1 ratio...................................................................................................12
Figure 7: Froude Number vs deltah/h1 ratio.............................................................................................13
Figure 8: Froude Number vs L/h2 ratio......................................................................................................13

List of Table

Table 1: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 0°...............................................8
Table 2:Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 10°..............................................8
Table 3: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 20°.............................................9
Table 4: Froude Number, and Velocity Calculations..................................................................................11
Table 5: Observed and theoretical depth, and various head ratios...........................................................11
Table 6: Specific Energy Values..................................................................................................................11
Introduction
Part 1: Drag characteristics in external flow and objects submerged in fluids include two forces:
drag and lift. Drag is due to the pressure or friction and acts in the direction of the fluid flow, whereas
lifts acts in a direction that is perpendicular to the fluid flow. Using the TecQuipment AF10 air flow
bench and AF12 drag force apparatus, drag characteristics of the fluid flow were determined.

Part 2: Weirs are built when the upstream flow of water either needs to be or is attempted to
be controlled. A characteristic often associated with weirs is a hydraulic jump. Hydraulic jumps occur
when free overall flow - from a weir in this case – impacts the channel downstream. This overall flow
exerts strong kinetic energy on the downstream flow which results in a hydraulic jump – created either
to raise the level of water, or for the purpose of energy dissipation due to the hydraulic jump requiring
energy (Chen, 2012). Using the Ogee-crested Weir apparatus, students will be able to model real-life
weir and hydraulic jump examples within a laboratory setting.

Objective and Methods

Part 1:
 Identify standard terminology used regarding drag and lift forces in fluids.
 Understand the relationship between angle of attach and drag force for aerofoil.

Part 2:
 Study the flow pattern and length of a jump
 Determine the relationships between sequent depth, initial depth, Froude number, energy loss,
and the location and lengths of the hydraulic jump
 Compare the measured and theoretical flow depth values to form a hydraulic jump

Procedure
Part 1:
1. The manometer tank on the airflow bench was raised to its maximum height.
2. The angle of attack of the aerofoil was then set to 0°.
3. The tare weight was found by initially placing a load at the end of the balance, and
equilibrating the mass which was then recorded. The fan was initiated to the highest
velocity, and the weight was readjusted by shifting laterally to equilibrate it again.
4. The weight and the pressures were recorded by observing the pitot-static tubes.
5. These steps were repeated for varying velocities, recording up to 5 values. The entire
process was repeated again for angles of attack 10° and 20°.

Part 2:
1. The flume was ensured to be set at a zero-degree slope.
2. The weir was installed inside the flume in a horizontal position; it was ensured that there
were no loose objects of debris inside the flume.
 3. The flume was turned on, and the initial flow rate was set to 80 m 3/h.
4. Once the flow rate was stable, the heights of the water at three points were measured: the
upstream level ho, the supercritical water level between the jump and the weir h 1, and the
downstream water level h2, and finally. length of the jump L was measured.
5. After recording the measurements, the flow rate was reduced by 10 m 3/h and this process
was repeated until a flow rate of 10 m 3/h was reached.
6. The flume was turned off after recording all values.

Apparatus
Part 1: The TecQuipment AF10 air flow bench and AF12 drag force apparatus were employed to
determine the drag coefficient of an aerofoil for varying degrees of attack.

Figure 1: Air Flow Bench Apparatus

Part 2: The experimental flume will be used with an Ogee-crested weir to demonstrate the
hydraulic jump.

Figure 2: Hydraulic Bench Apparatus

The dimensions of the flume are: 309 mm wide, 450 mm deep and 5000mm long. The
dimensions of the Ogee-crested weir are shown in the following figure.

Data Collected & Numerical Analysis

Part 1
1.
2.
3.
Table 1: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 0°

Angle of Attack=0˚
Tare Weight (g)
10
Drag Force (N) Delta P Velocity Area Drag Re
Coefficient
0.10791 100 12.7775313 1.860517241 50771.64755
0.0981 37 7.772268862 0.00058 4.571295433 30883.18753
0.05886 11 4.237827707 9.225705329 16839.05049
Table 1: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 0°

Table 2:Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 10°

Angle of Attack=10˚
Tare Weight (g)
13
Drag Force (N) Delta P Velocity Area Drag Coefficient Re
0.40221 44 8.475655414 15.12692709 33678.10098
0.34335 36 7.66651878 0.000604 15.78283721 30462.98853
0.13734 13 4.607004428 17.48252737 18305.97786
 Angle of Attack=20˚
Tare Weight (g)
14
Drag Force (N) Delta P Velocity Area Drag Re
Coefficient
0.81423 32 7.228063223 21.37795669 28720.78102
0.53955 22 5.993193418 0.00119 20.60525946 23814.01358
0.12753 2 1.807015806 53.57367459 7180.195255
Table 3: Drag Force, Drag Coefficient, and Reynold's Number Values for 20°

4.

Figure 3: Net Drag Force vs Pressure Difference

From analysing figure above it is clear to see that as the attack angle increases, there is a bigger
change in the drag force. For an attack angle of zero, the drag force seems to stay rather constant while
the change in pressure increases dramatically. This is the result of the geometry of the aerofoil being
designed to have a low drag force when experiencing flow head on (at an attack angle of 0°).
 5.

Figure 4: Drag Coefficient vs Reynold's Number

From analyzing the graph above it is clear to see that as the drag coefficient increases, Reynold’s
number decreases. The Reynolds number is at its highest when the angle of attack is at 0°, this make
sense as the aerofoil at this orientation is the most aerodynamic, resulting in a lower drag coefficient
causing a higher Reynold's number. Also, the change in drag coefficient seems to be greatest when the
attack angle is at 20°.

6.

Figure 5: Drag Force vs Drag Coefficient

After gathering the results from the aerofoil at three different attack angles. It is evident to see
that as drag force increases; the drag coefficient decreases. This trend is seen throughout all three
angles in varying degrees. Attack angles 0 and 20 degrees seem to have the steepest decline for the
drag. coefficient while the angle at 10 degrees has the shallowest.
Part 2

Raw Data

Table 4: Froude Number, and Velocity Calculations

deltah (cm) velocity (m/s) Froude Number

0.13 2.054759 3.506650126
0.119 2.029903 3.680950823
0.103 1.997683 3.881594111
0.096 1.872828 3.859736509
0.081 1.892541 4.383632176
0.065 1.797914 4.686934478
0.05 1.797914 5.740298965
0.013 1.284225 4.900692535

Table 5: Observed and theoretical depth, and various head ratios

h1 (m)
h2/h1 h2/h1 deltah/h1 deltah/h1
(observed)
h1 (m) (formula) (observed) (theoretical) (observed) (formula) L/h2
0.035 0.036795087 4.714285714 4.4842944 3.714285714 3.53308 2.121212
0.031 0.031715103 4.838709677 4.7296078 3.838709677 3.752156 2.2
0.027 0.025937091 4.814814815 5.0121271 3.814814815 3.971147 2.307692
0.024 0.024089884 5 4.981344 4 3.985075 1.833333
0.019 0.017483977 5.263157895 5.7195227 4.263157895 4.632813 1.5
0.015 0.013014144 5.333333333 6.147158 4.333333333 4.994566 1.5
0.01 0.007860202 6 7.6333919 5 6.36116 1.333333
0.007 0.00310143 2.857142857 6.4486383 1.857142857 4.191615 2.5

Table 6: Specific Energy Values

Specific
depth Energy (J) deltaE (J)
ho 0.406 0.129979
h1 0.035022
h2 0.165001
Questions

h2
1. =0.5 ¿) [From Fluid Mechanics 3rd Edition, Section 13-8]
h1
From this equation, the derived equation becomes:

h2
h1 =
0.5 (−1+ √ 1+ 8 F r2 )

2.

Froude Number vs h2/h1 ratio

8

7.5

6.5
h2/h1 ratio

6 observed h2/h1
theoretical h2/h1
5.5

4.5

4
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Froude Number at h1

Figure 6: Froude Number vs h2/h1 ratio

The figure is comparing the theoretical and observed values of the Froude number at h1, to the
head loss ratio (h2/h1). There is a linear relationship between the Froude number and the head loss
ratio, for both sets of data. There is how a discrepancy in the linear portion of the observed data where
the h2/h1 ratio decreases. This can be the cause of human errors when measuring the h2 value as the
ratio decrease for 1 data when it should be all linear throughout.


3.

Froude Number vs deltah/h1 ratio

7
6.5
6
deltah/h1 ratio

5.5
5 observed
theoretical
4.5
4
3.5
3
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Froude Number at h1

Figure 7: Froude Number vs deltah/h1 ratio

When comparing the deltah/h1 ratio to h2/h1 ratio figure, they share similar results. Both
figures have the same linear relationship for theoretical and observed data. Also there seems to be a
constant discrepancy at data point 4, this can be the result of human error when recording the h2
height.

4.

Froude Number vs L/h2 ratio

2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
L/h2 ratio

1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Froude Number at h1

Figure 8: Froude Number vs L/h2 ratio

The Froude number and the L/h2 ratio share a linear relationship. There is a steeper portion of the
graph at the beginning of the curve.

5.

Referring to Table 6, water height has a direct relationship with specific energy. Specific energy
seems to decrease as water height decreases. The difference between h1 and h2 specific energies
confirms this analysis, as it shows the h2 having a higher energy than h1 at their respected heights

Discussion Questions
1. The Reynold’s number impacts the drag coefficient because it determines the kind of flow
around the object; laminar or turbulent, and this would affect the amount of drag. If the
Reynold’s number is less than 500, the flow can be considered laminar. In laminar flow, there is
usually a larger wake behind the object as the fluid moves around it, this creates a larger drag
force, which in turn creates a larger drag coefficient. When the Reynold’s number is greater than
2000, the flow is turbulent. When the flow is turbulent, the streamlines create a wake behind
the object, and this reduces the drag and in turn the drag coefficient.

When the Reynold’s number is less than 2000 and the flow is laminar, the streamlines try to
continue going in a uniform direction along the object, and this leaves a large wake behind the
object. This wake causes a large area of low pressure behind the object, which creates a larger
drag force. When the Reynold’s number is greater than 2000, the flow is turbulent and
converges faster behind the object, leaving a smaller wake. This smaller wake creates less of a
low-pressure area and a smaller drag force behind the object than in a laminar flow.

2. Golf balls have a dimpled surface due to the concept of separation. Smooth balls experience a
larger separation, which results in a greater drag force. A dimpled surface on golf balls reduces
the separation, thus reducing the pressure drag acting on the ball (Lectures 16-17). This is
especially important for golfers, who attempt to hit the ball as far they as they with as much as
accuracy as possible. The less the forces acting on the ball, the further it can be hit with better
accuracy.

3. The engineering significance of a hydraulic jump is that it can be used to lower the velocity of a
fluid, such as water, to a more manageable level. There are many cases in engineering where
the flow rate of water is too high. When water has a high flow rate it can erode and damage
anything that is in contact with the water, such as a bridge or even the sides of the river it is
flowing in. By using a hydraulic jump, the water lowers its velocity by increasing its depth. This is
a useful application because it allows an engineer to lower the speed of flowing water to a level
where it will not damage any structure that it is flowing against.

4. They create a hydraulic jump to reduce the velocity of the flow. This will reduce erosion on the
spillway itself, and allow engineers to dissipate the energy from the flow.
 5. It is important for an engineer to know the exact downstream location of a hydraulic jump
because it is used to properly design the channel that will carry the flow after the jump. By
knowing the length and position of the hydraulic jump, as well as the depths of the upstream
and downstream sections an engineer can effectively design a channel to hold the flow of the
water through it, since the energy dissipation can be computed to realize the energy lost in the
jump.

6. The flowrate impacts the hydraulic jump by as it dictates distance the hydraulic jump would
occur from the Ogee-crested weir. As the flowrate increases, so will the distance of the
hydraulic jump. The location changes as the with a higher flowrate the supercritical flow (F1>1)
can be held for a longer distance thus creating increasing the distance of the hydraulic jump.

7. The hydraulic jump would occur at a length that would be beyond the apparatus. When the flow
is lower, the hydraulic jump occurs at a lower length. When the flow is higher, it occurs at a
higher length

References
Drag of a Sphere. (2017). Grc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 22 November 2017, from
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/dragsphere.html
Khan, U. (2017). Energy dissipation in a hydraulic jump. Retrieved from
https://learn.lassonde.yorku.ca/pluginfile.php/241143/mod_resource/content/0/CIVL
%203120%20Lab%20Exp%2003.pdf
Chen, J (2012). Energy dissipation of hydraulic jump in gradually expanding channel after
free overfall. Retreived from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02533839.2012.732263?src=recsys&
Moodle. (2019) CIVL 3120 Hydraulics Lectures 16-17: External Flow. Retreived from:
https://moodle.yorku.ca/moodle/pluginfile.php/4963449/mod_resource/content/1/CIVL
%203120_2019F_Hydraulics_External%20Flow_L16-17.pdf
Appendix

Angle of Attack=0˚
Tare weight=10g
P1 P2 F(g)
(mmH2O) (mmH2O)

79 179 21
73 110 20
59 70 16
50 50 12
Table: (Raw Data, Angle of Attack=0°)

Angle of Attack=10˚
Tare Weight=13g
P1 P2 F(g)
(mmH2O) (mmH2O)

84 128 54
76 112 48
60 73 27
50 50 14
Table (Raw Data ,Angle of Attack=10°)

Angle of Attack=20˚
Tare Weight=14g
P1 P2 F(g)
(mmH20) (mmH2O)

98 130 97
80 102 69
58 60 27
50 50 16
Table (Raw Data ,Angle of Attack=20°)

Q(m^3/h) Length of Upstream Water level Downstream

the water before water
jump, h1 level after
 jump, L level, ho (cm) jump,
(cm) (cm) h2 (cm)

80 35 40.6 3.5 16.5

70 33 40 3.3 15
60 30 39.7 2.7 13
50 22 38.5 2.6 12
40 15 37.5 1.9 10
30 12 36.4 1.5 8
20 8 35.1 1 5
10 5 33.8 0.7 2
Table (Hydraulic Jump Raw Data Collected)