Six Steps of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is used when creating and executing an experiment. The purpose of
the scientific method is to have a systematic way of testing ideas and reporting results in
the process of scientific inquiry. A key component of the use of the scientific method is that
it ensures that the experiment should be able to be replicated by anyone. If that is not
possible, then the results are considered invalid.
The scientific method consists of six steps:
1. Define purpose
2. Construct hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis and collect data
4. Analyze data
5. Draw conclusion
6. Communicate results
Before you can use the scientific method correctly in your own experiments, you must have
a good understanding of independent and dependent variables. To better understand how
the scientific method works in action, consider the following examples of simple experiments
you can try yourself in everyday life.

Example #1: Freezing Water

Consider how the scientific method applies in this simple experiment with freezing water
under two different conditions.
1. Define Purpose: I want to know if water freezes faster on its own or with sugar
added to it.

2. Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in how

long it takes the water to freeze, whether or not it has sugar added to it. The alternative
hypothesis is that there will be a statistically significant difference in freezing time
between the two scenarios.
3. Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: Fill two identical containers with the same
amount of room temperature water. Add a measured amount of sugar to one of the
containers. Place the two containers into the freezer. At regular intervals of 15 minutes,
open the freezer and observe the status of the water in each container. Continue until
both have completely frozen. Write down the time it took for each container of water to
reach a fully frozen level.
4. Analyze Data: Look at the time it took for each container of water to freeze. Did the
water with sugar added take a significantly longer or shorter amount of time to freeze?
5. Draw Conclusion: Based on the results of your experiment, come to a conclusion as
to whether water with sugar freezes faster, slower, or at the same rate as water without
sugar added.
6. Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a written report as an
oral presentation.
In the case of this experiment, you may choose to vary the amount of sugar added (during
step 3 of the scientific method above) to see if it alters the results as well. This could be a
more robust experiment as you would then have additional data to report.
Example #2: Growing Bean Plants
Here is another example where the scientific method can be used to study the natural world.
1. Define Purpose: I want to know if a bean plant will grow more quickly outside or
inside. For the purposes of this experiment, you might decide on a time frame of three
weeks.
2. Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between
growing a bean plant indoors or outdoors. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a
statistically significant difference between the two growing situations for bean plants.
3. Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: Plant four bean plants in identical pots using
the same type of soil. Place two of these in an outdoor location, and place the other two
in an indoor location. Try to choose locations where the plants will get a similar amount
of sunlight. Care for the plants in an identical way, like giving the same amount of
water. Then, each day for the three-week experimental period, observe and measure
plant growth. Carefully record the size of each plant in a notebook.

4. Analyze Data: Review the data and determine how the plants in both environments

progressed over the course of the three weeks. You may choose to find an average
between the two indoor plants to determine the "typical" indoor plant growth, doing the
same for the two outdoor plants to calculate the "typical" outdoor plant growth.
5. Draw Conclusion: Based on the data you collected, determine if there is a
conclusive answer to the question as to whether a bean plant placed inside or outside
will grow more quickly.

6. Communicate Results: Prepare a way to present the results of the experiment, like

in the form of a written report, a slideshow presentation, or as a display at a science fair.

Example #3: Counting Cars

Applications of the scientific method include simple observation too.
1. Define Purpose: I want to know if solo drivers are illegally using the carpool lane on
the freeway in my city, and if so, how widespread the problem is.
2. Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis might be that there are zero people
driving alone who are using the carpool lane on the freeway. The alternative hypothesis
could be that there are a significant number of solo drivers using the carpool lane.
3. Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: To test this hypothesis, you might find a
pedestrian-friendly overpass from which you can observe the carpool lane on the
freeway. For a 60-minute period during rush hour, you tally up the number of vehicles in
the carpool lane who have the minimum number of passengers to qualify for the lane,
as well as a separate tally for the number of vehicles with solo drivers. (For the purposes
of this experiment, we might ignore location-specific exemptions, like how some states
allow electric vehicles to drive in the carpool lane regardless of the number of
passengers.)
4. Analyze Data: Review your data. You might choose to calculate the percentage of
vehicles that contained solo drivers.
5. Draw Conclusion: Based on the data you collected, decide whether a significant
number of solo drivers were using the carpool lane during your observation period.
6. Communicate Results: Present your findings in a written or oral presentation.
While a single sampling over a single rush hour in one location may not be representative of
a city as a whole, these sorts of observations can be a great starting point for further study
and analysis.
A pimple is a small pustule or papule. Pimples develop when sebaceous glands, or oil

glands, become clogged and infected, leading to swollen, red lesions filled with pus.

Also known as spots or zits, pimples are a part of acne. They are most likely to
occur around puberty, but they can happen at any age.

During puberty, hormone production changes. This can cause the sebaceous glands,
located at the base of hair follicles, to become overactive. As a result, pimples are
most likely to occur during the teenage years and around menstruation, for women.

Pimples most often affect the face, back, chest, and shoulders. This is because there
are many sebaceous glands in these areas of skin.

Acne vulgaris, the main cause of pimples, affects over 80 percent of teenagers. After
the age of 25 years, it affects 3 percent of men and 12 percent of women.

Fast facts on pimples

Here are some key points about pimples. More detail is in the main article.

 Pimples range in severity, from blackheads to cysts.

 They happen when the sebaceous glands become more active, dead skin cells
clog the pores, and sometimes an infection develops.

 Pimples often occur in adolescence, but they can affect people at any age.

 There is not enough evidence to confirm that any particular food causes acne,
but following a healthful diet may reduce the risk.

 There are several different types of pimples, and they have different signs and
symptoms:
 Whiteheads: Also known as a closed comedo, these are small pimples that
remain under the skin. They appear as a small, flesh-colored papule.
  Blackheads: Also known as an open comedo, these are clearly visible on the
surface of the skin. They are black or dark brown, due to the oxidation of
melanin, the skin's pigment.
 Some people mistakenly believe they are caused by dirt, because of their
color, and scrub their faces vigorously. Scrubbing does not help. It may irritate
the skin and cause other problems.
 Papules: These are small, solid, rounded bumps that rise from the skin. They
are often pink.
 Pustules: These are pimples full of pus. They are clearly visible on the surface
of the skin. The base is red and the pus is on the top.
 Nodules: These have a similar structure to papules, but they are larger. They
can be painful and are embedded deep in the skin.
 Cysts: These are clearly visible on the surface of the skin. They are filled with
pus and are usually painful. Cysts commonly cause scars.

Causes

Pimples happen when pores become clogged with sebum and dead skin. Sometimes
this leads to infection and inflammation. Why they affect some people more than
others is largely unknown.

The sebaceous glands and pimples

The sebaceous glands are tiny skin glands that secrete sebum, a waxy or oily
substance that lubricates the skin and hair.

Sebaceous glands are found inside the pores of our skin, all over the body, except
the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. There are more sebaceous glands on
the face and scalp than elsewhere.
As the glands produce sebum inside the pores, new skin cells are constantly
growing, and the outer layers of skin are being shed.

Sometimes, dead skin cells are not shed. They remain in the pores and get stuck
together by the sticky sebum, causing a blockage in the pore.

Pore blockage is more likely to occur during puberty, as the sebaceous glands
produce more sebum at this time.

Bacterial infection

Where sebum and dead skin cells accumulate and block a pore, this encourages the
growth of undesirable bacteria, including Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes), a
slow-growing bacterium linked to acne.

Propionibacterium acnes exists harmlessly on our skin, but when the conditions are
right, it can reproduce more rapidly and become a problem. The slow-growing
bacterium feeds off the sebum and produces a substance that causes an immune
response. This leads to skin inflammation and spots.

Although pimples are related to bacterial infection, they are not contagious. One
person cannot catch pimples from another.

Risk factors

It is unclear exactly why some people are more prone to pimples than others.
Hormone fluctuation and genetic factors may play a role, as acne often runs in
families, but some other factors are possible.
Good and bad bacteria

Just as in the gut, we have "good" bacteria that protect against disease and "bad"
bacteria that cause disease, scientists have suggested that the same may be true
for the skin.

Researchers at the Washington University School of Medicine identified two unique

strains of P. acnes in the skin of 20 percent of people with pimples, while those
with healthy skin tended not to harbor these strains. source

Another strain of P. acnes had the opposite effect. People with pimples tended not
to have this strain, but those with healthy skin did have it.

This may indicate that particular types of bacteria determine the severity and
frequency of pimples. The researchers suggest that these bacteria may also interact
with different factors, such as hormone and sebum levels. They call for more
research.

Yeast infections

Acne-type breakouts have also been linked to yeast infections.

Pityrosporum, also known as malassezia or folliculutis, happens when a

pityrosporum yeast enters the hair follicles and multiplies, triggering an itchy
eruption of tiny, itchy, rounded pimples, that resembles acne. It mainly occurs on the
upper chest, shoulders, and upper back, but it can also affect the face.

Most people have this yeast on their skin, but if too much develops, it can cause a
problem. It can happen to both men and women in young to middle-age.

Humid, sweaty environments, clothes made of synthetic fibers, and the use of oily
skin products can all make this worse.
The condition is common in adolescents, probably because of increased sebaceous
gland activity. It is not the same as acne, but it is often confused with it.

Antibiotics that are usually used for acne can make also make the condition worse,
as they suppress the bacteria that would otherwise control the yeast. Antifungal
treatment is needed in the case of malassezia.

Testosterone sensitivity

Researchers have found a link between acne pimples and higher levels
of testosterone and other androgens, the "male" hormones that also exist in lower
levels in females.

Higher testosterone levels appear to to trigger greater activity in the sebaceous

glands, resulting in more clogged pores and higher chance of acne.

Dietary factors

The role of diet in acne is unclear, but, since a healthy, balanced, diet is known to
promote good health, some dietary factors may affect the likelihood of getting acne
or pimples.

Vitamins A, D, and E are all known to play a role in maintaining healthy skin, so it is
possible that an adequate supply of these vitamins may help prevent acne.

Milk consumption has been associated with acne. If milk does play a role, this could
be due to the hormones in milk. However, findings have been inconclusive.

It has often been said that sugar and chocolate trigger acne, but research findings
have not supported this.
Studies have linked a low glycemic-index (GI) diet with lower levels of insulin in
the blood, lower levels of androgen, and a reduced likelihood of acne.

However, the results are not conclusive. Moreover, advocating a low GI diet could
discourage people from consuming enough whole grains and other healthful foods
that could provide useful nutrients.

Although acne is related to sebum production, avoiding all fat in the diet is not
advisable. Healthy polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats are necessary for key
bodily functions. A fat-free or very low-fat diet can cause the skin to dry out and
prompt the body to increase sebum production.

A good intake of fats from nuts, seeds, and olive oil may help by keeping
inflammation in check, supporting the body in maintaining healthy blood sugar
levels, and maintaining good skin moisture levels so as to provide an effective
barrier and immune response to prevent bacterial infection.

According to the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD), "There is not enough

data to recommend dietary changes for acne patients."

If dietary changes are to play a role in acne treatment, the AAD suggest that this
should be as a "complement to proven acne treatments," rather than as a sole
treatment. They suggest that individuals monitor themselves to see what might
trigger a breakout.

Tips include:

 keeping a food diary, and sharing it with a dermatologist

 waiting for 12 weeks after cutting out a particular food, as it may take time to
see the impact

 continuing with regular acne treatment while making any dietary changes
Some medical conditions also increase the chance of pimples, for example,
polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).

Since acne appears to stem from a complex interaction of nutrients, hormones, and
other factors, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what causes pimples to worsen.

If acne and pimples start to affect a person's quality of life and self esteem, a doctor
or dermatologist can often help.

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What causes acne?

Acne occurs when the pores of your skin become blocked with oil, dead skin, or bacteria.

Each pore of your skin is the opening to a follicle. The follicle is made up of a hair and a sebaceous (oil)
gland.

The oil gland releases sebum (oil), which travels up the hair, out of the pore, and onto your skin. The
sebum keeps your skin lubricated and soft.

One or more problems in this lubrication process can cause acne. It can occur when:
  too much oil is produced by your follicles

 dead skin cells accumulate in your pores

 bacteria build up in your pores

These problems contribute to the development of pimples. A pimple appears when bacteria grows in a
clogged pore and the oil is unable to escape.

Fifteen ways to prevent pimples

There are many things a person can do to prevent pimples and other forms of acne, including:
1. Wash the face twice daily

Share on PinterestAcne is rarely the result of a dirty face, contrary to popular belief.
However, it is important to remove excess dirt and oil from the skin by washing
regularly.
Many people prefer to use a mild cleanser and warm water. Applying an oil-free
moisturizer after washing can keep the skin from becoming too dry.

Over-washing the face may cause the skin to become dry, which can aggravate
pimples.

2. Refrain from harsh scrubbing

Some people scrub the skin with rough cloth pads or washcloths. This can irritate
the skin and cause inflammation, making acne breakouts worse.

Applying a gentle cleanser with clean hands or a soft brush intended for use on the
face can help to prevent pimples.

3. Keep hair clean

If excess oil in the hair travels to the skin, it can worsen acne. Regularly washing the
hair may stop acne from developing, especially close to the hairline.

Also, refrain from getting products such as hair gel or spray on the face. These can
also clog pores and lead to breakouts.

4. Refrain from popping or picking at pimples

It may be tempting to squeeze a pimple, but this usually results in inflammation and
scarring.

To reduce the appearance of blemishes, use a topical treatment instead. They may
take some time to work, but they can also prevent new pimples from forming.
5. Apply topical treatments

Over-the-counter treatments, such as creams or serums, can reduce breakouts,

particularly when they tend to occur in certain areas.

The following problem areas are common:

 the chin

 the nose

 the forehead

Treatments available for purchase online often contain salicylic acid or benzoyl

peroxide. These products are not as potent as prescription-strength treatments, but
they can help to prevent mild acne and reduce breakouts.

6. Consider topical retinoids

Topical retinoids are products containing medicines derived from vitamin A, and

dermatologists prescribe them to manage and prevent acne. These treatments can
also get rid of excess dead skin cells and reduce inflammation.

Most topical retinoids are only available with by prescription, including tretinoin
(Retin-A, Renova), and tazarotene (Tazorac).

However, one retinoid medication, adapalene (Differin), is available for purchase

online or over the counter.

7. Talk to a dermatologist about antibiotics

Topical antibiotics can fight an overgrowth of P. acne bacteria in the skin.

Examples of antibiotics that treat this inflammatory acne include erythromycin and
clindamycin, which are available by prescription.
A person can identify inflammatory acne by its very red, irritated appearance. It can
also be painful.

8. Talk to a doctor about hormone pills

ol pills can help to prevent acne, by helping to regulate the hormones that may
make acne worse.

However, these pills carry risks, so it is essential to review the benefits and side
effects before making a decision.

Spironolactone, a medication often used to treat high blood pressure, may also help
in cases of severe acne. However, spironolactone has many possible side effects, so
it is best to speak to a doctor.

9. Cut back on foods linked to acne

Doctors are not certain of the connection between foods and acne. However, a
growing body of research suggests that some foods may trigger acne in certain
patients.

According to the American Academy of Dermatology, foods with a high glycemic

index may increase the risk of developing acne or make acne worse.

These potentially problematic foods are sugary and high in carbohydrates. Some
examples include:

 cookies

 cakes

 pies
Dairy products, especially skim milk, may also increase a person's risk of developing
acne. A person may want to cut back on a particular food group, to see if their skin
improves.

10. Wear sunscreen when going outdoors

Too much sun has many damaging effects on the skin. Sunburn can also lead to an
overproduction of oils that make acne worse.

Using oil-free sunscreen with a protection factor of at least 15 may help to prevent
sunburns and exacerbated acne.

11. Consider light or laser therapies

A dermatologist or esthetician can provide these therapies, which aim to reduce the
presence of P. acne bacteria on the skin.

12. Avoid skincare products that contain oil

Skincare products contain oil can clog the pores. These products are often intended
for use on dry or mature skin that may not have as much natural oil.

Products that do not contain oil are usually labeled "non-comedogenic."

It may be a good idea to avoid touching household grease and cooking oils, which
can also clog pores.

13. Refrain from excess exfoliation

Exfoliation is the process of removing dead cells from the skin.

While some exfoliation can help to improve acne, too much can worsen breakouts.
This happens when a person removes too much natural oil from the skin. The skin
may compensate by producing more oil, which clogs pores and leads to more
pimples.

If a person is exfoliating too much, the skin may become irritated or feel very tight
after washing.

14. Reduce stress

Stress often causes inflammation, which can make breakouts worse.

Below are some means of reducing stress that may help to prevent acne:

 meditating

 exercising

 doing yoga

 relaxing before bed by reading or taking a bath

 spending time in nature

 engaging in hobbies

15. Keep facial care products clean

Makeup and facial sponges and brushes should be cleaned regularly with soap and
water to prevent a buildup of bacteria, which could lead to breakouts.

Make sure that brushes dry completely before use.

The scientific method involves developing a hypothesis (what you think might happen), testing your
hypothesis (trying it out), and analyzing the results (did it work). We go through this decision process
CONSTANTLY in our daily lives but don't think about it as the scientific method.
So ideas that come to my mind:
- Do you play video games? Many modern video games require trial and error and the player to guess at
what they are supposed to do next. Your hypothesis might be something like "if I open this door then I
will get to the treasure." You would then test your hypothesis by opening the door and then analyze
your results based on what happened ("there was a monster behind the door, opening it did not get me
to the treasure").
- Do you bake? When determining how long to bake cookies, for example, you are using the scientific
method. Your hypothesis might be something like "if I bake a batch of cookies for 10 minutes then they
will be perfectly cooked." You would then test your hypothesis by baking the cookies for 10 minutes
and then checking on their progress. You would then analyze your results based on how they look after
10 minutes ("the cookies are burnt, it took less than 10 minutes to bake them" or "the cookies are
perfectly cooked after 10 minutes").

Hopefully these examples can help you brainstorm some of your own ideas. I'm sure you can think of
other everyday activities that you subconsciously use the scientific method in.