Lecture 1.

Introduction to Anatomy, Proximal Closer to the origin of the

Physiology and Pathology body part or the point of
Compiled By: attachment of a limb to
Heirich Fevrier P. Manalili, RPh MD the body trunk
• Anatomy - is the study of body Distal Farther from the origin of
structures, including structures of all a body part or the point
sizes of attachment to a limb to
• Physiology - is the study of exactly the body trunk
how all body structures function. Superficial Toward or at the body
• Pathology - the science of the causes (external) surface
and effects of diseases Deep Away from the body
(internal) surface; more internal
Anatomic Position:
• The body is upright Anatomic Regions
• The legs are close together • Two major regions in the body:
• The feet are flat on the floor Axial region (head, neck, trunk)
• The arms are close to the sides Appendicular region (arms and legs)
• The head, toes, palms of the hands • Abdominal region (divided into four
are facing quadrants or nine regions)
forward
Region Definition
Term Definition Axial Head, neck, and
Superior Toward the head end or trunk
(cranial) upper part of structure or Abdominal Belly
the body; above Axillary Armpit
Ipsilateral On the same side of the Cephalic or cranial Head
body as another Cervical Neck
structure. Facial Face
Inguinal Groin
Contralateral On the opposite side of Pelvic Lower end of the
the body from another trunk
structure Thoracic Chest
Bilateral Relating to or affecting Umbilical Navel
two sides Appendicular Arms and legs
Brachial Arm
Left On the body’s left side Carpal Wrist
Right On the body’s right side Cubital Elbow
Superior Toward the head end or Femoral Thigh
(cranial) upper part of a structure Palmar Palms of the hands
or the body; above Patellar Knee
Inferior Away from the head end Plantar Soles of the feet
(caudal) or toward the lower part
Tarsal Ankle
of a structure or the
body; below
Abdominal:
Anterior Toward or at the front of Chap
the body; in front of
Posterior Toward or at the back of
the body; behind
Medial Toward or at the midline
of the body; or on the
inner side of
Righ
Lateral Away from the midline of hypochon
regio
the body; or on the outer Right upper
quadrant
Left upper
quadrant
side of (RUQ) (LUQ) Rig
lum
regi
Intermediate Between a more medial
and a more lateral Right lower
quadrant
Left lower
quadrant
Right
(ingui
structure (RLQ) (LLQ) regio

(a) Nine regions

Figure 1.11 The four abdominopelvic quadrants. In this

scheme, the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into four quadrants by
two planes.

H O M E O S TAT I C CLINICAL
IMBALANCE 1.2
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 39
• If the body detects a change away
from homeostasis, it will use either
of two feedback mechanisms.
• Negative feedback.
• Positive feedback.
In contrast to negative feedback controls, which maintain some likely to
physiological function or keep blood chemicals within narrow the mom
ranges, positive feedback mechanisms usually control infrequent positive
Right
Epigastric
Left Parts of events
a feedback system:
that do not require continuous adjustments. Typically, they only loc
hypochondriac hypochondriac 1 set off a series of events that may be self-perpetuating and that, in injur
Left upper
region region region •onceReceptor
initiated, have an amplifying or waterfall effect. Because of circulati
these characteristics, positive feedback mechanisms are often
quadrant
(LUQ) Right Left
•referred
Control Center
to as cascades (from the Italian word meaning “to fall”).
Umbilical Home
lumbar
region region
lumbar
region
• Two Effector
familiar examples are the enhancement of labor contractions
Homeo
during birth and blood clotting.
Chapter 28 describes the positive feedback mechanism in as a res
Left lower Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac which oxytocin, a hypothalamic hormone, intensifies labor con- imbalan
quadrant (inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) Negativetractions
Feedback- is the process the body
during the birth of a baby (see Figure 28.16, p. 1116). efficient
(LLQ) region region region stable. T
18 CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to the Human Body uses to reverse the the
Oxytocin causes direction
contractionsofto movement
become both more frequent
changes
and more powerful. The increased contractions cause more oxy-
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes away fromtocinhomeostasis.
to be released, which causes more contractions, and so on Anot
Body Cavities vertebral column. Within the thoracic cavity are the pericardial cavity
until the baby is born. The birth ends the stimulus for oxytocin when th
(per′-i-KAR-dē-al; peri- = around; -cardial = heart), a fluid-filled space and des
pelvic quadrants. In this release and shuts off the positive feedback mechanism.
s divided into four quadrants by Anatomic Planes:
Body cavities are spaces that enclose internal organs. Bones, muscles, that surrounds the heart, and two fluid-filled spaces called pleural
ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities from cavities (PLOOR-al; pleur- = rib or side), one around each lung. ThePositive Feedback - is the process the body
Blood clotting is a normal response to a break in the wall of instance
a blood vessel and is an excellent example of an important body Exam
one another. Here we discuss several body cavities (Figure 1.10). central part of the thoracic cavity is an anatomical region called theuses to increase the movement
function controlled away
by positive feedback. from
Once a vessel has been book to
-
The cranial bones Median
form a hollow space Plane
of the head–called
Divided
the mediastinum into(mē′-dē-as-TI
left and right
-num; media- = middle; -stinum = parti- damaged, blood elements called platelets immediately begin to cal mec
cranial cavity (KRA -nē-al), which contains the brain. The bones of the tion). It is between the lungs, extending from the sternum to the ver-homeostasis.
- ostatic
cling to the injured site and release chemicals that attract more
C LIN
vertebral L (but
I CA(backbone)
column formequal
the vertebralhalves)
(spinal) canal (VER- tebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm (Figure 1.11a, b). platelets. This rapidly growing pileup of platelets temporarily are des
Imbalan
1.2 te-bral), which containsSagittalthe spinal cord. ThePlane
cranial cavity–anddivided into
verte- The mediastinum left and right
contains all thoracic organs except the lungs them- “plugs” the tear and initiates the sequence of events that finally
bral canal are continuous with one another. Three layers of protective selves. Among the structures in the mediastinum are the heart,Positive forms feedbacka clot (Figure 1.6). Positive feedback mechanisms are thinkin
amed, their normally
tissue, smooth Frontal
the meninges (me-NIN-jēz), andPlane – divided
a shock-absorbing intotrachea,
fluid esophagus, anterior
thymus, and and
several large blood vessels that A&P
s roughness causesthethebrain
mem- Diaphragm - Imbalan
and spinalLiver
surround
g across one another. Excru- posterior
cord. enter and exit the heart. The diaphragm (DI -a-fram = partition or
1 Break or tear
The major body cavities of the trunk are the thoracic and abdom- wall) isSpleen
a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from Che
who has experienced pleurisy
inopelvic cavities. Transverse
The thoracic (Axial)
cavity (thor-AS-ik; thorac-
Gallbladder Plane
= chest) or – divided
the abdominopelvic
Stomach cavity. into
occurs in blood
vessel wall. 9. Wha
r peritonitischest
(inflammation
cavity (Figureof1.11) is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the The abdominopelvic cavity (ab-dom′-i-noˉ -PEL-vik; see Figure
superior and inferior planes
Ascending
chest, the sternum (breastbone), andcolon
Transverse colon
1.10) extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the
the thoracic portion of the
extre
of large intestine of large intestine 10. Whe
caus
Small intestine Descending colon
Quadrants Supine – anterior surfaceof large facingintestine up
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.
feed
Cecum 11. Why
ty is large and contains several Initial part of
maller areas for study. Medical Prone – Anterior surface sigmoid facing colon down
FIGURE 1.10 Body cavities. The black dashed line in (a) indicates the border between the abdominal feed
and pelvic cavities. Appendix
cheme to locate the abdomi- Urinary bladder
3 Released 2 Platelets
.11). In thisThe
scheme, a trans-
major cavities
hrough the umbilicus at right
Cavities:
of the trunk are the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
chemicals
attract more Positive
adhere to site
and release 1.5
platelets. feedback chemicals.
ants are named according to CAVITY COMMENTS loop
body
point of view: the right upper Figure 1.12 The nine abdominopelvic regions. (a) The
uadrant (LUQ), right lower superior transverse plane is just inferior to the ribs;Cranial cavity
the inferior Formed by cranial bones and contains brain. Lea
Des
quadrant (LLQ). transverse plane is just superior to the hip bones; and the canal Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal
Vertebral
Use
d primarily by anatomists, usesCranialcavity
parasagittal planes lie just medial to the nipples. cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves.
reg
tal planes. These planes, posi- Feedback cycle ends
when plug is formed. Most of
he abdomen, divide the cavity Thoracic cavity* Chest cavity; contains pleural and pericardial
est some
Vertebral cavities and the mediastinum.
canal ● The right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions (ing′gwĭ-nal) nology
4 Body pick up
termost region deep to and sur- are located lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac superior A potential space between the layers of the
Pleural=cavity 12 C H A PT E R 1 An Introduction to the Human Platelet plug is
fully formed.
Thoracic pleura that surrounds a lung. it were
cavity part of the hip bone). FIGURE 1.5 Positive feedback control of labor contractions during
birth of a baby. The broken return arrow with a positive sign surrounded
cise, sp
ted superior to the umbilicalDiaphragm ● The right and left lumbar regions lie lateralPericardial
to the umbilical
cavity A potential space between the layers of the by a circle symbolizes positive feedback.
anatom
pericardium that surrounds the heart.
tri = belly). region (lumbus = loin). structur
If the response enhances or intensifies the stimulus, a system is operating
by positive feedback.

● The right and left hypochondriac regions Mediastinum

Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates and exp
ion is located inferior to theAbdominopelvic lie lateral to the Central portion of thoracic cavity between the formation of a platelet plug.
w). cavity: epigastric region and deep to the ribs (chondro = cartilage). lungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column
Contractions of the wall of
the uterus force the baby’s
and from first rib to diaphragm; contains heart, head or body into the cervix
Abdominal thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large
cavity blood vessels. Increasing

Pelvic CONTROLLED CONDITION

cavity Abdominopelvic Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities. Stretching of the cervix
cavity

Abdominal cavity Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, M01_MARI6971_10_SE_CH01_021-042.inddRECEPTORS

31

small intestine, and most of large intestine; the Stretch-

(a) Right lateral view (b) Anterior view serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is sensitive

3/14/15the3:17
nerve +
peritoneum.
PM cells in
the cervix

Pelvic cavity Contains urinary bladder, portions of large Input Nerve impulses
intestine, and internal organs of reproduction.
CONTROL CENTER
*See Figure 1.11 for details of the thoracic cavity. Brain
Increased stretching
of the cervix causes
the release of more
Q In which cavities are the following organs located: urinary bladder, stomach, oxytocin, which
results in more
heart, small intestine, lungs, internal female reproductive organs, thymus, stretching of the
cervix

spleen, liver? Use the following symbols for your responses: T = thoracic cavity, Output Brain interprets input

Terms ofcavity.
Physiology:
and releases oxytocin

A = abdominal cavity, or P = pelvic

EFFECTORS
Muscles
in the wall

•
of the

Homeostasis- any self-regulating uterus

Contract more

process by which biological systems forcefully

tend to maintain stability while RESPONSE

Baby’s body stretches
the cervix more

adjusting to conditions that are

optimal for survival. Interruption of the cycle:
The birth of the baby
decreases stretching of the
cervix, thus breaking the
positive feedback cycle

Q Why do positive feedback systems that are part of a

normal physiological response include some mechanism
that terminates the system?
Negative Feedback
Terms of Pathology:
DISEASE
• Abnormally functioning organs or
organ systems resulting from a
disruption in homeostasis
ACUTE
• Rapid onset, severe symptoms, short
duration
CHRONIC
• Slow progression, long duration
Predisposing Factors – aka “risk factors” –
Modifiable or non-modifiable
• Age (nonmodifiable)
Children
Infections (polio, chickenpox)
Congenital disorders (cleft lip)
Genetic disorders (hyperlipidemia)
Developmental disorders (cerebral
palsy)
Elderly – chronic diseases (eg arthritis,
hypertension, diabetes)
Other Predisposing Factors:
• Gender (nonmodifiable) – females-
osteoporosis; males- Parkinson’s
disease
• Lifestyle (modifiable) – alcohol,
smoking, diet
• Environment – dirt, presence of
ashfall (silicosis)
• Heredity – chronic diseases in family
(hypertension, diabetes, cancers)
Signs and Symptoms of a Disease
• Signs- objective signals
• Symptoms- subjective signals (eg.
Pain, inflammation)
Classification of disease (by etiology):
Infectious
Ø Bacterial, fungal, viral, parasitic
Ø Caused by pathogens.
o Damage local tissue.
o Produce substances that are
toxic to the infected
individual.
Non-infectious
Ø 2a. Cancers
Ø 2b. Immune disorders
Ø 2c. Genetic disorders
Ø 2d. Mental disorders
Ø 2e. Trauma/Injury
2a. Cancers
Ø Uncontrollable cell growth and
proliferation.
Ø Mostly caused from mutations.
Ø Form tumors, or neoplasms, that
compete with healthy tissue for
nutrients.
Ø Angiogenesis – own blood supply
2b. Immune disorders
Ø 3 Types:
o Hypersensitivities.
o Immunodeficiency disorders.
o Autoimmune disorders.
Ø Hypersensitivities
o An overreaction of the
immune system to an
allergen.
o Anaphylaxis: a severe,
systemic reaction that can
cause tightening of the
airway.
Ø Immunodeficiencies
o Deficiency in the immune
system’s ability to defend the
body.
o Body is left vulnerable to
pathological conditions.
Ø Autoimmune disorders
o Inability of the immune
system to distinguish
between self and non-self.
o The body’s immune system
attacks its own cells.
2c. Genetic disorders
Ø Characterized as abnormalities
caused by:
o A mutation in the genetic
code.
o Presence of abnormal
chromosomes.
o The alteration of
chromosomal structure.
o Eg Down syndrome – defect
in trisomy 21
2d. Mental disorders
Ø A class of conditions of the mind and
include disorders associated with
behavior or psychological well-
being.
Ø Various etiologies.
2e. Trauma/Injury
Ø as a wound or shock produced by an
injury
Diagnosing Disease
• Diagnosis – process of determining
by examination the nature and
circumstance of a diseased
condition.
• Prognosis – determination of the
predicted patient outcome
Common Diagnostic Tests in Dermatology
Diagnostic test or Description
screening
Skin biopsy The removal of a piece
of tissue or a sample of
cells from a body so
that it can be analyzed
in a laboratory
Skin scraping The taking of scraping
of skin cells so that the
cells can be viewed
under a microscope
Wood’s light The use of a blue light
to view pigment
changes in the skin
Treatment of the Disease
Four Types of Treatment Plans:
1. Palliative treatment: make
patient comfortable when
there is no cure.
2. Curative treatment: to cure
disease.
3. Therapeutic treatment: to
restore normal function.
4. Preventive treatment: steps
can be taken to prevent
disease from happening.
Epidemiology - is the study of how often
diseases occur in different groups of people
and why.
• Public health - discipline concerning
itself with improving health or
preventing illness in a population,
and it is usually implemented by a
 government or a group accountable
to a community.
• Pharmacoepidemiology- is the
study of the use of and the effects of
drugs in large numbers of people.
• Pharmaco-related to
pharmacology or drugs
• Epidemiology-the study of
determinants and
distribution of disease in a
population

• Incidence - the number of newly

diagnosed cases of the disease in a
population divided by the total
population at risk of the disease

Incidence = number of people with a

new diagnosis of the disease/ number of
people at risk

• Prevalence -defined as the number

of people with an existing disease
(both old and new cases) in a
population divided by the total
population at risk of the disease.
Prevalence = number of people with a
new and existing disease/ number of
people at risk

STUDY HARD! J