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Tribal Development in India: Some

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 1
Tribal Development in India: Some Observations

B. Suresh Lal

INTRODUCTION
India, along with Africa, has the largest tribal population
in the world. The statistics are quite astonishing- the 533
different tribes, made up of more than 80 million tribals,
represents almost 10% of India’s population. The lives of the
tribes in India are closely tied to nature, and they inhabit some
of the most pristine and picturesque environments in the
country. Largely unaffected by the modern world, they’re very
simple and often curious people, who have retained their
rituals and customs. Among them about 80 per cent live in the
‘central belt’, extending from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the
West, and across the state of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa, to West Bengal and
Tripura in the East. Most of the remaining 20 per cent live in
the Northeastern states of Maghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Arunachal Predesh and Sikkim and in the union territories of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Andaman and Nicobar, and
Lakshsdweep. A few of them live in the Southern states of
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Andhra Predesh has the
largest tribal population among the Southern states of India
(Kavitha, 2007).
2 Tribal Development Issues in India

Since the inception of the first five-year plan, the Indian

government has formulated a series of department policies
pertaining to the welfare of tribes. Nehru, the main architect
of the five-year plan, had strongly supported the idea that the
tribes should be able to enjoy the advantages of modern
medicine, education, agriculture and economic growth, but
certainly not at the cost of the rare and precious values of their
life. He reiterated the development in tribal areas should be
slow and steady; the bureaucrats or the development personnel
should be pro-tribal in mind and spirit, and create the
environment for increasing participation of tribes in the
development process (Rath, 2006).
The Connotation: The term “tribe” originated around the
time of the greed city states and early formation of the Roman
Empire. The Latin term, “tribus” has been transformed to mean
“A group of persons forming a community and claming
descent from a common ancestor” (Fried, 1975). The Origin of
India’s Scheduled Tribes has been traced to such races as the
Proto-Australoids who once particularly covered the whole
on India, the Mongolians are still located in Assam, and finally
to limit extent also Negritos Strain as indicated by Frizzy hair,
among the Andamanese and the Kardars of the South-West
India (Memoria, 1957). The criteria followed for the
specification of community, as scheduled tribe are indications
of primitive traits, distinctive culture, geographical isolation,
shyness of contact with the community at large, and
backwardness.
REGIONAL CONCENTRATION OF TRIBAL COMMUNITIES
North-Eastern region: In the mountain valleys and other
areas of north-eastern India, covering the States and Union
Territories like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura live tribes like
the Abor, Garo, Khasi, Kuki, Mismi, Naga, etc., who mostly
belong to Mongolian racial stock.
Himalayan region: In the sub-Himalayan regions covering
parts of North-Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh
live tribes like Lepcha, Rabha, etc., mostly belonging to
Mongolian racial group.
Tribal Development in India 3

Central India region: In the older hills and Chotanagpur

Plateau, along the dividing lines between peninsular India and
the Indo-Gangetic basin, live many tribal communities like the
Bhumij, Gond, Ho, Oraon, Munda, Santal, etc., covering the
States of Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal and
mostly belonging to Proto-Australoid racial stock.
Western India region: Covering the States like Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli live a
number of tribal communities the most important of them
being the Bhil racially belonging to the Proto-Australoid group
(Vidyarthi, 1977).
Southern India region: Covering the States of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Nilgiri Hills
and converging lines of the Ghats live the Chenchu, Irula,
Kadar, Kota, Kurumba, Toda, etc., having Negrito, Caucasoid,
Proto-Australoid or mixed physical features.
Island region: Covering Andaman, Nicobar and
Lakshadweep Islands live a number of small tribes like the
Andamanese, Onge, Sentinelese, etc.( Chaudhuri, Bhddhadeb,
1992).
Scheduled Tribes are communities that are accorded
special status by the constitution of India. These communities
were considered ‘outcastes’ and were excluded from the
Chathurvarna system that was the social superstructure of
Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent for thousand of years.
These castes and tribes have traditionally been related to the
most menial labour with no possibility of upward mobility,
and are subject to extensive social disadvantage and
discrimination, in comparison subject to the wider community,
Scheduled Tribes are also referred to as Adivasis.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objectives of this paper are
1. To highlight demographic features of tribes
2. To study the level of literacy and educational status
of tribal
3. To examine health status and rights of tribal
4 Tribal Development Issues in India

4. To present status and persisting problem of Scheduled

Tribes and its solutions.

TRENDS OF POPULATION
Efforts have been made for upliftment of these communities
since the inception of planning (1951). Special strategies have
registered quantifiable improvement in the socio-economic
status of Scheduled Tribe. However the progress made by them
could not bring them much closer to the mainstream society as
the wider gap in the socio-economic status persists. The progress
and existing gaps are represented in the (Table-1)

Table 1
Trends in General and ST Population 1951-2001 in Millions
Prop of Decadal Decadal Gr.
Census Total ST ST Growth of on SC/ST
Years Pop Pop Pop(%) Rate ST Pop
1951 356.8 19.1 5.4
1961 439.2 30.1 6.9 57.6 20.4
1971 547.9 38.0 6.9 26.2 24.7
1981 6665.3 51.6 7.8 35.8 18.4
1991 838.6 67.8 8.1 31.2 24.3
2001 1028.6 84.3 8.2 24.5 22.9
Source : Census of India : 1951,1961,1971,1981,2001

Overall increasing trend is observed for both general

population and scheduled tribe. Percentage of Scheduled Tribe
population to the total population has increased from 5.4% in
1951 to 8.2% in 2001. Decadal growth rate of scheduled tribe
population is higher compared to growth rate of general
population (Gurumurthy, 1990).
SEX RATIOS
Sex Ratio is a measurement of balance between males and
females in human population and one of the important aspect
of demographic profile for any population (Sinha, 1990). Large
imbalance in this respect affects social, economic community
life in many ways. A higher of lower sex ratio reflects the status
of the socio-cultural, maternal and child health care available
Tribal Development in India 5

in the population. The sex composition of population in India

is found to be favorable to males (IIPS, 2000).
As compared to general population, there appears to be
more even distribution of males and females among the
scheduled Tribes, Sex Ratio of Scheduled Tribe are relatively
higher than that of general population. This suggests that
females in the Tribal society are not neglected. The social and
cultural values protected their interest. But it started to show
declining trend from 982 in 1971 to 972 in 1991 again it has
increased slightly to 978 in 2001, This decline could be
attributed to higher morality amongst females of Scheduled
Tribe community due to their nutritional deficiency and
limited access to health services. Slight increase in 2001 may
be the positive impact of special health and family welfare
drive for them (Table-2).

Table 2
Sex Ration of General Population and Scheduled Tribe: 1961-2001
Sex Ration : no of female per 1000 males
Census Year Total Population Scheduled Tribe
1961 941 987
1971 930 982
1981 934 984
1991 927 972
2001 933 978
Source: Census of India : 1961,1971,1981,2001 Series-I India, part-2B Primary
Census Abstract (ST)

RATE OF LITERACY
The level of literacy is the one of the most important
indicators of social, cultural and health improvement among
Tribal communities (Madan, 1951). The Indian Tribes are
exposed to literacy only in recently (Raza Moonis, 1990). By
and large their response to programmes of literacy and of
formal education varied significantly between Tribes and
regions. Their responses depended on their socio-cultural and
demographic characteristics and on the magnitude and
direction of the forces modernization, Such as urbanization
and industrialization (Bose, 1970). Female literacy is a powerful
6 Tribal Development Issues in India

instrument for social change female literacy among tribals is

low compared to general population (Chauhan, 1990). Literacy
rates for ST, Males and Females register increasing trend
during 1981 to 2001, but there is a wide gap between general
population and scheduled tribe population with respect to
literacy rates. Female literacy for scheduled tribe is still very
low (Table-3).

Table 3
Literacy Rates among General and Scheduled Tribe Population
General Population Scheduled Population
1981 1991 2001 1981 1991 2001
Year 36.23 52.21 65.38 16.35 26.63 47.10
Male 46.89 64.13 75.3 24.52 32.50 59.17
Female 24.82 39.28 54.16 8.04 14.50 34.76
Source : Census of India : 1981,1991,2001 Primary Census Abstract
General Population, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

DISTRIBUTION OF AGE
Age Distribution provides population characteristics of any
region or sub-population it can indicate whether population
structure is young or old. See the (Table-4) it can be presumed
that Tribal population is relatively younger than non-tribal
population in the age group 0-14 (younger population) is about

Table 4
Age Distribution and Dependency Ratio of Scheduled Tribe and
Non-scheduled Tribe Population: 2001
Scheduled Tribe Non Scheduled Tribe
Age Distribution
0-14 39.52 35.08
15-59 54.38 57.33
60+ 6.10 7.59
Total 100 100
Dependency ration 83.89 74.43
Aging Index : Total 15.43 21.64
Male 14.28 20.49
Female 16.62 22.90
Source: Census of India: 2001, Social and Cultural Table.
Tribal Development in India 7

40%, whereas for non scheduled tribe population it is 35% as

per 2001 census. Aging Index is lower for scheduled tribe
(15%). Compared to non scheduled tribe (22%) proportion
economically active population (15-59 age group) is lower
compared to non-tribe population. Dependency ration is much
higher for scheduled tribe (84%) whereas for non-tribe it is
74%.
EDUCATIONAL STATUS
National policy on Education, 1986 again revised in 1992
launched special drive to improve the educational status of
scheduled tribes. Efforts for universalizing primary education
continued through the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
The national programme of Nutritional Support to Primary
education or the Midday Meal act as a support service to
increase retention rate. The pace of progress of enrolment of
both scheduled tribe boys and girls at the middle level has
been quite impressive. As compared to that of total population.
Scheduled Tribe Girls maintained a good pace, especially at
the middle level. However enrolment ratio for scheduled tribe
girls both at primary and middle levels was lower that that
the total population in both years (Bose, 1970) (Table-5).

Table 5
Gross Enrolment Ratios of Scheduled Tribes and Total Population:
(1990-91 to 1999-2000)
1990-1991 1999-2000
Year Classes I to V I to VIII I to V I to VIII
Total Total 100.1 62.1 94.9 58.8
Population Boys 114.0 76.6 104.1 67.2
Girls 85.5 47.8 85.2 49.7
Scheduled Total 103.4 39.7 97.7 58.0
Tribes Boys 126.8 51.3 112.7 70.8
Girls 78.6 27.5 82.7 44.8
Gap Total (+)3.3 (-)22.4 (+)2.8 (-)0.8
Boys (+)12.8 (-)25.3 (+)8.6 (+)3.6
Girls (-)6.9 (-)20.3 (-)2.5 (-)4.9
Source: Annual Report of Respective Years, Department of Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development, GOI, New Delhi
8 Tribal Development Issues in India

The drop-out rate which is another crucial indicator in the

field of educational development also shows that there has
been a steady decline in respect of both general and scheduled
tribe categories. The problem of drop out happens to be a
common feature for both general and scheduled trend student.
While both the categories have been showing a decreasing
trend during 1990-01 to 1998-99, the problem still appears to
be the worst with regard to schedule tribe as they classes. 1 to
8 and 82.96 in classes 1 to 10 during 1998-99. Also the gap
between the general population and scheduled tribe was found
to be widening from 13.67 in 1990-91 to 15.52 in 1998-99 at the
secondary level which is a cause for much concern (Table-6).

Table 6
Drop-Out Rate Amongst Scheduled Tribes and Total Population:
(1990-91 to 1992-2000)
Classes(I-V) Classes(I-VIII) Classes(I-X)
Category 1990-91 1998-99 1990-91 1998-99 1990-91 1998-99
Total 42.60 39.74 60.90 56.82 71.34 67.44
STs 62.52 57.36 78.57 72.80 85.01 82.96
Gap 19.92 17.62 17.67 15.98 13.67 15.52
Source: Education Profile of States/Uts, Department of Education, Ministry
of Human Resource Development, GOI, New Delhi

HEALTH STATUS
Health is a function, not only of medical care but of the
overall integrated development of society-cultural, economic,
education, social and political. The common beliefs, customers
and practices connected with health and disease have been
found to be intimately related to the treatment of disease. It is
necessary to make a holistic view of all the cultural dimensions
of the health of a community (Anup, 2006). In most of the tribal
communities, there is a wealth of folklore related to health.
Documentation of this folklore available in different socio-
cultural systems may be very rewarding and could provide a
model for appropriate health and sanitary practices in a given
eco-system. Maternal and child care is an important aspect of
health seeking behaviour which is largely neglected among
the tribal groups. Health and treatment are closely interrelated
Tribal Development in India 9

with the environment, particularly the forest ecology. Many

tribal groups use different parts of a plant not only for the
treatment of diseases, but for population control as well. There
exists a definite nexus between forests and nutrition. It has
been noted by many that tribals living in remote areas have a
better overall status and eat a more balanced diet than tribals
living in less remote, forest free areas. The mode of utilisation
of available natural resources often determines the long term
impact on health (Lal, 2009).
TRIBAL RIGHTS
Despite Legislative measures to protect marginalized
groups discrimination based on caste, social or religious
grounds continuous widely in practice. Indigenous people, or
Adivasis, have suffered from high rates of displacement.
Scheduled tribes make up 8% of the total population constitute
55% of displaced people. This has had a serious effect on the
overall development of these communities, particularly tribal
children. The government continues to use the land Acquisition
act of 1894 to displace the indigenous people from there lands
without sufficient compensation as is evident in the Narmada
Valley development project. Tribal groups who have converted
to Christianity have been targeted for attack by extremist
Hindu organizations (UNs, 1996).

Table 7
Representation of STs in Political Decision Making Institutions
(1995-2001)
Panchayati Raj Instition(PRI) by 2001
State
Legislative
Gram Panchayat Zilla Total Assembly Loksabha
Category Panchayas Samits Parishad Prise by 2000 (1999)
Total 2580261 128581 13484 2822326 4072 543
STs 235445 7273 1170 243852 530 41
Percentage 9.1 5.6 8.7 9.0 13.0 7.5
Source: 1. Election commission New Delhi
2. Department of Rural Development, GOI, New Delhi
3. National Informatics Centre, Parliament House, New Delhi.
10 Tribal Development Issues in India

Table-7 indicates that it is clear that representation of STs

in Political decision making institutions at various level are
impressive as they are holding respective positions. The share
of scheduled tribes in PRI system is 9% in 2001 their share in
state legislative assemblies was 13% in 2000. In Loksabha the
share was 7.5%.
ANDHRA PRADESH SCENARIO
Andhra Pradesh has a total tribal population of 50 lakhs
forming 6.59% to the total population of the state as per 2001
census. There are 33 scheduled tribes of which 30 live in areas
of tribal concentration in hilly and forest areas while 3
communities are dispersed through-out the state. Largest
scheduled tribe population is in Andhra Pradesh among
southern states while it has 8th largest tribal population in the
country. The state has borders with tribal areas of Orissa,
Chattisgarh and Maharashtra. Thus the state has its own
specialties and common issues with other states of the region.
For the purposes of taking up development programes,
the tribal population has been divided into 1.Areas of tribal
concentration (ITDA areas) 2. Modified area development
pockets (MADA) 3. Clusters 4. Dispersed population and 5.
Primitive tribal groups. Area specific and group specific tribal
development strategies are being implemented since the
inception of tribal sub plan in fifth year plan 1974-75 as part of
all India strategy. Elimination of exploitation and taking
development of the areas of tribal concentration to the level of
general areas with in a time period of 15 years was the long
term goal when this strategy was started. Even though the
tribal sub plan, though ITDAs is under implementation for
the past 30 years, the achievement of two objectives remains
unfulfilled. The conditions of unrest, among tribals which were
mostly limited to the then Srikakulam district before the fifth
five year plan are now found in all tribal areas necessitating a
detailed review of tribal development situation. In the country
as a whole also, similar conditions of unrest are being felt in
several predominantly tribal states. Thus the experiences in
Andhra Pradesh may be useful to other states.
Tribal Development in India 11

Table 8
Size and Growth Rates of Andhra Pradesh Tribal Population
Scheduled Tribal Growth % of ST
Year Size(in lakhs) Rate Population
1951 7.66 - 2.46
1961 13.24 5.47 3.68
1971 16.58 2.24 3,81
1981 31.76 6.50 5.93
1991 41.99 2.79 6.31
2001 56.76 3.01 6.59
Source: Cences of India reports; 1951; 1961; 1971; 1981; 1991 and 2001

The total scheduled tribe (ST) population in 1951 was 7.66

lakhs which increased to 56.76 lakhs in 2001, an eight-fold
increase, as a result the proportion in total population has
increased from 2.46 per cent in 1951 to 6.59 per cent 2001, a
three-fold increase. This is because, all though the period the
ST population has increased at a faster rate than the total
population. The ST population growth rate during 1951-61 was
5.47 per cent per year, while that of the total population was
only 1.46 per cent. In the recent decade 1991-2001, ST
population growth rate is 3.01 per cent that of total population
1.37 per cent (Table-8).
The study of demographic and health determinants of
infant deaths in Andhra Pradesh were the Banjara tribal group
in the Kalyanadurgam and Beluguppa blocks of Ananthapur
district and Govindaraopet mandal of Warangal district
studies pointed out that out of 348 infant deaths 45.4 percent
were neonatal and 54.6 per cent were post neonatal. About 25
percent infant deaths occurred due to dysentry/ diarrhoea and
20 percent due to maternal factors such as prematurity, birth
injury, multiple birth, low birth weight, birth asphyxia and so
on. A study on the Chenchu tribal group of Achampet taluk
of Andhra Pradesh found that the average number of children
for each women. Average number of surviving offspring per
married women and mortality in relation to live births were
3.67, 2.96 and 27.5 respectively. It was also found a high fertility
and mortality among the Pardhans of Adilabad district (Lal,
2006).
12 Tribal Development Issues in India

TRIBAL PROBLEMS
Tribal people are facing wide variety of problems in India
such as health, violence and crimes, nutrition, sanitation- water
and community health.
Communicable Diseases
The majority of rural and tribal deaths, which are
preventable, are due to infections and communicable, parasitic
and respiratory diseases. Infectious diseases dominate the
morbidity pattern in rural areas (40% rural: 23.5% urban).
Waterborne infections, which account for about 80% of sickness
in India, make every fourth person dying of such diseases in
the world, an Indian. Annually, 1.5 million deaths and loss of
73 million workdays are attributed to waterborne diseases.
Three groups of infections are widespread in tribal/ rural areas,
as follows.
1. Diseases that are carried in the gastrointestinal tract,
such as diarrhoea, amoebiasis, typhoid fever,
infectious hepatitis, worm infestations and
poliomyelitis. About 100 million suffer from diarrhoea
and cholera every year.
2. Diseases that are carried in the air through coughing,
sneezing or even breathing, such as measles,
tuberculosis (TB), whooping cough and pneumonia.
Today there are 12 million TB cases (an average of
70%). Over 1.2 million cases are added every year and
37 000 cases of measles are reported every year (TB
Division, 2005).
3. Infections, which are more difficult to deal with,
include malaria, filariasis and kala-azar. These are often
the result of development. Irrigation brings with it
malaria and filariasiss, pesticide use has produced a
resistant strain of malaria, the ditches, gutters and
culverts dug during the construction of roads, and
expansion of cattle ranches, for example, are breeding
places for snails and mosquitoes. About 2.3 million
episodes and over 1000 malarial deaths occur every
year in India.3 An estimated 45 million are carriers of
Tribal Development in India 13

microfilaria, 19 million of which are active cases and

500 million people are at risk of developing filarial
(Dilip, 2003).

Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation

Inadequate sanitation, poor hygiene and lack of safe water
supply result not only in more sickness and death, but also in
higher health costs, lower worker productivity, lower school
enrollment and retention rates of girls and perhaps most
importantly the denial of the rights of all people to live in
dignity (WHO-2011)
Nearly 80 percent (1.2 billion) out of 68.89%- 2011 in India
in the rural area people do not have sanitation facilities and
they defecate in the open. But more people own a mobile
phone.
• 200 million women in India are obliged to wait
throughout daylight hours for open defecation on
road-footpath or banks of canal.
• Girls drop out of schools without toilets, on reaching
puberty.
• Huge numbers of people are still expected to handle
other people’s shit.
• Adolescent girls have nowhere private to deal with
menstrual hygiene.

Violence and Crimes

The violence that have done on women and men of the
tribal community includes many kinds of Harmful physical,
emotional and sexual behaviors against women and girls that
are most often carried out by family members, but also at times
by strangers. The United Nations Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence against Women includes a widely
accepted definition of violence against women as: “Any act of
gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result in, Physical,
sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women”. Every 18
minutes: A crime is committed against a subaltern people.
Every day: three women are raped, two are murdered, two
14 Tribal Development Issues in India

Houses are burnt, 11 people are beaten in India. Every week:

13 persons are murdered, five home or possessions are burnt
and six are kidnapped or abducted. Nearly 80% girls are facing
the domestic violence (beaten, slapped or threatened), health
problems.
Social and Economic Conditions
1. Thirty seven percent of tribal people are living below
poverty.
2. More than half (54%) of their children are undernourished
(Radhakrishna, 2004).
3. Sixty five percent of tribal people do not know read and
write in India, tribal community women burden double
discrimination (gender and caste) (Ghanshyam, 2006).

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

The Overall scenario and the conditions of tribal regions
in India are just pathetic. The effects of planned developmental
intervention in the tribals from 1961 to 1981 that 20 years of
intervention has not made any significant impact in improving
the conditions of the tribals. There is all-round degradation of
natural resources in the tribal regions, resulting in rampant
poverty among the tribal people. In human development index,
the tribal regions and people are at the bottom of the table in
every state and districts. No one can question the basic fact
that the tribal people in India are poorest of all. Whatever may
be the statistics of below poverty line population at the national
level any tribal religion in India (excepting the north-east
states) has more that 65% of the population living below the
poverty line and the tribal regions are the most backward and
most undeveloped in India. Apart from that the tribal people
are facing number of problems main are land alienation,
indebtedness and exploitation of economical and physical.
It is focus that the tribal regions and tribal people are the
poorest, inspite of rich and abundant natural resources. These
natural resources, specifically land and water are either
neglected or not developed or in other scenario, if at all
Tribal Development in India 15

developed in some cases, the benefits of the same are largely

cornered by the non-tribals and so called progressive people.
Whether they are forests, whether they are big dams, whether
they are vast minerals, in most of the cases they are meant to
benefit the non-tribals at the cost of the local tribals.
Health education should be imparted by the local tribal
women with guidelines provided by health functionaries. The
nutritional and health status of pregnant tribal women need
to be improved by adequate intake of nutritious diet, including
iron and minerals and also by hundred percent immunisation.
Development of poultry and fisheries are to be encouraged.
Remunerative prices should provide to the tribal of their forest
produces.
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