1.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................... 3

1.1. Deep drawing ..................................................................................................... 3

1.2. Deep drawing process mechanics ........................................................................ 4

Deep drawing parameters ............................................................ 6

1.1. Design parameters .............................................................................................. 6

1.1.1. Starting blank diameter ............................................................................................... 6
1.1.2. Blank diameter and thickness ratio ............................................................................. 6
1.1.3. Limiting drawing ratio .................................................................................................. 7
1.1.4. Stage determination .................................................................................................... 8
1.1.5. Die corner radius .......................................................................................................... 8
1.1.6. Die contact angle ......................................................................................................... 9
1.1.7. Punch corner radius: .................................................................................................. 10
1.1.8. Die-punch radius relation .......................................................................................... 11
1.1.9. Die-punch Clearance .................................................................................................. 12
1.1.10. Blank holder force determination .............................................................................. 12
1.1.11. Drawing without blank holder ................................................................................... 13
1.1.12. Venting ....................................................................................................................... 14

1.2. Material Parameters ......................................................................................... 15

1.2.1. Plastic strain ratio (R-value) ....................................................................................... 15
1.2.2. Strain hardening exponent (n-Value) ......................................................................... 16
1.2.3. Material microstructure and size effects ................................................................... 16

1.3. Machine parameters ......................................................................................... 18

1.3.1. Drawing speed ........................................................................................................... 18
1.3.2. Drawing forces ........................................................................................................... 18
1.3.3. Press Precision ........................................................................................................... 19

1.4. Friction and lubrication ..................................................................................... 19

Computer aided process design....................................................20

Mechanical testing and material characterisation .......................23

3.1. Uniaxial tensile test ........................................................................................... 23

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3.2. Material anisotropic (R -values) ......................................................................... 24

3.3. Erichsen test ..................................................................................................... 25

3.4. Swift cupping test ............................................................................................. 26

3.5. FLC test ............................................................................................................. 27

Defects in deep drawing ..............................................................28

4.1. Wrinkling .......................................................................................................... 28

4.2. Thinning at punch end ....................................................................................... 29

4.3. Thinning at the wall region ................................................................................ 30

4.4. Earing ............................................................................................................... 30

4.5. Rough Surface finish/Orange peel...................................................................... 31

4.6. Spring back ....................................................................................................... 32

4.7. Stress corrosion cracking ................................................................................... 32

Blanking ......................................................................................34

Ironing .........................................................................................35

Secondary processes ....................................................................36

References ...................................................................................37

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 1. Introduction

1.1. Deep drawing

Deep drawing is defined as a tensile-compressive sheet forming process where a plane

blank is formed into a hollow part open on one side or an open hollow part is formed
into another hollow part with a smaller cross-section (Figure 1). Deep drawing is suited
for forming cylindrical components with large diameter to height ratios (1:2 – 1:25)

Figure 1: Cylindrical deep drawing schematics

Components produced using drawing processes can be classified into shallow or deep
draw based on the drawing depth. In cylindrical cup drawing, If the product height is
same as starting blank it is usually termed as shallow drawing, conversely, if product
height is greater than starting blank diameter it is termed as deep drawing. Some
examples of such components are, beverages cans, cartridges, pressure vessels, battery
cases etc. (Figure 2).

Figure 2: examples of deep drawn components

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Deep drawing process is affected by large number of process parameters. Some of the
independent deep drawing process parameters are:

 blank material properties (mechanical& microstructure)

 starting thickness and diameter of blank
 ratio of the blank diameter to the punch diameter
 clearance between the punch and the die
 corner radii of the punch and die
 blank holding force
 friction conditions at the blank/tool interfaces

Each of these process parameters have varied level of influence on the process output.
The quality of product can be affected by a single parameter or multiple parameters
interacting with one another. Large number of process parameters makes trouble-
shooting a deep drawing process difficult. This report aims to present a background
understanding on the deep drawing and associated processes.

1.2. Deep drawing process mechanics

Deep drawing process involves different deformation modes including tension,

compression, bending and unbending of blank of sheet. For axisymmetric deep drawing
process, the formed component with flange can be divided into five zones as shown in
Figure 3a. Stress and strain states in these zones remain identical however it will change
from one zone to other.

Figure 3: (a)Deformation zones in cylindrical deep drawing (b) Compression in cup flange

In zone 1, circumferential compression 𝜎ℎ occurs when the material is forced to reduce

in diameter caused due to drawing of cup into the die (Figure 3b). A radial tensile stress
𝜎𝑟 is also generated on the flange when the material is pulled into the die. Volume

4
constancy cause material to thicken on the flange. If a blank holder is used, then a
compressive stress would exist due to the action of blank holder pressure in this zone.

A triaxial strain state also occur in this zone with positive strain(tensile) in two
directions (thickness and radial) and compressive strain in one direction
(circumferential). As the drawing proceeds absolute values of stress and strain change
continuously, resulting in non-uniform distribution of thickness and hardness of the
workpiece.

In zone 2 material experiences similar stresses as in the flange. A tensile stress in radial
direction and compressive stress in tangential direction. Furthermore, a compressive
stress is caused by pressing and bending in the die fillet. Bending stress occurs when the
blank is bent over the radius of the die. The material in this zone is stretched and thinned
due to bending and sliding when passing over the die fillet zone.

Zone 3 is the cup wall. The force is applied to the bottom of the part (Zone 5) and
transmitted to flange region through zone 3. In this zone, hoop strain is zero, creating a
state of plain strain zone in the cup wall. At junction between zone 3 and zone 4 (Start of
punch radius) tensile stress is maximum causing maximum thinning to occur in this
region.

Zone 4 is the cup bottom radius formed around the punch radius. This section has first
undergone bending around the die radius then unbending/ straightening in the cup wall
and then bending around the punch radius in opposite direction.

Zone 5 is the cup bottom. This is where minimum deformation occurs hence the state of
material is almost in its original form.

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 Deep drawing parameters

1.1. Design parameters

1.1.1. Starting blank diameter

Before starting drawing operation, the size and form of the blank must be determined
for the desired final part geometry and die layout. For an axisymmetric drawing,
assuming no change in thickness at the end of the stroke, starting blank diameter can be
calculated by equating surface area of formed cup to surface area of initial blank as
shown below.
d

D 2 
 d 2  dh
4 4 h
D 2  d 2  4 dh
D  d 2  4 dh

Figure 4: Cup with no change in thickness

Where,
D = diameter of the blank before forming
d= diameter of cup
h = height of formed cup

Sometimes, final part wall thickness in the deep drawn cup is reduced from initial wall
thickness to a smaller thickness by inducing ironing at intermediate states. In such a case
equating final part volume to the initial blank volume can be used to estimate initial
blank size.
dp

𝐷𝑏 2 𝑑𝑝 2 t1
𝜋 𝑡0 = 𝜋 𝑡 + 𝜋(𝑑𝑝 + 𝑡1 )𝑡1 ℎ h
4 4 0

4 × 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐷𝑏 = √
𝜋𝑡0 t0

Figure 5: Deep drawing with ironing

1.1.2. Blank diameter and thickness ratio

Thickness of blank is an important parameter in a deep drawing process. In general, thin

blanks are usually harder to draw and maintain consistency than thicker blanks.

6
Possibilities of wrinkling increases with thinner blanks. A desired blank thickness to
diameter ratio should be greater than 1% [2]. Use of thicker blanks with simultaneous
ironing can help reduce number of drawing stages and reduce tooling costs. In general,
blank thickness between 35-45% greater than part thickness can be used [4]. Thickness
selection is based on maximum allowable ironing strain and number of stages.

1.1.3. Limiting drawing ratio

The term formability in sheet metal forming is too broad as a single formability measure
doesn’t exist. For example, in a typical sheet metal stamping operation, forming modes
differ from one region to another (Bending, stretching, drawing). Formability in different
regions can be limited by specific properties mentioned in section 1.2.

In a deep drawing process due to a complex strain state (Bending and unbending),
uniaxial tensile test cannot be used as a formability measure, instead a parameter,
limiting drawing ratio (LDR) is used as a measure of deep drawability. The limiting draw
ratio (LDR) is the highest ratio of the blank diameter to cup diameter that can be drawn
without failure.

D
LDR 
d

In subsequent drawing steps, ‘D’ represents the diameter of the draw punch in the first
drawing operation and 'd’ the diameter of the second, etc. Limiting drawing ratio can be
measured by experimental tests, analytical method and finite element method. For most
metals LDR for first stage drawing is usually around 2. For redrawing stages, lower LDR
values between (1.3-1.1) must be used to ensure safe drawing. Using higher LDR could
result in part fracture as shown in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6: Use of correct limiting drawing ratio

Limiting drawing ratio can be also be defined in terms of % reduction of punch diameter
to blank diameter.

7
 LDR 
D d
 Dp
 0 .5
If LDR is 2.
D d

1.1.4. Stage determination

For a given product, the total draw ratio is calculated as the ratio of the diameter of the
start blank to the final diameter of the drawn part. If the drawing ratio exceeds the
allowable limit for a single draw, then a redrawing stage can be added to form the final
cup diameter. Empirical equations such as eq3 can be used to estimate number of stages
required [1].

𝑑𝑛
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝐷𝑏 𝐾1
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 1 + [ ]
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾2

Where,
Db= Blank diameter
Dn= part diameter
K1= LDR at stage 1
K2= LDR for second stage

1.1.5. Die corner radius

Larger die radius allows ease in flow of material. Die entry radius can be designed as
large as possible since it will not affect the final cup height. However, very large die radius
can cause part to release early from blank holder which can lead to wrinkling conversely
too small die radius can cause strain localization leading to thinning and tearing of side
walls quickly. Die corner radius is defined based on blank thickness. A general rule of 6-
10 times the thickness of blank is used for selecting die entry radius [1].

Figure 7: Acceptable die corner radius based on sheet thickness [7]

8
 1.1.6. Die contact angle

In deep drawing, if the contact angle between drawing stages is too large, cracks can form
and swelling can occur, resulting in scoring, curving, and imbalanced flange-lip
roundness. Keeping the contact angle between 15 and 45 degrees is key to quality of
drawn parts. When the contact angle is too large, the portion of the first tool touch is
expanded to the outside, and a shock line appears inside the drawn part(Figure 8a). A
relatively ductile material can assimilate these shock lines through the end stroke, but
for lesser ductile materials cracks can develop at the shock lines. Such problems can be
eliminated by keeping the contact angle between 15 and 45 degrees as shown in see
Figure 8b.

Figure 8: Importance of contact angle [6]

The material of the contact portion expands outward during this process. Even if the
contact angle is less than 45 degrees when the cup round of the workpiece touches the
die radius, the contact angle becomes far larger than 45 degrees when the vertical wall
of the workpiece passes through the die radius as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Swell developing of at outer wall during drawing

A small swell grows at the die radius as the flow stagnates. The swelling tends to be
unnoticeable because it doesn’t appear when processing is complete, but if the swell is

9
not the same size all around, it can cause several problems such as score marks in the
cup wall or a curved drawn part.

Figure 10: (a) curved part formed due to uneven swelling (b) 15-degree die opening to reduce
swelling

A die with a conic lip of 15 degrees can be used in drawing to prevent swelling when the
workpiece’s vertical wall passes through the lip as shown in figure 10 (b) It also helps
drawing force decreases while the life of the die increases. While the 15-degree conic lip
is good for preventing swelling, it causes a 15-degree neck under the flange in the
workpiece, which may not acceptable for the final product.

1.1.7. Punch corner radius:

Fracture normally occurs at the bottom of the cup wall (where the punch radius meets
the cup wall.) as the cup is weakest at the bottom because it does not undergo as much
work hardening as do the sides of the wall. The walls are strengthened by work
hardening due to bending and unbending of the sheet over the die radius. As the punch
corner radius is increased, the failure site moves upward into the material that was been
strengthened by prior work hardening. A generous corner radius also results in a gradual
increase of the punch load with stroke. The recommended values of punch radii for
aluminum alloys are about 10x sheet thickness while for stainless steel they are about 5-
10 times sheet thickness [8]. Selecting a suitable punch corner radius based on sheet
shickness in shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11: Determining punch corner radius

1.1.8. Die-punch radius relation

Both die, and punch corner radius has influence on the material flow during deep
drawing. For deep drawing requiring several stages, punch and die corner radius must
be made progressively smaller to minimize sheet thinning on the outside radius of the
punch as shown in Figure 12[1]. In such a case the center of the die radius used in stage
2 OD1 is about 3mm further outward than the outside diameter of the product formed
at stage 1., the center of the punch radius used in stage 1 is slightly inside the outside
diameter of the product formed during stage 2 and the center of the punch radius used
in the next to last stage OP4 is either equal to or outside the center of the punch radius
used in the last stage Op5 [1].

Figure 12: Die-punch corner radius relation

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 1.1.9. Die-punch Clearance

Ideally, the clearance between punch and die should be same as the blank thickness. But
the blank gets thickened towards the edge because of the metal flow and hence, the
actual clearance provided is slightly higher to account for this thickening. An allowance
in the range of 7 to 20% of the blank thickness is provided depending on the cup material
and cup dimensions.

If the clearance between the die and the punch is larger than the initial blank thickness
but smaller than the expected thickness at the tip of the cup. The tip of the cup is
squeezed between the die and the punch and a cup with more uniform wall thickness is
produced. The punch force increases as it goes through ironing of cup tip as a result
punch load stroke diagram exhibits a second maximum.

Many empirical equations are used to determine the punch die clearance for deep
drawing of round cups without ironing. Suggested values of die clearance up as a function
of blank thickness for common materials are shown below.

Table 1: Drawing Clearance estimation

Drawing Clearance from various sources

C=1.1t0-1.2 t0 ASM Handbook [10]

𝐷 Heinz, Metal forming Practices [6]
𝐶 = 𝑡0 √𝑑

𝐶 = 𝑡0 + 0.02~0.2√10𝑡0 Sheet metal forming Fundamentals [8]

1.1.10. Blank holder force determination

Blank holder is used if wrinkles are expected in deep drawing process. Optimum blank
holder force suppresses wrinkling. Excessive BHF can cause increase in friction and
cause part to fracture and too little blank holding force may not be able to suppress
wrinkling (Figure 13). A required level of BHF depends on type of material, draw ratios
and sheet thickness.

12
Figure 13: Defect formation in deep drawing as a function of blank holder force, blank thickness
and cup depth.

1.1.11. Drawing without blank holder

In some cases, deep drawing operation can be performed without the use of blank holder.
Such possibility is based on many factors. Some theory suggests drawing without a blank
holder is possible for relatively thick blank. This is because thicker blank will not buckle
under compressive stresses in the flanged area.

Eliminating the need of blank holder can simplify the die design and bring down the
tooling cost. There are various suggestions on making drawing possible without the need
of blank holder, most of these suggestions points towards using thicker blank material.
Some of the suggestions are:

Making supported blank edge length (l) and blank thickness (t) ratio not more than 3:1
as shown in Figure 14[10].

l/t less than 3:1

Figure 14: Drawing without blank holder

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A similar method is relating punch diameter and blank diameter. (P.Groover) suggests,
limiting condition for drawing without blank holder as: Db-dp<5*t [2].

Aida handbook summarises all above three conditions with possibilities of using
radiused die or tapered dies (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Different cases of drawing without blank holder [1]

1.1.12. Venting

Need of venting is quite important when drawing small thin components. Venting allows
trapped air and lubricants to escape and prevents vacuum problems (part sticking)
during the upstroke. Venting is also important for preventing trapping of air and fluids
and causing bursting or fracturing in highly stretched areas (Figure 16).

It is easy to overlook details such as this. If not aware, it can be difficult to identify the
root cause of the problem and time and resources could be wasted modifying other
design parameters while the actual culprit is the trapped air or lubricants.

Figure 16: Part bottom burst without venting in punch design.

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 1.2. Material Parameters

Deep drawability strongly depends upon the initial blank material properties. In general,
% elongation and UTS are used as an indication of materials formability in any other
sheet metal forming processes. In deep drawing there are few other parameters that are
used as an indication for deep drawability. Some of these parameters are discussed in
this section.

1.2.1. Plastic strain ratio (R-value)

In sheet metal forming processes, failure mode is predominantly due to strain

localisation or thinning. Material with greater resistance to thinning is preferred for
complex forming operations. Resistance to deformation in different directions is closely
related with the anisotropic characteristics of material. Materials are inherently
anisotropic, as they are made from arrangement of crystals having tendency to form in
different orientations or texture [9]. In bulk forming processes the dimensions are of
similar order in all three directions hence it can be assumed isotropic. However, in sheet
metals, dimension in at least one direction is in a smaller order causing the anisotropic
properties to be more pronounced. The plastic strain ratio ‘R-value’ is the measure of
anisotropy in the sheet material and indicates the ability of the sheet metal to resist
thinning or thickening. Materials can be categorized as isotropic (R-value = 1) or
anisotropic (R-value≠1). Normal anisotropy (r) measures the change in material
characteristic with respect to thickness and planar anisotropy is related to difference in
material properties in planar directions.

Anisotropy is one of the most important parameter in deep drawing process affecting
the LDR. Materials with higher R-value usually show better drawability. Higher R-values
refers to lower resistance in forming in flange region when the blank is being drawn into
the die. Higher-R-value also means higher resistance to thinning in the cup walls when it
is being stretched by punching action. The relation between R-value and LDR of some
materials are shown in Figure 17.

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 Figure 17: relation between R-value and LDR

1.2.2. Strain hardening exponent (n-Value)

At room temperature, n value represents the true uniform strain beyond which necking
occurs. Higher ‘n’ value indicates large uniform elongation which is desirable in sheet
metal forming operation. The strain hardening exponent, or n-value, is the other material
property that affects LDR. The n-value is the strain hardening exponent in a true stress
() versus true strain () curve (Kn), which commonly is used to describe the flow
stress data in the plastic region. In deep drawing, a higher n-value strengthens the cup
wall, but it also strengthens the flange so that more force is needed to deform it.
Nevertheless, the LDR tends to increase with increasing n-value.

Table 2: n and r values of some materials

n r
Mild steel 0.2-0.5 1-1.4
Drawing steel 0.22-0.26 1.4-1.8
Austenitic steel 0.4-0.55 0.9-1.2
Copper 0.35-0.5 0.6-0.9
Aluminium 0.2-0.3 0.6-0.8
Titanium 0.05 3-5

1.2.3. Material microstructure and size effects

Ductility is a property of material that inherently depends on the microstructure. In

conventional forming processes the smallest dimension i.e. thickness is much bigger than
the material grain size. However, in micro forming processes grain size can be in the

16
order of smallest part dimension. Thickness may contain 10 or fewer grains. When grain
numbers are sufficiently smaller it may cause microstructural affects such as strain non-
uniformity and localization. This is termed as the size effect. The share of surface grains
increases because of miniaturization (Figure 18). The grains located at the specimen
surface and grains located within the specimen volume are expected to behave
differently.

Figure 18: size effect as result of miniaturization

This behaviour relates to the compatibility between adjacent grains and can be explained
with the lower forces of constraint in the surface area of the specimen. With an increasing
share of surface grains in the total number of grains, the flow stress and straining
hardening is lowered during plastic deformation (Figure 19). The lowering of flow stress
can be explained with the higher number of slippings on active systems (which are able
to contribute to plastic flow) in the surface grains and with the reduced obstruction of
dislocation movements in these grains, strain hardening is reduced.

Figure 19: Flow curves of CuNi18Zn20 for different sheet thicknesses [12]

17
 1.3. Machine parameters
1.3.1. Drawing speed

The speed with which the punch moves through the blank during drawing, is termed as
the drawing speed. Press speed is an important parameter in drawing because higher
speeds are sometimes detrimental. Press speeds must allow sufficient time for materials
to flow. Particularly harder and less ductile materials are likely to be excessively thinned
out due to excessive drawing speeds. Drawing speeds for some metal groups are shown
in Figure 20.

Figure 20: Drawing speeds for different materials [10]

1.3.2. Drawing forces

In practice, the process plan for a given cup begins with the calculation of blank diameter
and then the LDR for first draw as well as for redraws are estimated, when the required
drawing ratio is not achievable in the first pass. Critical drawing force is closely related
to the force required for causing tensile instability in the cup wall where the stresses are
predominantly tensile. This links to allowable Drawing ratio to critical force. If a force
exceeds a critical amount drawing ratio must be lowered to prevent tensile fractures.

It is difficult to estimate an accurate forming load. Forming forces in deep drawing

depend on type and state of material, Blank thickness and diameter, friction forces, hold
down pressure etc. many empirical equations are proposed for estimating forming loads.

 D D p   / 2
P  D p h (1.1 o ) ln o   ( 2 H ) e B
 Dp Do 

P=Total punch load

σo= Average flow stress
Dp= Diameter of punch
Do= Blank diameter
H= Blank hold on pressure
h= Wall thickness
μ=Co-efficient of friction
B= Force required to bend and straighten the blank

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 1.3.3. Press Precision

In conventional processes, tolerances of few millimeters can be allowed. In such a case

press precision is not as demanding. But, as the product scale becomes smaller the
precision required will be more critical. The tolerance and precision level drop down to
submicron level.

In a mass production setup, it is quite common have a forming objective of 300parts/min

or more. Production rates are controlled by part size and geometric complexities. As the
production process is miniaturized, the same level of production rates and tolerances
may not be possible. Miniaturized production process usually demands tighter
tolerances and precision which could quickly increase the cost. Such high production
rates may not be possible simply due to the limitation in press technology.

1.4. Friction and lubrication

Friction is inherent in any metal forming processes. Forces applied on forming tools are
transferred to sheet metal by direct contact. Therefore, proper lubrication is crucial for
the success of sheet metal forming. A good lubricant acts as a barrier between two metal
surfaces resulting in controlled friction, reduced forces, power requirement and extend
tool life by minimising wear and tooling stresses. Selecting correct lubricant type
requires careful consideration regarding process type, press speed, materials to be
formed, tooling design and method of application.

Lubricants in metal forming can range from light mineral oil to heavy drawing
compounds. These lubricants can be oil based, water soluble or synthetics. Some primary
methods of application include, manual, drip, roller, spray and flooding. Selecting right
type of lubrication and applying right amount is very important for success of the
process.

In micro deep drawing, the law of friction and lubrication are also prone to size effects
[11]. The relative size of surface asperities in micro components are larger than in macro
components. This causes friction in micro components to be greater than macro
components. Surface asperities can be of two types, open pockets and closed pocket as
shown in Figure 21[12]. Open pockets are those type of asperities which shares its edge

19
with part edge. With applied pressure lubricants escape out from the open pocket type
asperities. Close pockets are those which retain lubricant and help minimise normal
pressure. With miniaturisation, the ratio of open pocket to close pocket increases hence
causing increase in friction.

Figure 21: Surface asperities (a) Open Pocket (b) Closed Pockets [12]

When an effective lubrication system is used, Friction is reduced significantly in micro

components compared to conventional forming processes. This is because a large
volume of open pockets will be covered by the lubricant in micro forming.

Computer aided process design

Stamping tooling design has always been a combination of science, art and experience.
In a typical stamping industry, most designers rely on previous experience in laying out
the process sequence for a particular part. After an Initial set of dies and punches are
manufactured, tool tryouts are carried out and the dies and punches are modified until a
good part is produced. The final modified dies and punches end up much different from
original design and can be difficult to estimate dimensions for final working design. This
stage of process development cycle may require an extensive amount of resources.

In the recent years, simulation software capable of handling complex metal forming
problems are being continuously developed. These virtual methods of tryouts can

20
predict material flow behavior with a very good level of accuracy (Figure 22). However,
there are some limitations that must be considered when choosing to apply such tools.
For example, in a metal forming simulation setup, real world variables such as press and
tooling deflections, tooling manufacturing tolerances, thermal changes, sheet material
specs variations, friction variables (high or low depending on speed and amount of
lubricants) etc. are usually ignored and a perfect scenario is assumed which is not the
case in real world trials. For this reason, simulation results might not always mimic real-
world result exactly.

Figure 22: Failure prediction using FE simulation

With the increasing complexities of parts, pressure on lead time and development of
new advanced materials the benefit simulation software brings easily outweighs its
limitations. In addition, capturing the design knowledge in a computer program would
help to retain the know how in the company even if a designer leaves. Also, it would help
standardizing design practices and it could serve as an effective training tool. A typical
process design methodology based on CAE system is shown in fFigure 23.

21
Figure 23: CAE based process design

22
 Mechanical testing and material characterisation

3.1. Uniaxial tensile test

Uniaxial tensile test at room temperature provides useful mechanical properties of

materials. This test is used to determine various elastic and plastic properties of
materials such as young’s modulus, yield strength, tensile strength, % elongation, strain
hardening parameter etc. From these information material flow curve with true stress-
strain data can be extracted which serves as an important input parameter for any FE
analysis.

Figure 24: Uniaxial tensile test characteristics

In a deep drawing process, elastic modulus and yield strength provides information of
spring back properties of sheet metal. Tensile strength is an indicator of amount of
drawing force required and appropriate machine selection. % elongation is amount of
elongation before failure and strain hardening parameter also known as n values
provides material resistance to thinning.

ASTM E8 Test standard is recommended for conducting the tensile test.

23
 3.2. Material anisotropic (R -values)

The plastic strain ratio r is a parameter that indicates the ability of a sheet metal to resist
thinning or thickening when subjected to either tensile or compressive forces in the
plane of the sheet [ASTM E517]. It is a measure of plastic anisotropy given by:

𝜀𝑤
𝑟=
𝜀𝑡

Where,
𝜀𝑤 = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Plastic anisotropy is calculated using standard uniaxial tensile test. Materials usually
have different r values when tested in different orientations relative to the rolling
direction. R-value is calculated for all three directions of sheet metal (00,450 and 900) as
shown in Figure 25.

𝜀𝑡

𝜀𝑤

Figure 25: Anisotropy test specimen

Normal anisotropy is calculated as:

𝜀0 + 2𝜀45 + 𝜀90
𝑟𝑚 =
4

And planar anisotropy is calculated as:

𝜀0 + 𝜀90 − 2𝜀45
𝑟𝑚 =
2

24
As discussed in section 1.1.20, In the deep drawing process, higher normal anisotropy is
preferred as it indicates the resistance to thinning during the drawing process. Planar
anisotropy gives indication on material tendency to earing. Higher planar anisotropy
leads to higher tendency of earing which means more waste during trimming.

ASTM E517 states standard procedure for obtaining material plastic strain ratios.

3.3. Erichsen test

The Erichsen cupping test is a ductility test, which is employed to evaluate the ability of
metallic sheets and strips to undergo plastic deformation in stretch forming. The test
consists of forming an indentation by pressing a punch with a spherical end against a test
piece clamped between a blank holder and a die, until a through crack appears. The depth
of the cup is measured.

In the Erichsen and Olsen tests, cups are formed by stretching over a hemispherical tool.
The flanges are very large so little drawing occurs. The results depend on stretchability
rather than drawability. The Olsen test is used in America and the Erichsen in Europe.

25
 3.4. Swift cupping test

Swift cupping test is another test method to determine formability of material. It is

specifically used to test drawability of material determining the limiting drawing ratio as
shown in Figure 26. A blank of diameter D0 is drawn into a die cavity with a punch diameter
of d0. The blank diameter divided by the punch diameter gives the limiting draw ratio (LDR),
For ductile low-carbon steel, aluminum, and brass sheets, a 102-mm circular blank can be
formed in a single draw using a punch diameter of 50mm. Increased plastic strain ratio r and
ductility allow larger blanks to be drawn successfully; the limit is reached when the bottom
punches out, rather than forming a cup shape.

Figure 26:Swift cupping test

26
 3.5. FLC test

Depending on the geometry of the tools and workpiece and different manner in which
the forces of deformation are applied, different metal working processes produce
different stress states. Stress states in plastic deformation of metals are usually complex.

Sheet metal forming processes are characterised by plane stress state which falls within
the regime of uniaxial tension to biaxial tension. Keeler and Backofen[13], proposed a
forming limit diagram based on major and minor surface strains in biaxial tension region
(first quadrant in Figure 27.). Goodwin in 1968 [14] proposed its extension into tension-
compression regime (second quadrant in Figure 27). A forming limit curve is
constructed by inducing different strain states on specially designed test specimens and
measuring the major and minor strains. The forming limit curve serves as measure of
formability in sheet metals under different state of strains.

Figure 27: Forming limit curve

Test procedure such as ASTM 2218 can be used for generating a forming limit curves.
This includes using specially designed machines and specimen geometry such as
Nakazima or Marciniak tests.

27
 Defects in deep drawing

4.1. Wrinkling

Wrinkling is a form of compressive instability. In simple cup drawing, Hoop stress (σ2)

develops in the flange in response to radial stress(σ1). Wrinkle occurs when the hoop
stress exceeds a critical value. First experiment on wrinkling was performed in 1928 by
Geckler who produced the relationship.

Hoop critical = 0.46*E0*T^2/B^2

Critical value of hoop stress required for causing buckling is usually much lower for
thinner blanks. Hence thinner blanks are more susceptible to wrinkling. This can be
Controlled by the used of optimal blank holding pressure.

Wrinkling analysis

If the formed cup is reversed back into a circular blank as shown in Figure 28. Following
can be observed.

 Base radius of the cup rc remains unchanged.

 The cup height (rc-ra) will remain unchanged and if a constant width w is selected
around the circumference this will lead to additional triangular areas within the
blank.

The excess triangular areas would then lead to following consequences.

 This triangular area must be accommodated somewhere when forming the blank
into the cup.
 If enough blank holding force is not applied this excess material will form
wrinkles.
 With an adequate blank holding force the material cannot escape as wrinkles
therefore it must force itself into the cup wall. But the cup diameter is constant
which means the excess triangle will increase the cup height.

28
 Figure 28: Characteristic triangles in deep drawing blank [6]

4.2. Thinning at punch end

One of the major defects in drawing of sheet metals is thinning or localized necking,
which leads to crack formation or tearing. During cup drawing, material near the punch
radius is subjected to maximum thinning and therefore, the bottom of the cup gets
separated. Providing large radius on the punch or reducing the punch load may eliminate
this defect.

• Thinning mechanism at punch end

As there is some clearance between die and punch, there is a band of material whose
width is related to the clearance size. This region of material escapes bending under
tension and only feels simple tension, for this reason it is not as much thinned as material
either side of it. This produces two necks A and B.as shown in Figure 29 Failure will
usually occur at neck B which experiences higher tensile forces than neck A.

29
 Figure 29:Punch end thinning mechanism

4.3. Thinning at the wall region

Thinning in wall region is also a form of tensile instability. In this case, the instability
usually formed at punch wall is moved up into the cup wall due to various reasons. It is
mostly attributed to excessive blank holder pressure and poor ductility of material.

Figure 30: Cup wall fracture

4.4. Earing

Formation of wavy edge on top of the cup, called earing, happens due to anisotropy of
the material. Anisotropy is a material property where material strength is higher in one
direction than the other in a plane of sheet metal. Material anisotropy is discussed more
in section 7.2.

30
 Figure 31: Earing in cylindrical deep drawing

4.5. Rough Surface finish/Orange peel

Large grain size of sheet metals results in poor surface finish and the surface develops
orange peel effect, which is surface roughness. This defect can be prevented using fine
grained material for drawing.

Figure 32: orange peel effect on surface of formed part

31
 4.6. Spring back

Spring back in sheet metal can be mostly attributed to elastic strains. Elastic strains can
be magnified by increasing materials strength or reducing materials material stiffness as
shown in Figure 33(a)and (b)

Figure 33: Spring back dependence on yield strength and young’s modulus

4.7. Stress corrosion cracking

Stress-corrosion cracking in a deep-drawn brass part for a light fixture. The cracks have
developed over a period. Brass and 300-series austenitic stainless steels are particularly
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. SCC can be sometimes elevated by residual
stresses. Residual stresses are secondary stresses caused by thermo-mechanical
treatment of a material. Sometime, these stresses can be higher than materials yielding
stress making materials susceptible to cracking and/or distortions.

Figure 34: Stress corrosion cracking of deep drawn part

Some of other common defects, their causes and control measures are given in table 1
below.

32
 Table 3: Deep drawing defects and control measures
Appearance Type of defect
Tooling related
Blank sheared of with no
wall forming
Bright compression
mark at height p on
the upper part of the
wall, externally.
Drawing successful
except for frayed wall edge
and flattened wrinkles.
Draw almost successful
except very wrinkled extra
flange with horizontal
cracks beneath it.
Alignment
Earing on one side of the
wall edge or on the sheet
flange.
One side of drawn product
edge corresponding to die
side is higher than opposite
side
Material related
Deep cracks on one side of
the wall, crack is a curved
shape. Clean edge to crack.
Transverse crack on one
side.
Short transverse cracks in
the wall. Black spots with
flattened areas directly
above and below them
Cause of defects Corrective actions
Die entry radius is too low Increase die and punch corner
Punch radius too small radius.
Drawing clearance too small Use optimum blank holder force
Too high blank holding force Reduce number of press stroke
Too high drawing speed. per minute.
Drawing clearance too narrow. Grind drawing ring or punch.
Mostly drawing clearance too Replace tooling to reduce
wide or die edge curvature too clearance.
large.
Too high die edge curvature, too Grind down the surface of the
low blank holder pressure. drawing ring and reduce edge
radius. Set blank holder
pressure higher.
Blank inserted off centre. Use guide pins.
Irregular blank holder pressure. Align tooling.
Off-centre positioning of the
punch in the drawing ring
(rarely).
Irregular sheet thickness
Punch die misalignment. Correct alignment, use of guide
post.
Flaw in the sheet caused by
thicker nodules or foreign
bodies pressed in, e.g. metal
chips.
Fine holes in the material,
porous sheet
33
 Blanking

Most sheet metal are cut into some specific shapes before being pressed. Blanking is
cutting of parts out of sheet material to a predetermined shape (Figure 35(a)). The
ejected slug is the part and the remaining skeleton is considered scrap, in contrast with
punching where the sheared slug is discarded.

Figure 35: (a)blanking process (b)characteristics of blanked edge

Quality of slugs depend on many parameters. Some of the parameters affecting the
blanking process are:

 punch - die clearance

 punch velocity
 stock material (thickness, mechanical properties, microstructure)
 cutting tools (materials, cutting edge, tool wear)
 lubrication

The sheared edge exhibits some distinctive characteristics (Figure 35b) from which
blanking quality can be characterised. A typical blank product includes a rollover, shear
zone, fractures and burrs. Ideally a blank with clean cut i.e. free of burrs, rough fracture
zones and roll over is preferred. To optimise blank quality, process parameters
mentioned above must be tightly controlled.

Mechanics of blanking process

As the punch initially engages the sheet metal, it pulls the material downward, slightly
drawing the material into the clearance, which creates rollover. The punch continues to
penetrate and shear the upper portion of the material, the material becomes locked
between the punch and the die, which creates a shear zone. Finally, a crack begins to

34
form at blank die interface which propagates, and the remaining material is fractured or
separated completely.

Ironing

If the thickness of the sheet as it enters the die cavity is more than the clearance between
the punch and the die, the thickness will have to be reduced by a backward extrusion of
the cup consequently increasing the part height; this effect is known as ironing. Ironing
is one of the method of producing higher cup height and cups with a uniform wall
thicknesses, better geometrical tolerances and reduction in residual stresses [5]. Up to
50-65% reduction in residual stresses has been reported due to Ironing [16]. By reducing
residual stresses, distortion, fatigue life and effect of stress corrosion cracking are
significantly improved.

In deep drawing, ironing can be sometime performed simultaneously. Higher drawing

ratios can be used with some level of ironing. However, ironing reduction is restricted by
a limiting range for each pass, because high reduction causes an excessive stretching in
the wall leading probably to failure by necking and tearing.

Punch
t0
Deformation zone

t Die

Figure 36: Ironing process

Several limiting conditions for Ironing has been proposed. Multiple parameter such as
die angle, material type, frictional resistance etc affects the allowable ironing reduction.
However, the actual limiting condition in ironing process can be related to maximum
ironing force. As a rule, the axial stress caused by the force of ironing must not exceed
the yield stress of the blank material [2].

35
 Secondary processes

A range of secondary operation are usually required to finish the part after completing
primary forming operation. Some of the commonly used secondary processes to obtain
final parts are shown in Figure 37. Each of these processes presents a unique challenge
in terms of accuracy and tolerances.

Figure 37: Secondary operations

36
 References

1. Aida, Aida press handbook, 1998

2. Mikell P. Groover, "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials,
Processes, and Systems", Third Edition ed.: John Wiely&Sons, Inc., 2007.
3. Z. Marciniak, J.L. Duncan and S.J. Hu, ""Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming"",
Second Edition ed.: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.
4. Ivana suchy “Handbook of die design”,second edition,1998
5. http://www.metalformingmagazine.com/magazine/article.asp?aid=4817
6. H. Tsch¨atsch, Metal Forming Practise, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006,
Translated by A. Koth.
7. Stuart Keeler: DEEP DRAWING FROM A TO Z,
8. Sheet metal forming fundamentals, Tylan altan
9. B. Hutchinson (2015) Critical Assessment 16: Anisotropy in metals, Materials
Science and Technology, 31:12, 1393-1401
10. M.Y. Demeri, Deep Drawing, Metalworking:Sheet Forming, Vol 14B, ASM
Handbook, ASM International, 2006, p319-336
11. C. Wang, B. Guo, D. Shan Friction related size-effect in microforming–a review
Manufacturing Review, 1 (2014), p. 23
12. U. Engel, R. Eckstein, Microforming-from basic research to its realization, Journal
of Materials Processing Technology 125–126 (2002) 35–44
13. Keeler, S.P. and Backofen, W.A., 1963. Plastic instability and fracture in sheets
stretched over rigid punches. Asm Trans Q, 56(1), pp.25-48.
14. Goodwin, G., "Application of Strain Analysis to Sheet Metal Forming Problems in
the Press Shop," SAE Technical Paper 680093, 1968
15. M.S. Ragab, H.Z. Orban.’Effect of Ironing on the Residual Stresses in Deep Drawn
Cups Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 99 (1–3) (2000), pp. 54-61
16. J. DanckertThe residual stress distribution in the wall of a deep drawn and ironed
cup determined experimentally and by FEM
17. F. Javier Ramírez, Rosario Domingo, Michael S. Packianather, and Miguel A.
Sebastian, “Enhancing Multistage Deep-Drawing and Ironing Manufacturing
Processes of Axisymmetric Components: Analysis and Experimentation,”
International Journal of Manufacturing Engineering

37