Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
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Energy & Buildings
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Energy consumption decreasing strategy for indoor swimming pools –
Decentralized Ventilation system with a heat pump
Katarzyna Ratajczak∗, Edward Szczechowiak
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4 60-965 Poznan,
Poland
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 26 August 2019
Revised 24 October 2019
Accepted 2 November 2019
Available online 3 November 2019
1. Introduction
Swimming pools and all types of the aquatic facilities are typi-
cally viewed as locations visited for leisure, recreation, and fitness.
In the countries with moderate or cold climates, the pools have to
be operated indoor, for most of the year. The thermal and mois-
ture conditions, as well as the pool’s water temperature are con-
trolled by the systems specially designed for that purpose. In the
indoor swimming pools water’s temperature is maintained within
the range of 26 up to 30 °C [1] for competition and leisure; for lit-
tle children it can be even higher, while the air temperature is 2 °C
higher, depending on the purpose of the pool. Thus, the air tem-
perature in the pool is approximately 10–15 °C higher than that in
typical public spaces.
The necessity of introducing energy-saving solutions was rec-
ognized in 1998 by Trianti–Stourna et al. [1]. The latest studies re-
garding energy consumption of the swimming pools usually con-
sist of questionnaires [2,3] and the results confirm that the swim-
ming pools consume a significant amount of heat for heating pool’s
water and providing thermal comfort, as well as electric energy
production for supplying the electric devices and lighting. Other
studies have drawn attention to the fact that a majority of energy
consumed by the swimming pools is attributable to heat [3,4]. The
energy-efficient swimming pools do exist, but even in their cases,
many elements need some level of improvement [2].
In places where the climate is warm, such as Italy [5], Greece
[6,7], Hong Kong [8] Spain [9] or Australia [10], it is recommended
to use a solar energy, including a solar heat pump [8]. In the coun-
tries listed above, most pools are situated outdoors. The studies re-
garding outdoor swimming pools are usually focused on the issue
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: katarzyna.m.ratajczak@put.poznan.pl (K. Ratajczak).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109574
0378-7788/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
of water heating. In the case of these facilities, usage of solar en-
ergy allows for energy savings of up to 80% [6]. Indoor pools can
also use solar energy, primarily for heating of pool water. How-
ever, application of solar energy requires an economic account to
be carried out, where availability of solar energy will be consid-
ered [11]. Another solution that can reduce energy consumption
in swimming pools is the use of PhotoVoltaic collectors for heat-
ing [12] or for ventilation [13], but this also involves and is cost-
effective only for specific locations of the facilities. The same ap-
plies to cases where there is an ice rink by the indoor pool, which
can be also helpful in reduction of energy consumption [14].
The first publications regarding energy–efficient solutions con-
sisting the ventilation units equipped with the devices for recover-
ing heat from the exhausted air were presented in 1980 [15]. How-
ever, there are very few articles presenting the operation of a ven-
tilation unit in the details. In 1994, Westerlund and Dahl [16] pro-
posed the use of an open absorption heat-pump to decrease the
heat and electricity consumption, however, the open absorption
heat pump is not commonly used. In 1996, Lazzarini and Longo
[17] proposed the use of a cross heat exchanger and heat pump
with an air/water condenser in the ventilation units. They stated
that the solutions involving the use of a heat pump were the most
beneficial, but they did not present the details of their analyses.
In 2001, Johansson and Westerlund [18] confirmed that the sys-
tems including a heat pump and double condenser were the most
beneficial, however, in their analyses only 10% of the ventilated
air travelled through the air condenser. The remaining air travelled
through the water condenser, and the heat recovered then entered
the pool’s water. They observed the necessity of proper definition
of the volume of evaporated water, which may have caused some
discrepancies in the comparison of results from the real pools. The
pool’s air handling units proposed in [17] and [18] are shown on
2 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574

Nomenclature VE ventilation
INF infiltration
A area (m2 ) W water
AP pool basin area (mP 2 ) IW boundary layer between water and air
cpp specific heat of the air 1.005 kJ/(kg. K), 1005 J/(kg. K), w windows
e shading factor, according to EN ISO 13790 (−)
Subscripts for air parameters in ventilation unit
H heat losses (W/K)
E external (outdoor) air
h specific enthalpy of the air (kJ/kg)
I indoor air
ISOL solar radiation (kWh/m2 )
˙ EX exhaust air (from pool hall)
m mass flow (kg/h, kg/s)
M1 air in the mixing chamber during external recircu-
N number of people, (−)
lation
n50 building envelope tightness coefficient (h−1 )
HE air after heat exchanger on a supply way
Q˙ rate of heat transfer (kW)
M2 air in the mixing chamber during internal recircula-
Q˙ LH E
latent heat flow due to evaporation of water (kW)
tion
Q˙ SHE sensible heat due to the temperature difference be-
HE’ air after heat exchanger on an exhaust way
tween the air and water necessary to heat up the
RE removed air
vapor (kW)
HP air after condenser of a heat pump
P fan power (kW)
SU supply air
t temperature (°C)
HP’ air after evaporator of a heat pump
U heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2. K))
V volume (m3 )
v air velocity (m/s) Fig. 1. The heat pump installed in those units serves mainly for
x humidity ratio (kg/kg, g/kg) water heating purpose.
x difference between humidity ratio in indoor air and Lee and Kung [19] based their studies on the minimal usage of
in air near water surface (kg/kg, g/kg) fresh air in the winter. They noticed that, under favorable condi-
α convection coefficient, (W/(m2. K)) tions, the water heater does not need to work. However, they used
β evaporation rate (kg/(h. kg/kg) an uncommon ventilation unit; it is not compact, and thus, it is
ε ration of air flow in total air flow rate (−) impossible to implement this solution in the most of the pools. The
εR coefficient of emissivity of the outer partitions (−) reduction of the amount of external air is a good idea and it leads
ηgn utilization factor of heat gains (−) to energy decrease, however, a proper amount of air has to be in-
ηHE efficiency of heat exchanger (−) troduced, which sometimes causes the need to change the venti-
ρ density of the air (kg/m3 ) lation system from natural to mechanical [20]. In 2011, Sun et al.
ρI density of the air at the indoor air temperature [21] analyzed a changeability of the air and water parameters de-
(kg/m3 ) pending on the time of year. The aforementioned studies describe
ρ IW density of the air at the water surface temperature the operation of ventilation units during the day and night, as well
(kg/m3 ) as changes in air moisture removal, however, with the exception
σ Boltzmann constant, 5, 67 · 10−8 W/(m2. K4 ) of Peng Sun, they did not describe the unit’s work throughout the
ϕ relative humidity (−,%) year and the influence of the given time of year on its operation.
In the reference literature, the solution for air handling unit
Subscripts with a heat pump is indicated to be the best system that is cur-
LHE latent heat rently available. The difference proposed in this paper, in compar-
AV average ison to the quoted analyses, lies in the application of a cross flow
NT night time heat exchanger, which was not used in the case studies described
BE building envelope (external partitions) in the aforementioned literature [17,18]. Instead, there is an exter-
P pool area nal heat exchanger [21], or there is a lack of double recirculation
C convection [17–19]. The other type is a swimming pool unit with an additional
PB pool basin water condenser, which may be used for heating pool water to im-
DT daytime prove COP coefficient of the installed heat pump [21]. To compare
R radiation advanced units with a heat pump (Fig. 2) more simple units will
E external be analyzed as well (Fig. 3). Such systems are still used in many
RT roof top area facilities in Poland and abroad.
EW external walls A separate group of research includes those on the thermal
ROOM to adjacent rooms comfort and air quality in swimming pools. Studies on water were
F floor conducted by Sun et al. [21]. They analyzed water and air pa-
SHE sensible heat rameters, taking measurements throughout the year. They assumed
FH floor heating lower values for water and air temperature than other authors and
SOL solar therefore their results regarding energy saving cannot be used for
G ground objective comparison. There are recommendations in the literature
SPH swimming pool hall for energy saving by decreasing water temperature [3,23]. How-
H air heater ever, they should not be taken into account because if water tem-
TOT total peratures are too low, users may resign from spending time in pool
HPC condenser of a heat pump [24].
TR transmission Considering thermal comfort and the predicted mean vote in-
HPE evaporator of a heat pump dex (PMV) in swimming pools [24], certain comfort ranges for the
pool’s basin and audience were defined. It was stated that the PMV
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574 3

Fig. 1. The pool’s air handling units with a heat pump proposed in literature.

Fig. 2. The pool’s air handling units: option c (top) and option d (bottom) [22].

Fig. 3. The pool’s air handling units: option a (left) and option b (right) [22].
4 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
for the two areas were significantly different. It was found that a
comfortable temperature for swimmers is too high for the audi-
ence. As swimmers are the main users, other users must accept the
discomfort. The control of conditions by HVAC can achieve some
energy savings [25]. Limane et al. [23] analyzed the flow of air
through computational fluid dynamics (CFD); two zones were con-
sidered: a pool’s basin zone and the area allocated to the audience.
In the pool’s hall, the air division was presented as an up–up type.
Their work results prove that ventilation zoning is a necessity.
Decentralization of swimming pool facility is the subject of re-
search conducted by Caruso, among the others [26,27]. Swimming
pool halls, like the sports halls analyzed by Caruso, are large build-
ings. There are different zones inside with the various thermal de-
mands. The swimming pool hall consists of the following zones
[28]: the pool basin zone, i.e.: the small area occupied by the main
(undressed) users (swimmers, coaches, and lifeguards); the exter-
nal partition zone, which should be protected against the harm-
ful impact of humidity from evaporation; and, finally, the audience
zone, used by dressed people during a short period of time.
Worth mentioning are also the other studies that refer to the
analysis of water disinfection by-products (DPBs) in both the wa-
ter and the air. They drew attention to problems connected to air
quality in indoor swimming pools. Harmful compounds, such as
chloramines, trihalomethanes, and haloacetic acids, are formed as
a result of introducing organic products to disinfected water [29–
31]. Those compounds are heavier than air, and they accumulate
just above the water’s surface. They are then inhaled, which is con-
nected with risks of becoming ill with asthma, allergies, or other
respiratory diseases for long-term swimming pool users. The so-
lution to the problem may be, among others using proper water
treatment [32–35] or proper ventilation [35–37].
When assessing various ventilation systems, different indicators
can be used to evaluate them [40–42]. However, it seems that a
simple evaluation based on determining the amount of energy con-
sumed can be a good indicator for choosing the most beneficial
system.
Proposed strategy for decreasing energy consumption in swimming
pools
After analyzing results of other studies that allow for energy
saving and problems connected to thermal comfort and air qual-
ity discussed in other publications, the authors decided to conduct
analysis by comparing two ventilation systems. A traditional cen-
tralized system, which is used in most swimming pool facilities;
and the modern solution - a decentralized system that contains a
number of solutions to improve the conditions in the swimming
pool hall regarding energy consumption, thermal comfort, and air
quality. Previous analyses included different phenomena occurring
in swimming pools, but there was no clear presentation of poten-
tial connections between them.
The authors propose integrated solution that combine the best
elements mentioned above:
(1) Zoning of the ventilation system to separate regulation of air
parameters: for the swimmers’ zone, the audience and em-
ployees zone, and the swimming pool envelope.
(2) Usage of ventilation units, equipped with three-stage heat
recovery, including: the heat pump, heat exchanger, and
double air re-circulation, the air condenser as a base for
heating the air, and the additional water condenser allow-
ing for heat transfer for heating water.
(3) Protection of the building’s envelope against moisture con-
densation by means of a separate ventilation system that
saves energy as the circulating air is only used for that pur-
pose.
Application of those elements provides energy consumption de-
creasing strategy with:
(1) Energy savings by provision of the correct supply air tem-
perature, resulting from the heat and moisture balance of
the pool’s basin zone, and not from the necessity of covering
heat losses of the entire hall, as this occurs in most of the
swimming pools.
(2) Electrical energy savings by separating the ventilation units
(the main and supporting units- window protection), and by
adequately regulating their operation.
(3) The decentralized air distribution system, i.e., the supply of
fresh air to the zone occupied by people, and the removal
of by-products appearing in the air at their place of origin
(from water disinfection), and will ultimately secure proper
conditions for the users health.
(4) The new algorithm for controlling of air preparation which
is based on varying external air percentage what allows to
use adequate amount of external air when pool is operated
and no external air when the pool is closed. With less cold
air from the outside during winter, the less heat to prepare
supply air is needed.
The authors have proposed dividing the swimming pool into
different zones, and conducted complex analysis of the heat and
electrical energy consumption the ventilation system according to
the proposed unit-controlling algorithm, using climate data for
Poland. Due to Poland’s climate, solar energy is not included in the
calculations as it would not be efficient to do so.
The scheme of the proposed decentralized ventilation system
with an air distribution system and the pool’s air handling unit
with a heat pump is presented in Fig. 4.
In opposition to this decentralization of ventilation system for
swimming pool hall stands traditional (centralized) ventilation sys-
tem (Fig. 5). It consist of only one air handling unit which covers
heat need for the entire pool hall and must work constantly dur-
ing whole year round. When in decentralized system every unit
can work only when needed.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Concept of decentralized ventilation system for indoor swimming
pool
The scheme of the proposed decentralized ventilation system
with an air distribution system and the pool’s air handling unit
with a heat pump is presented in Fig. 4.
If the facility is equipped with a decentralized system, the
swimming pool is divided into zones, i.e. spaces, characterized by
different requirements in terms of air parameters (temperature and
relative humidity):
- pool basin zone – occupied zone where the thermal comfort of
the users must be ensured. External air should be supplied to
this zone. A swimming pool basin is located in this zone, so
the moisture gains generated in this zone and volatile chlorine
compounds (by-products of pool water disinfection) have to be
removed from here. It can be achieved by the proper air distri-
bution system shown in Fig. 4.
- external partition zone – space near the external partitions of
the swimming pool which needs to be protected against mois-
ture condensation. Usage of the internal recirculation modules,
in order to protect the partitions (see Fig. 4), requires drying of
the air coming from the pool’s hall.
- audience zone – the audience zone has to be separated, because
the people in the audience are dressed, so their sense of com-
fort is different than for swimmers.
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574 5

Fig. 4. Scheme of the proposed decentralized ventilation system.

Fig. 5. Scheme of traditional centralized ventilation system for swimming pool.

In opposition to this decentralization of ventilation system for
swimming pool stands traditional (centralized) ventilation system
(Fig. 5). It consists only one air handling unit, which covers heat
need for the entire pool hall and must work constantly all year
round while in case of a decentralized system every unit can work
only when needed.
Flow chart of the calculations following the proposed method,
including supplied air temperature calculations, based on the
assumptions made for heat – moisture balance and transit to
the calculation regarding the ventilation unit is presented on
Fig. 6.
2.2. Heat flow directions in different zones
Climatic data have a huge impact on energy demand [38,39].
The external (outdoor) air parameters (temperature, relative hu-
midity, and solar irradiance) were assumed for Poznan city, located
in western Poland. To locate the results within a climate scope, in
6 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574

Fig. 6. The calculation model used for the analysis.

’Case study’ section climatic data - temperature and humidity ratio The following the equations and limitations, describing each of
for Poznan, Poland are presented (Fig. 11). The data were based on the equation’s element, were assumed:
typical meteorology year [43]. The climate in Poznan is temperate,
Q˙ TR = ABE · UBE,AV · (tI − tE ) [W] (4)
with a warm summer and cold winter.
Energy needed for heating was calculated hourly (EN ISO
13790:2008 standard [44]) with the simplified hourly method tak- Q˙ INF = ρ · cpp · e · VI · n50 /3600 [W] (5)
ing into account each part of heat losses and gains for the pool
hall and pool basin Fig. 7). Formulas used in calculations are rep-
resented by equations Eqs. (1)–((13). Q˙ G = AG · UG · (tI − tG ) [W] (6)
Generally, the heat balance equation is formed as presented be-
low: Q˙ ROOM = AROOM · UROOM · (tI − tROOM ) [W] (7)

Q˙ TOT = Q˙ SPH + Q˙ PB (1)

Q˙ SOL = ηgn · Aw · ISOL /10 0 0 [W] (8)
Eq. (2) represents heat balance for building envelope, while
Eq. (3) heat-moisture balance for pool basin. Q˙ G is equal 0 due to the assumption that under the pool’s hall
is a premise with a temperature similar to this in pool’s hall and
Q˙ SPH = Q˙ TR + Q˙ INF + Q˙ G + Q˙ ROOM − Q˙ FH − Q˙ SOL [kW] (2) Q˙ FH is heat from floor heating.
Q˙ LH,E = β · x · hIW · AP /3, 6 · κ [W] (9)
The flow of latent heat, resulting from the water evaporation
Q˙ PB = Q˙ LHE − Q˙ SHE − Q˙ C + Q˙ R [kW] (3) and lost by water as a result of the radiation, in practice is covered
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574 7

Fig. 7. Heat flow directions and zones with different thermal needs.

by the pool’s water heating system. It may be assumed that the Table 1
Water and air parameters.
additional heat flow, that is brought by air flow, does not exceed
5% of the calculating value [45] and is provided with coefficient Temperature [°C] Relative humidity [%]
κ =0,05 . Water 28 –
Q˙ SH,E = β · x · 1, 86 · (tI − tWI )/3, 6 · AP [W] (10) Air during the daytime 30 60
Air during the night-time 30 65

Q˙ C = α · (tI − tIW ) · AP [W] (11)

  
α = 5, 7 + 4, 07 · v W/ m2 · K
 
Q˙ R = εR · σ · TW 4 − TBE 4 · AP [W]
The heat – moisture balance of the pool’s basin area is approx-
imately steady during the year. Insignificant influence on the size
of the obtained value has only the compound related to radiation
towards external partitions. More significant is an influence of the
water evaporation volume, which fluctuates throughout a day, de-
pending on the swimming pool use. So the division of the swim-
ming pool into the zones – separating the pool’s basin, where the
steady heat-moisture conditions will be applied, and this will re-
sult in the stable work of the ventilation system – seems to be
reasonable, and that was proposed in the earlier analyses.
2.3. Water and air parameters and evaporation in the swimming pool
The air and water parameters for a sports swimming pool were
assumed based on the guidelines for many countries. The param-
eters of water and air were assumed based on the guidelines of
ASHRAE [46] and are shown in Table 1.
The equations for calculating water evaporation in the indoor
swimming pool were the Shah formulas [47], which are shown in
Table 2.
2.4. Supplied air parameters
The required temperature of supplied air is defined based on
the hourly-measured heat–moisture balance, dependent on the
ventilation system selected for the given pool’s hall. For the cen-
(12) tralized system, the supply air temperature is calculated according
to Eq. (16), and with Eq. (17) for the decentralized system.
(13) Q˙ TOT
tSU = tI + (16)
˙ SU · cpp
m
Q˙ PB
tSU = tI + (17)
˙ SU · cpp
m
In the case of the decentralized ventilation system, the supplied
air temperature is steady throughout the year as the pool’s basin
zone is separated from external partitions. When the external air
temperature is around 18 °C, the temperature of supplied air for
the centralized and decentralized ventilation systems are similar.
A humidity ratio of the supplied air should be selected in such
a way that moisture created by evaporation can be reclaimed. The
difference in moisture content between the supplied and exhaust
air should be at the level of 5 g/kg. Over a long period of time, if
the moisture content in the external air becomes low, the mois-
ture content in the intake air is 11 g/kg during the day. When the
moisture content of the external air increases, the moisture con-
tent in the supplied air will increase as well. The algorithm (shown
in Fig. 8) controlling the operation of the ventilation unit includes
control of the relative humidity in the exhaust air.
The supplied air flow of the pool unit designed for the pool
basin area should be determined by the amount of evaporating wa-
ter for decentralized ventilation system, calculated with Eq. (18).
 
m ˙ W /(ρ · (xI − xSU ) ) m3 /h
˙ SU = m (18)

Table 2
Water evaporation.

Equation Duration

Unoccupied pools ˙ W = K · ρW · (ρI − ρIW )

m 0,333
· x (14) |ρI − ρIW | < 0, 02 K = 35 Night-time
Occupied pools ˙ W = S · K · ρW · (ρI − ρIW )0,333 · x (15)
m S = (14.85 · N/AP + 1) Daytime
8 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
Fig. 8. Operating mode in the calculating algorithm of the pool’s ventilation unit a) without the heat pump (left), b) equipped with a heat pump (right) [48].
For units preparing the air for protecting building envelope
(protecting windows and roof top) air flow should be selected in-
dividually for each pool facility.
The total air flow in a centralized system should take into ac-
count a need to remove evaporating water and the building enve-
lope protection as well as the heat-moisture balance. Therefore, it
will be much larger than the air flow of the main pool unit in a
decentralized system.
2.6. Calculation algorithms for air handling units
The subjects of analyses will be the ventilation units that are
already available on the market, such as an air handling unit that
may be used in newly constructed buildings as well as in modern-
ized buildings (Figs. 2 and 3). The analyses considered the air dis-
tribution system inside the pool’s hall, which should account not
only for the heating needs of all the facility’s users, but also be
consistent with the building’s structure and its requirements.
The proposed algorithms are based on several operating modes,
which depend on time of the day and external air parameters. The
operation modes are shown on Fig. 8, and equations for calculating
air parameters for each mode are shown in Tables 3–8.
Calculation algorithm for ventilation units without heat pump (op-
tion a and b)
The calculated air transformations in the air handling unit sys-
tems are assumed to be caused by ventilation air drying due to
the introduction of the variable external air flow. The algorithm
used for calculations is simple and based only on the introduced
external air volume regulation in order to achieve an appropriate
humidity ratio of the supplied air. The drying process follows the
same scheme, during the day and night.
DAY MIXING operating mode of the ventilation unit without a
heat pump (options a and b) is based on the assumption that the
volume of external air supplied to the ventilation unit is that nec-
essary to obtain the required humidity ratio in the supplied air,
according to Eq. (19). The remaining air is recirculated air.
 x − xE

εE = 100 · 1 − SU [% ] (19)
xI − xE
The mixing of air takes place in the mixing chamber located
in the ventilation unit. The air removed from the swimming pool
hall - warm and with high content of moisture - is mixed with
the outdoor air, which is cold and dry in winter. Air mixing aims
at partial heat recovery coming from the returned warm air and
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574 9

Table 3
Equations for calculating the air parameters in the DAY MIXING operating mode for the
unit without a heat pump.

Operating mode DAY MIXING Comments

Point t [°C] x [g/kg] h [kJ/kg]

HE tE + ηHE · (tI − tE ) xE f(x,t) −

M1 εE · tHE + (1 − εE ) · tI xHE f(x,t) ɛE from Eq. (19)

Table 4
Equations for calculating the air parameters in NIGHT operating mode for a unit with a heat pump.

Operating mode NIGHT Comments

Point t [°C] x [g/kg] h [kJ/kg]

M1 tHP xHP f(x,t) ɛE from Table 8

HE tM1 + ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xM1 f(x,t) −
M2 εM2 · tI + (1 − εM2 ) · tHE εM2 · xI + (1 − εM2 ) · xOC f(x,t) ɛM2 from Table 8
HE’ tI − ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xI f(x,t)) −
HP’ 19.8 14.5 56.2 ϕHP = 100%

Table 5
Equations for calculating the air parameters in 100% OF EXTERNAL AIR operating mode for unit with a heat pump.

Operating mode 100% OF EXTERNAL AIR Comments

Point t [°C] x [g/kg] h [kJ/kg]

M1 tE xE f(x,t) ɛE from Table 8

HE tM1 + ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xM1 f(x,t) −
M2 εM2 · tI + (1 − εM2 ) · tHE εM2 · xI + (1 − εM2 ) · xHE f(x,t) ɛM2 from Table 8
HE’ tI − ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xI f(x,t) −
QHPE
HP’ tHP = f (hHP , , xHP ) f(p’’w , tHP’ ) hHE = mSU ·(1−εM2 /100)
ϕHP = 100%

Table 6
Equations for calculating the air parameters in MIXING 2 operating mode of ventilation unit with a heat pump.

Operating mode MIXING 2 Comments

Point t [°C] x [g/kg] h [kJ/kg]

M1 tE xE f(x,t) ɛE from Table 8

HE tM1 + ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xM1 f(x,t) −
M2 εM2 · tI + (1 − εM2 ) · tHE εM2 · xI + (1 − εM2 ) · xHE f(x,t) ɛM2 from Table 8
HE’ tI − ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xI f(x,t) −
QHPE
HP’ tHP = f (hHP , , xHP ) f(p’’w , tHP’ ) hHE − mSU ·(1−εM2 /100)
ϕHP = 100%

Table 7
Equations for calculating the air parameters in MIXING 1 operating mode for a unit with heat pump.

Operating mode MIXING 1 Comments

Point t [°C] x [g/kg] h [kJ/kg]

M1 εE · tE + (1 − εE ) · tHP εE · xE + (1 − εE ) · xHP f(x,t) ɛE from Table 8

HE tM1 + ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xM1 f(x,t) −
M2 εM2 · tI + (1 − εM2 ) · tHE εM2 · xI + (1 − εM2 ) · xHE f(x,t) ɛM2 from Table 8
HE’ tI − ηHE · (tI − tM1 ) xI f(x,t) −
QHPE
HP’ tHP = f (hHP , , xHP ) f(p’’w , tHP’ ) hHE = mSU ·(1−εM2 /100)
ϕHP = 100%

Table 8
Outdoor air ratio and recirculation air ratio for operating modes of the units with heat pump.

Operating mode External parameters Proportion of external Proportion of recirculated Proportion of recirculated Comments
air flow in total air air flow in total air flow air flow in total air flow
flow rate ɛE rate of external rate of internal
recirculation ɛM1 recirculation ɛM2

NIGHT all 0% 100% 0% −

100% OF EXTERNAL AIR xE ≥ xSU 100% 0% 0% −
xSU −xE −xE
MIXING 2 xM1 ≤ xE ≤ xSU 100 · (1 − xI −xE
) [%] 0% 100 · ( xxSUI −x E
) [%] −
MIXING 1 (enthalpy) xE < xM1 100 · (1 − hM1 −hE
hHP −hE
) [%] 100 · ( hhM1 −h
HP−h
E
E
) [%] 40% εE + εM1 = 0.6 · m˙ SU To
xM1 −xE
MIXING 1 (humidity ratio) xE < xM1 100 · (1 − xHP −xE
) [%] 100 · ( xxM1 −x
−xE
E
) [%] 40% ensure adequate
HP
airflow through the
heat exchanger
10 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
Fig. 9. Transformation of air parameters in air handling unit at Mollier diagram in: a) NIGHT operating mode b) EXTERNAL AIR operating mode c) MIXING 2 operating mode
d) MIXING 1 operating mode [22].
ensuring proper moisture content in the supply air. Above allows
to remove moisture from evaporation.
In NIGHT MIXING operating mode of the ventilation unit with-
out a heat pump (options a and b) water evaporation is smaller,
and as such the supplied air flow can be decreased to 80% of the
minimum flow.
Additionally, to decrease energy consumption, changing the air
parameters in the hall was decided by increasing the relative hu-
midity of the air to 65% (according to Table 1).
In 100% OF EXTERNAL AIR operating mode only external air is
used.
Calculation algorithm for ventilation units with a heat pump (op-
tions c and d)
Four operating modes were assumed for the units with a heat
pump when their operations are dependent on external air param-
eters. Fig. 9 shows, by means of Mollier diagram, the air parame-
ters transformation in air handling unit for each of the operating
modes.
In Tables 4–8, the equations for calculating the air conditions at
each point of the air handling unit are presented, with the follow-
ing assumptions:
• external air (E) parameters were obtained from climatic data
for a typical meteorological year in Poznan, Poland,
• parameters of external recirculation mixing point (M1):
◦ MIXING 1 operating mode: with assumption that the min-
imum fresh air flow in the calculation conditions is 25%
(minimum 8 m3 /h/m2 P ).
◦ From the assumptions for Poznan, the parameters of Mix-
ing point (M1) are: the temperature of 9.6 °C and moisture
content of 7.4 g/kg.
• The parameters of air removed from pool hall (I) were obtained
from Table 1.
• The parameters of the supplied air (SU) were calculated by
Eq. (16) or 17.
NIGHT operating mode for a ventilation unit with a heat pump
(options c and d) is similar to the units without a heat pump. It is
applied during the night when the pool facility is not being used.
The supply air flow is decreased to 80% of the nominal flow, and
the selected parameters in the pool hall were based on those pre-
sented in Table 1. The pool’s unit operates in this mode only with
circulating air, as the evaporator of the heat pump uses dried air
instead of fresh air. The parameters of the supplied air are reg-
ulated by internal recirculation. When the humidity ratio of the
supplied air is too low, more air is flowing through the internal
recirculation circuit.
100% OF EXTERNAL AIR operating mode for ventilation unit
with a heat pump (option c and d) is held for 491 h per year, i.e.:
6% of the year, when the humidity ratio in external air is higher
than the required humidity ratio of supplied air xE ≥ xSU ≈ 11 g/kg.
In practice, this occurs only for a few days during June, July, and
August (for the analyzed climate data). In this operating mode, in-
ternal and external recirculation is not used.
MIXING 2 operating mode of a ventilation unit with a heat
pump (option c and d) occurs in the interim period of the year,
i.e., spring/summer, during the summer, and the next interim pe-
riod of summer/fall. The limiting parameters of that mode are the
humidity ratio in external air, which should be within the range of
xM1 < xE ≤ xSU . This only occurs during 18% of the year, and 25%
of opening hours. In this mode, external recirculation is switched
off. Moisture in the supplied air is controlled by the internal re-
circulation. The inclusion of external air increases as moisture in
external air increases. When moisture content reaches xE ≥ xSU ,
the unit begins to operate in the 100% OF EXTERNAL AIR mode.
MIXING 1 operating mode for a ventilation unit with heat pump
(option c and d) works for 50% of the year, and excluding the
nighttime, this percentage is 66% when xE ≤ xM1 ≈ 7.4 g/kg. Such
external air parameters first appear during the winter, but also
during the spring and autumn. In this mode, both the internal and
external recirculation systems are operating. External recirculation
is used to provide the air travelling through the heat exchanger
with an appropriate temperature. Additionally, due to external re-
circulation, the temperature of ventilation air rises, so less energy
is required for heating purpose. This is the first stage of heat re-
covery. The application of the fixed ventilation air flow through the
heat exchanger is important as hydraulic resistance occurs during
this process. The minimum participation of external air is 30%. The
pool’s ventilation unit operation is more stable in this mode.
2.7. Calculations of energy consumption
Each of the units (excluding the unit in option a) is to be ana-
lyzed in two variants: central ventilation (variants 1, 2, 4, and 5),
and decentralized ventilation (variants 3, 6, 7), to compare energy
savings resulting from the usage of decentralized solutions. The
characteristics of each option are presented in Table 9. Along with
air parameters power consumption of the units in the air handling
unit will be calculated for each variant.
2.8. Energy consumption of the devices in the air handling unit
Heat pump condenser
Assuming power Q˙ HPC1 =0.1 kW/m2 P , and supply air flow m
˙ SU =
40 kg/(h · m2P ) (from Eq. (18)), the condenser may warm the air
by a maximum of 10 K. Hence, the temperature can reach 38 °C,
depending on the temperature in the mixing chamber of the inter-
nal recirculation (Fig. 2)
˙ SU · (hSU − hM2 ) [kW]
Q˙ HPC = m (20)
If the calculated required power of the condenser is below the
maximum power, Q˙ HPC1 < Q˙ HPC , it is assumed that the condenser
is the only device securing the required supply air temperature.
Heating the air in the heater would, therefore, not be necessary.
Additionally, in such a scenario, reserve power is calculated as
it may be used for different purposes, for example, to support
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574 11

Table 9
Air flows and power consumption of equipment in the ventilation units to be analyzed.

Variant Ventilation system Air handling unit option (according Description

Figs. 2 and 3)

1 Centralized
2 Centralized
3 Decentralized
4 Centralized
5 Centralized
6 Decentralized
7 Decentralized
3,6,7 Decentralized
3,6,7 Decentralized
Option a ventilation system existing in many pool facilities, one air handling unit without heat
exchanger for entire pool hall
Option b ventilation system existing in many pool facilities, one air handling unit with heat
exchanger for entire pool hall
Option b proposed decentralized ventilation system, air handling unit for pool basin zone with
heat exchanger
Option c ventilation system with one air handling unit with heat pump and heat exchanger for
entire pool hall
Option d ventilation system with one air handling unit with heat pump (double condenser) and
heat exchanger for entire pool hall
Option c proposed decentralized ventilation system, air handling unit for pool basin zone with
heat pump and heat exchanger
Option d proposed decentralized ventilation system, air handling unit for pool basin zone with
heat pump (double condenser) and heat exchanger
Under roof ventilation unit RO ventilation units needed in decentralized ventilation system for protecting roof top
Ventilation unit protecting ventilation units needed in decentralized ventilation system for protecting windows
windows

heating the swimming pool water. In the case of units without a heat pump, the equation for
heater power takes the following form:
Q˙ HPC = Q˙ HPC1 − Q˙ HPC [kW] (21)
˙ SU · (hSU − hM1 ) [kW]
Q˙ H = m (26)
If the calculated, required power of the condenser is less than
the maximum power, Q˙ HPC1 > Q˙ HPC , the temperature of the air be- Fans in air handling unit
hind the condenser is calculated, assuming the condenser’s maxi- Electric energy consumed by fans depends on fans’ power. It is
mum power. calculated taking into account the power of fans when they oper-
˙ SU · cpp ) [◦ C]
tHP = tM2+ Q˙ HPC /(m (22) ate with nominal airflow. When airflow is reduced for a night time,
the electric power is calculated with Eq. (27):
In that case, the required supply air temperature can be P 1 / 3
achieved by heating the air in the heater located behind the con- ˙ SU,nominal
m nominal
= (27)
denser. ˙ SU,reduced
m Preduced
The volume of moisture in the air behind the condenser is
equal to the air content in the internal recirculation mixing cham- 2.9. Validation of the assumed calculations in a real facility
ber and the required humidity ratio in the supply air:

xHPC = xM2 = xSU [g/kg]
Heat pump evaporator
The heat pump evaporator is located in the exhaust of the ven-
tilation unit (behind the cross-flow exchanger) for heat recovery.
Its main task is to dry air removed from the pool hall by cooling.
It was assumed that the heat pump operates for the whole year,
because the evaporator is a bottom heat source for the condenser.
For part of the year, dried air is re-used by the external recir-
culation. During the summer, when the ventilation unit only op-
erates with external air (100% OF EXTERNAL AIR operating mode),
the evaporator is drying the air, but only to enable the condenser
to operate to prevent using the air heater.
The air parameters behind the evaporator are based on the as-
sumption that such air is saturated, with a relative humidity of
ϕ HP’ =100%.
First, the enthalpy of the air behind the evaporator is calculated,
using a modification of the equation for the evaporator’s power:
˙ SU · (hHPE − hHP ) [kW]
Q˙ HPE = m
The air temperature behind the evaporator is defined, with as-
sumption that a point corresponding to an air parameter is located
on the saturation line.
The humidity ratio of the air behind the evaporator is defined
as a function of temperature and relative humidity.
Air heater
The heater warms the air if the condenser of the heat pump
is receiving insufficient power. This occurs most often when the
temperature of external air drops.
˙ SU · (hSU − hHP ) [kW]
Q˙ H = m
(23) To compare the assumed values, assumptions and equations,
the following measurements were taken in a real facility: the tem-
perature and relative humidity of supplied air in the duct 3 m be-
hind the air handling unit’s outlet (SU), the temperature and rel-
ative humidity of exhaust air in the exhaust duct 3 m from the
ventilation unit’s inlet (I), the temperature and relative humidity
of outdoor air (fresh air) by placing a sensor behind a dumper in
the first section of ventilation unit (E), the temperature and rela-
tive humidity of exhaust air (removed (HP’) behind the heat pump
evaporator).
The measurements were taken by means of the sensors and the
multifunctional recorder with nine inputs (Almemo 2890–9). Six
of these inputs were used. The humidity capacitive sensor type
FHA646-E1C was connected to the recorder for stationary mea-
surements.
The relative humidity measurement range was 0–100% ± 2% at
the nominal temperature of 25 °C, while the accuracy within tem-
perature range of 0–70 °C was ±0.1 °C. Taking into consideration
(24) the range of the measured parameters, it can be assumed that an
accuracy of the measurement devices was sufficient for the analy-
sis.
The following measurements were taken from building manage-
ment system (BMS):
- temperature in the mixing chamber (external recirculation M1),
- supply and exhaust air flows,
- air temperature in the heat pump condenser.
The measurements were taken from February 3rd–25th, 2015,
but as they were taken in a real, working facility, where the un-
(25) predictable situations and problems occur, only a few days were
12 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
Fig. 10. Measured (left) and calculated (right) parameters of the air from February 21st-25th, 2015.
chosen for analysis, when the ventilation unit operation was sta-
ble. The period from February 21st–25th, 2015 was used. Fig. 10
presents the measured parameters and calculated ones.
The validation was carried out to find out if the simple balance
equations used to determine air parameters and those used for
calculation of heat-moisture balance are appropriate. To compare
the received results (those from the proposed calculation equations
with those from a real facility). Additionally, the amount of heat
required to heat the ventilation air was established.
The unit in the real pool facility works, as in many existing fa-
cilities, with a constant amount of outdoor air. The amount of heat
for heating the ventilation air calculated with the measured pa-
rameters from February 21st to February 25th (measurements du-
ration 85 h) was 6,7 kWh/m2 P .
The algorithm proposed for controlling ventilation unit, which
aims to reduce the consumption of electricity and heat for the sup-
plied air, operates based on the adoption of a variable amount of
outdoor air. The controller of the air handling unit in real facility
was unable to set up equations, thanks to which it would be pos-
sible to introduce a variable amount of air. Also the interference in
the work of the entire ventilation system in a normally functioning
facility was not an option. In order to evaluate the proposed simple
balance equations, it was decided to introduce changes in the pro-
posed control algorithm and instead of calculations with a variable
amount of external air a fixed amount of 30% was assumed. Af-
ter introducing this change to the calculation algorithm, the same
result was obtained regarding the consumption of thermal energy
for the preparation of ventilation air.
The amount of heat for heating the ventilation air calcu-
lated with proposed equations was 6,7 kWh/m2 P . The results ob-
tained from both the measurements and calculations are compat-
ible, so the algorithm and the proposed equations were properly
assumed.
Calculation for the same unit and measured data, but with pro-
posed variable amount of external air showed lower value of heat
for preparation of supplied air - 6,5 kWh/m2 P . Therefore, it was de-
cided that the calculation method using the described equations is
correct and can be used to assess the annual heat consumption
also with a new approach in the form of a variable percentage of
outdoor air. Because in the existing pool facility ventilation unit
did not have the metering of electricity consumption, this value
was not compared.
3. Case study
Analyzed facility is a pool with a separated pool hall, three ex-
ternal partitions, and the adjacent additional rooms (cloakrooms,
shower rooms, offices). Two external walls are completely glazed.
The pool basin has six lanes, with a total surface area of 300 m2 .
The parameters are shown in Table 10.
The subject of analysis is centralized and decentralized ventila-
tion systems for this facility. Table 11 presents the selected venti-
lation units, including their airflow and operation time, depending
on the type of unit and designed ventilation system.
The outdoor air parameters (temperature, relative humidity, and
solar irradiance) were assumed for Poznan city, located in west-
ern Poland. The data are based on typical annual meteorology year
[43]. The climate in Poznan is temperate, with a warm summer
and cold winter. The designed temperature for the heating system
is –18 and +30 °C for the air conditioning system in the summer,
annual average temperature is 7.8 °C. Temperature and moisture
content for Poznan city for each individual hour of the year are
presented in Fig. 11.
4. Results and discussion
The annual air parameters within the ventilation unit for each
variant were determined. Figs. 12–14 show a few parameters for
the selected days. Those days represent external air parameters
which determine operating mode.
The differences between centralized and decentralized venti-
lation systems are illustrated by comparison of variants: 5 and
7. Ventilation unit in these variants are equipped with the heat
pump, heat exchanger and double recirculation, so they are the
most advanced solutions available on the market (as shown in
Fig. 3). The results obtained for the selected days are presented
below with the assumptions that:
- winter is represented by March 1st with MIXING 1 operating
mode (Fig. 12),
- time spring/summer is represented by June 8th with MIXING 2
operating mode (Fig. 13),
- summer is represented by August 2nd with 100% EXTERNAL AIR
operating mode (Fig. 14).
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574 13

Table 10
Parameters of the pool hall facility.

Parameters of the poll hall

Surface area of the pool basin AP [m2 P ] 300

Size of the pool basin − [m] 25 × 12
Window surface area Aw [m2 w ] 220
Windows’ orientation − [−] west
Window surface area in relation to pool basin area Aw /AP [m2 w / m2 P ] 0.72
Surface area of external walls and roof AEW [m2 ] 1200
Floor area AF [m2 ] 210
Internal cubic volume VI [m3 ] 3800
The pool hall shape factor ABE /VBE [m−1 ] 0.36
Windows’ heat transfer coefficient Uw [W/(m2 K)] 1.3
Heat transfer coefficient of the external walls and roof top U [W/(m2 K)] 0.25
Average heat transfer coefficient UAVE [W/(m2 K)] 0.48
Heat loss by transmission HTR [W/K] 580
Heat loss by infiltration HVE,INF [W/K] 90
Total heat loss HTR+VE [W/K] 670
Floor heating Q˙ FH [W/m2 P ] 40
Number of people N [−] 48
Opening hours − − 6:00–22:00

Table 11
Air flows supplied by ventilation units.

Ventilation system Centralized Decentralized

Pool air handling unit Airflow [m3 /(h · m2 P )] 66 40

Duration [h/year] 8760 8760
Under roof ventilation unit Airflow [m3 /(h · m2 RT )] – 5
[m3 /(h · m2 P )] – 6
Duration [h/year] – 7990
∗
Ventilation unit protecting windows Airflow [m3 /(h · mW )] 200
∗
[m3 /(h · m2 P )] 20
∗
Duration [h/year] 3450
Total air flow Airflow [m3 /(h · m2 P )] 66 66
∗
windows are protected whole year round by the pool’s air handling unit.

Fig. 11. Climate data – temperature and humidity ratio of external air for the city of Poznan, Poland.

For the centralized (variant 5) and decentralized (variant 7)
ventilation systems the same external air parameters were adopted
for each selected day of the year as well as the same indoor
air parameters to be maintained in the swimming pool hall. The
other parameters: external air proportion, condenser power (which
represents the amount of heat required for heating the ventila-
tion air) are different for these two systems and consistent with
the adopted and previously described assumptions. The amount of
heat required to heat the ventilation air for each variant and sys-
tem is an area under the curve indicating the condenser’s power
on Figs. 12–14.
Comparison of air parameters in operating modes for variants with
a heat pump
MIXING 1 operating mode
In a decentralized system, the supplied air temperature is lower
than in a centralized system, especially in the winter. The amount
of heat supplied to the ventilation air by the condenser is there-
fore smaller. Due to the fact that the supplied air temperature in
the separated pool basin zone is independent of the outdoor air
parameters and more or less constant during the entire swimming
pool operation period, the heat pump operates on a stable load and
COP coefficient is constant.
The fluctuations in the required condenser power related to a
bigger heat energy demand in certain periods of the day can be
noticed in case of the centralized systems. That is less advanta-
geous for the heat pump.
MIXING 2 operating mode
14 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574

Fig. 12. Comparison of air parameters and heat required for heating the air in MIXING 1 operating mode for decentralized (left) and centralized (right) ventilation system.

Fig. 13. Comparison of air parameters and heat required for heating the air in MIXING 2 operating mode for decentralized (left) and centralized (right) ventilation systems.

Fig. 14. Comparison of air parameters and heat required for heating the air in 100% EXTERNAL AIR operating mode for decentralized (left) and centralized (right) ventilation
system.

In the operational mode for the interim seasons
(spring/summer, summer/autumn) the air is dried by means
of the external air. In MIXING 1 mode the key is a minimum
quantity of fresh air to be delivered to the pool’s hall. In MIXING
2 mode that quantity is changeable. The difference in the con-
denser’s power is visible on a diagram (Fig. 13) and it results from
supply of the smaller air stream as the pool’s hall construction
does not have to be protected against the condensation.
100% EXTERNAL AIR operating mode
In the 100% EXTERNAL AIR operation mode, only external air is
supplied to the swimming pool hall, without a recirculation. The
air parameters inside the swimming pool hall depend on the ex-
ternal air parameters. The fundamental difference, which affects
the amount of heat supplied to the ventilation air by condenser,
is a supplied air flow. In the centralized system, the air stream
is 66 m3 /(h. m2 P ), while in the decentralized system it is only
40m3 /(h. m2 P ). In order to remove the evaporating water from the
pool basin zone it is enough to deliver only 40 m3 /(h. m2 P ). The
 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
Fig. 15. The heat required for heating the ventilation air (given in kWh (m2 P /year)) and annual consumption of electricity for each of seven calculation variants.
remaining 26 m3 /(h. m2 P ) is intended for securing the external
structure of the building. These differences are shown in Table 11.
In a decentralized system, additional security systems can be
turned off in the warmer period of the year, which in effect means
lower demands for air heating. The centralized system does not
have such a possibility and the ventilation unit (with the excep-
tion of night air stream reduction) works at full capacity through-
out the whole year.
Results and discussion
Based on air flow and calculated with proposed algorithm air
parameters before and after each unit, the yearly consumption of
heat energy was calculated for the air heater and heat pump con-
denser in pool facility, and the heat reserved in the condenser that
could be used for heating pool water, owing to the usage of an ad-
ditional condenser. Variants 1, 2, 4 and 5 represent the centralized
ventilation system, while variants 3, 6 and 7 represent the decen-
tralized ventilation system.
Fig. 15 shows the differences in heat consumption for heating
the ventilation air to the required level, resulting from the heat–
moisture balance of the facility as well as the annual consumption
of electricity.
The most significant reduction in amount of heat for heating
the air was obtained when pool unit was equipped with heat ex-
changer with 60% heat recovery (variant 2 in comparison with
variant 1). The results show that the reduction is about 38%. Heat
exchanger was missing in previous research [17,18,21].
The results of proposed decentralization of ventilation systems
are presented by comparing variants 2 with 3 as well as 4 with
6 (5 with 7). The variants representing the decentralized systems
(variants 3, 6, and 7) are characterized by a significantly smaller
amount of electricity consumed by the fans. This is because, in the
case of decentralization, the pool unit operating throughout the
whole year is smaller, and it is equipped with fans that require less
power. The additional systems working with recirculated air, only
during the defined period, are equipped with one fan, which has
also a small power requirement due to the small air flows. There-
fore, it does not increase the energy consumption of whole system.
The energy savings resulting from the decentralization of the ven-
tilation system for an indoor swimming pool can reach 30% when
unit without a heat pump is used, and 36% when ventilation unit
is equipped with a heat pump. Also the reduction of heat volume
can be noticed. For the units without a heat pump (variant 2 and
3) there is 13% reduction and for the units with a heat pump is 17%
(variants 4 and 6). Energy savings, resulting from the reduction of
heat required in order to heat the ventilation air, when using de-
centralized ventilation, are the result of different parameters that
are ensured for each of the pool’s hall zone. In the decentralized
ventilation system the main ventilation unit works with the fixed
parameters of supplied air throughout the year. The temperature of
15
supplied air in pool’s basin zone is about 32 °C. This zone is sepa-
rated from outside climate, while in case of the central ventilation
system the impact of external air temperature is crucial.
The most profitable variants with respect to a heat usage for
heating ventilation air are variants 3, 6, and 7, which are the de-
centralized ventilation options. Even when considering the opera-
tion of the additional systems covering heat losses from the exter-
nal partitions, heat consumption in these cases is still the lowest.
Considering variants where the amount of heat required for
heating the ventilation air is the lowest, as well as those where
the electric energy consumption by the fans is the lowest, the most
profitable variants are 3, 6, and 7, again. Variants 6 and 7 are the
most suitable. There are the systems equipped with heat pump so
in the result the ventilation air does not have to be heated by other
heat sources, reducing the consumption of primary energy. As the
European Union and Polish regulations impose the obligation of
using renewable energy sources, and are introducing the further
regulations regarding the consumption of a primary energy, vari-
ants 6 and 7 are better.
After comparing the most profitable variants, it has been con-
cluded that the most rational solution is variant 7, representing
the system where air is prepared by the ventilation unit with a
heat pump equipped with a double (air and water) condenser. The
heat pump operation in this system is very stable throughout the
year, as the air condenser is loaded steadily. The amount of heat
that can be provided for pool water heating is presented in Fig. 15.
It produces a profit from the application of the double condenser
in the heat pump. From analyzing the obtained results, it can be
stated that the best solution is variant 7, which simultaneously
achieves the lowest heat consumption for warming the ventilation
air and the lowest electric energy demand for driving fans. Addi-
tional heat to further decrease the consumption for warming the
pool water can be also offered.
5. Conclusions
The new, integrated approach to the ventilation system design-
ing process for a swimming pool was presented. By providing de-
centralization of ventilation system, usage of ventilation unit with
tree-stage heat recovery and double condenser and algorithm for
the calculations of air parameters based on varying amount of ex-
ternal air it was stated that:
(1) Zoning of the ventilation system allows for separate regula-
tion of air parameters: for the swimmers’ zone and in the
swimming pool envelope.
(2) The energy savings resulting from the decentralization of the
ventilation system for an indoor swimming pool can reach
30% when unit without a heat pump is used, and 36% when
ventilation unit is equipped with a heat pump.
16 K. Ratajczak and E. Szczechowiak / Energy & Buildings 206 (2020) 109574
(3) The reduction of heat resulting from the decentralization of
the ventilation system for the units without a heat pump is
by 13% and for the units with a heat pump is 17%.
(4) The new algorithm for controlling of air preparation was
introduced. It is based on varying external air percentage
which allows to use an adequate amount of the external air,
when pool is operated and no external air when the pool
is closed. With less cold air from the outside during winter,
the less heat to prepare supplied air is needed.
The proposed strategy for reducing energy consumption along
with the proposed algorithm could work in a real facility. The con-
dition for that is a ventilation unit equipped with a controller en-
abling the introduction of a new control strategy.
Declaration of Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interest to declare.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Katarzyna Ratajczak: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal
analysis, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
editing. Edward Szczechowiak: Conceptualization, Methodology.
Acknowledgments
The leading author of this paper was granted with National
Swimming Pool Foundation Fellowship 2015 and 2016 (received
from the National Swimming Pool Foundation, Colorado Springs,
USA) and was the scholarship holder within the project “Schol-
arship support for Ph.D. students specializing in majors strategic
for Wielkopolska’s development”, Sub-measure 8.2.2 Human Cap-
ital Operational Programme, co-financed by the European Union
under the European Social Fund.
Funding
The research was financed from funds for the statutory activity
of the Institute of Environmental Engineering of the Poznań Uni-
versity of Technology (01/13/DSPB/0809).
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