CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

India is placed 154 position in healthcare among 195 developing countries in

worldwide. According to the National Health Policy 2017 aims to raise public
healthcare expenditure to 2.5% of GDP from current 1.4% with more than two-
thirds of those resources going towards premier healthcare. It is still the largest
employment source and a significant piece of the overall socio-economic
development of India. Healthcare is highly central to India’s progress. The growth
of health facilities has been imbalanced India. Automation in healthcare is an
emerging field unknown to us. In current era, there is no time for youngsters to
concentrate on healthcare as it requires more time and work. In terms of business, it
has much profit. By introducing automation, time and stress can be Automation in
healthcare is an emerging field unknown to us. In current era, there is no time for
youngsters to concentrate on healthcare as it requires more time and work. In terms
of business, it has much profit. By introducing automation, time and stress can be
reduced in Nurse/Monitoring person. As we are moving to a future of health care,
we have to save person health There are many disadvantages in the healthcare
system like infection control due to assessments of doctor, heart attack due to clot
of Air embolism in backflow of blood in intravenous fluid, medication errors due to
surgery and clinic respective. This project helps to rectify those problems and
hopes youngsters to concentrate on healthcare as it as emerging field which is
required for the future. Intravenous therapy is the infusion of fluid substances
directly into a vein. Intravenous simply means “within vein”. IV system may be
used to correct fluid imbalances, to deliver machines, for blood transfusion or as
fluid replacement to correct. This way is the fastest way to deliver medicines or
fluids. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor treatment through IV therapy. Our

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project is aimed in automating the intravenous fluid monitoring system using
Arduino Uno R3. IV volume and fluid level can be precisely controlled. Also
human can contact the system through GSM.

1.2 BLOOD GROUPING

Blood grouping accuracy is vital in the treatment of many bleeding

disorders, in surgery or because of major blood loss, but there are actually a few
techniques used to provide blood grouping in different circumstances.

In simple testing, a blood grouping reagent (containing specific antibodies)

is mixed with a sample of the patient’s red blood cells. Whichever antibody makes
the red blood cells agglutinate (clump together) is the blood group of the patient.
For instance, if the red cells (erythrocytes) agglutinate when mixed with a reagent
containing Anti-A antibodies, then the patient’s red blood cells contain A antigens
(and the patient is said to be group A positive). Each blood grouping reagent is able
to detect a specific blood group. Sampling process flow chart is shown in fig. 1.1.

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 Fig. 1.1 Flow Chart for Sample Processing

1.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF CROSS MATCHING IN BLOOD

TRANSFUSIONS

If a patient needs a blood transfusion then it is imperative that the blood

given via transfusion is compatible with the patient’s own blood. This is because if
incompatible blood is transfused into the patient, the patient’s immune system will
attack the incompatible blood which may be fatal for the patient. 

In order to avoid this, a technique known as cross matching is performed.

This involves mixing a sample of the donor’s red blood cells with a sample of the
patient’s blood plasma. This mixture is incubated at 37oC and after the required
time, the mixture is examined carefully for clumping of the red blood cells. If no
clumping is observed, the donor’s blood can safely be transfused into the patient.

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1.4 GROUPING AND SUB-GROUPING

Three manual methods can be used when performing blood grouping:

1. Glass slide or white porcelain tile

2. Glass test tube
3. Microwell plate or microplate

1.4.1 Slide or Tile Method

This technique may be used for emergency ABO grouping tests or for
preliminary grouping particularly in an outdoor camp. Slide or tile testing is not
recommended for routine use because it is not reliable for
1. Weakly reactive antigens on cells
2. Serum grouping with low titre anti-A or anti-B
3. The disadvantages of tile method are less sensitive than the tube test
4. Drying up of the reaction mixture can cause aggregation of cells , giving
false positive results
5. Weaker reactions are difficult to interpret.

1.4.2 Microplate Technique

Microwell plate consists of a small tray with 96 small wells each of which
can hold about 200- 300μ1 of reagent. Microplate technology is gaining widespread
popularity due to increasing workload in blood transfusion laboratories and recent
availability of packaged automated system.

Three types of microplates are available

1. U-type well
2. V-type well
3. Flat-bottom

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 The U-type well is generally used in red cell serological work as it is easier
to read the results in U- bottom plates. The advantages of microplate ABO
grouping
1. Small volumes and low concentration of sera and red cells are used, making
it cost- effective.
2. Easy handling of a microplate, which can replace 96 test tubes.
3. Batching of samples can be achieved with considerable economy in space
and time.
4. If larger laboratories acquire microplate hardware items e.g. reagent
dispenser, sample handler and cell washer it may further reduce the
operation time.
5. Large batches of plates can be pre-dispensed with antisera and reagent red
cells before testing.
1.4.3 Tube Method

Test tubes either of glass or plastic may be used. The tube technique is more
sensitive than slide technique for ABO grouping. The advantages of tube method
1. It allows for fairly long incubation without drying up of the tubes contents.
2. Simplicity of reading and grading of results.
3. Clean and more hygienic.
1.5 ABO BLOOD GROUP

ABO blood group plays vital role in transfusion medicine. Summary chart
of ABO blood grouping is shown in fig. 1.2.

1. Type A has antigen A, these individuals can donate blood to other

individuals of type A and AB. They can receive blood only from individuals
of type A and type O.
2. Type B has antigen B, these individuals can donate blood to other
individuals of type B and AB. They can receive blood only from individuals
of type B and type O.
3. Type AB has both A and B antigen, these individuals can donate blood to
other individuals of type AB but can receive blood of any type blood.

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 4. Type O can donate blood to anyone because they have no antigen. They can
receive blood only from individuals of type O.

Fig. 1.2 ABO Antigen- Antibody Summary Chart

1.6 MEASURING OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

A blood sample is obtained by inserting a needle into a vein in the arm or a

drop of blood is taken by pricking a finger with a small, pointed lancet. Sometimes,
a random urine sample is collected. Some diabetics may use a continuous glucose
monitor, which uses a small sensor wire inserted beneath the skin of the abdomen
and held in place with an adhesive patch. The sensor measures blood glucose levels
at frequent intervals and sends the results to a device that is attached to the person's
clothing. A digital readout on the device lets the person know the blood glucose
level in mg/dl.

For screening purposes, fasting is generally recommended (nothing to eat or

drink except water) for at least 8 hours before a blood glucose test. Those who have

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been diagnosed with diabetes and are monitoring their glucose levels are often
tested both while fasting and after meals. For random and timed tests, follow the
health practitioner's instructions. A glucose tolerance test requires that the person
fast for the first blood sample and then drink a liquid containing a specified amount
of glucose, subsequent blood samples are drawn at specified times.

1.7 EXISTING METHOD

1.7.1 Blood group typing

Light acts as a source for optical signals which is allowed to pass through the
finger. Arduino is used as control unit. Compared with voltage level, blood group is
identified.

The major drawbacks faced by these systems are:

1. Arduino lacks processing speed

2. It has limited programming language

3. It is partially computer based

4. Internet connection is difficult

1.7.2 Blood glucose

The existing method introduces an architecture that uses Near Infrared (NIR)
spectroscopy to determine blood glucose levels based on transmittance spectroscopy
on the ear lobe.

The major drawbacks faced by these systems are:

1. Non-invasive meters may not work reliably on infants because of very

small thickness of the ear lobe (<2mm).

2. Similarly, any medical condition that inhibits blood flow to the ear lobe
will result in erroneous readings.

1.8 SCOPE OF THE WORK

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 The objective of this work is to design a non-invasive method for identifying
blood group typing and to measure the blood glucose level using infrared and near-
infrared (NIR) sensors.

In the proposed system, the infrared LED emits infrared radiation.

The intensity of reception decides the output of the sensor by photodiode. 
Compared with intensity range (in lux) of infrared radiation, blood group is
identified.

Blood glucose level is measured using NIR transmission through a finger.

NIR energy is introduced into one side of a finger, and for detecting NIR energy
emerging from an opposite side of the finger, a photo detector is used. Raspberry pi
is used as controller.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A literature review functions as a tool to provide a background to the work
by summarizing the previously published work. A detailed study on blood group
typing and blood glucose measuring is discussed. 21 technical papers were studied
and inferences have been summarized in the survey. Based on the survey we have
developed ‘Non-invasive determination of ABO blood group typing and blood
glucose level’.

2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

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 Gayathri T. et al., (2018) proposed an idea which embeds light as a source
for optical signals which is allowed to pass through the finger and detector detects
the varying voltage. As the optical property of blood varies for different antigen
present on the RBC, the voltage value obtained also gets varied.Depending upon
the output voltage of the detector, blood groups are determined. The process is
uncomplicated and convenient to determine ABO blood group in a short period of
time, so it can be economically used for blood test during hospitality, emergencies,
war fields and infants.

Gaurav S. et al., (2018) have designed the technique that embeds light
scattering method as light passes through the capillaries for dynamically classifying
blood cells based on specific antigens shape present on the Red Blood Cell (RBC)
surface. Camera is used to capture the scattered light pattern, scattered from the red
blood cells to determine the blood type. The patient’s blood group can be identified
by using the reflected/scattered light from RBC. It overcomes the present
difficulties of manual process and also no problem of bleeding, since it does not
make use of blood sample.

Nishtha Nagar. et al., (2015) has implemented the light from the pulsating
LED is passed through the blood sample via an optical fiber cable and the
transmitted light is then detected and is converted into voltage. The transmitted
light from different blood groups will have different intensities and thereby
different voltage levels, based on which, blood groups are classified.The blood
group detection unit is a quick and easy way for determining the blood group and
comes as a great help during the times of emergency. Moreover, the mobile patient
monitoring system is a compact and easy to operate device that can be used in
ambulances, hospitals, clinics and also at homes.

Selvakumari T.M. (2011) approached the method that the light pulses from
the LED are allowed to fall on blood samples by using optical fiber cables. The
other end of the optical cable is coupled to a pin-photo diode, which acts as a photo
detector. Due to the optical variations of different blood groups there will be

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corresponding voltage variations in the output of the photo detector.Depending
upon the output voltage of the detector, blood groups are determined.

Geng Z. et al., (2017) designed a multisensor-based, non-invasive

continuous glucometer integrated with impedance spectroscopy at low and high
frequency, optical properties, temperature and humidity was developed, which can
estimate glucose variation by continuously obtaining time series data from multiple
sensors.  By calculating, NRMSE (normalized root mean squared error) and MAPE
(mean absolute percent error) of each estimation result.

NRMSE=∑(Glu(t)−G(t))2N (2.1)

MAPE=1N∑|Glu(t)−G(t)Glu(t)| (2.2)

where Glu(t) was the real glucose value, G(t) was the estimation glucose value
and N is the number of test points. It overcomes the problem of the time delay
between physiological parameter changes and glucose level changes.

Yadav J. et al., (2014) designed a non-invasive blood glucose measurement

sensor system using Near-infrared technique. Initially in-vitro glucose
measurement prototype is developed using continuous wave from NIR LED (940
nm) to check the sensitivity of the system for different glucose concentrations.
Later a sensor patch was designed using LED and a photodiode to observe diffused
reflectance spectra of blood from the human forearm. The results are promising and
show the potential of using NIR for glucose measurement.

Sämann A. et al., (2000) explained an architecture that uses Near Infrared

(NIR) spectroscopy to determine blood glucose levels based on transmittance
spectroscopy on the ear lobe. Improvements in accuracy can be made by increasing
the LED power, by using more sensitive photodiodes, and by including further
parameters like ambient and body temperatures. Non-invasive meters may not work
reliably on infants because of very small thickness of the ear lobe (<2mm).

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 CHAPTER 3
BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The block diagram shown in fig. 3.1 illustrates the proposed system.
The Raspberry Pi is a very cheap computer, it also provides a set of GPIO (General
Purpose Input/Output) pins that allow to control electronic components for physical
computing and explore the Internet of Things (IoT). The whole system works on a
Raspberry pi. The heart beat sensor and glucose sensor connected to raspberry pi
through an analogue to digital converter as the sensors create analogue values. The
digital values are sent to Raspberry pi.

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 LCD

In-built
Heart Beat
Sensor Wi-Fi
Raspberry
ADC Pi Zero

NIR
Glucose
Sensor

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram

3.2 HEART BEAT SENSOR

Heartbeat Sensor is an electronic device that is used to measure the heart

rate i.e. speed of the heartbeat. Monitoring body temperature, heart rate and blood
pressure are the basic things to keep healthy. It comes in different shapes and sizes
and allows an instant way to measure the heartbeat.

3.2.1 Principle of heart beat sensor

The heart beat sensor is based on the principle of photo phlethysmography.

It measures the change in volume of blood through any organ of the body which
causes a change in the light intensity through that organ.

3.2.2 Working of heart beat sensor

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 The fig. 3.2 shows the heart beat sensor. When the finger tissue is
illuminated using a light source, the light is transmitted after getting modulated i.e.
a part getting absorbed by the blood and the rest being transmitted. This modulated
light is received by the light detector.

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) is used as a light detector. It works on the

principle that when light falls on the resistor, its resistance changes. As the light
intensity increases, the resistance decreases. Thus the voltage drop across the
resistor decreases.

A comparator is used which compares the output voltage from the LDR to
that of the threshold voltage. The threshold voltage is the voltage drop across the
LDR when the light with fixed intensity, from the light source falls directly on it.
When a human tissue is illuminated using the light source, the intensity of the light
reduces. As this reduced light intensity falls on the LDR, the resistance increases
and as a result the voltage drop increases.

Fig. 3.2 Heart Beat Sensor

3.3 NIR GLUCOSE SENSOR

Near Infrared transmittance involves a light source and a light detector

positioned on either side of the finger. The near infrared light passing through the
finger depends on the amount of blood glucose in that region. Near Infrared light is
applied onto one side of the finger, while a detector on the other side receives the
attenuated light. This attenuated signal is fed into an amplifier to amplify the weak

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NIR signals. Near-Infrared is chosen because of its sensitivity, selectivity, low cost,
and portability.

3.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC)

The fig. 3.3 shows the MCP3208. An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) takes
an analog input signal and converts the input, through a mathematical function, into
a digital output signal. While there are many ways of implementing an ADC, there
are three conceptual steps that occur.

1. The signal is sampled.

2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized signal is digitally coded.

Fig. 3.3 MCP3208

3.5 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

` A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that
uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCDs do not emit
light directly. An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal

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 material sand witched in between them. When the LCD is in the off state, light
rays are rotated by the two polarizers and the liquid crystal, such that the light
rays come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears
transparent. When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal
molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing
through the LCD would be rotated by the polarizers, which would result in
activating / highlighting the desired characters.

3.6 RASPBERRY PI

The Raspberry Pi is a credit-card sized computer that plugs into your TV

and a keyboard, which can be used for many of the things that average desktop
does - spreadsheets, word-processing, games and it also plays high-definition
video. The Raspberry Pi Zero is used here. The fig. 3.4 shows the 40 pin
Raspberry Pi Zero.

Fig. 3.4 Raspberry Pi Zero

It provides a set of GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pins that allow to

control electronic components for physical computing and explore the Internet of
Things (IoT).

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 CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The fig. 4.1 shows the circuit diagram of hardware. The components are
interconnected with Raspberry pi. The heart beat sensor and glucose sensor
connected to raspberry pi through an analog to digital converter as the sensors
create analog values. The digital values are sent to Raspberry pi and it is displayed
on LCD.

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 Fig. 4.1 Circuit Diagram

4.2 HEART BEAT SENSOR

The heartbeat sensor is based on the principle of photo phlethysmography.

It measures the change in volume of blood through any organ of the body which
causes a change in the light intensity through that organ.

The basic heartbeat sensor consists of a light emitting diode and a detector
like a light detecting resistor or a photodiode. The heart beat pulses causes a
variation in the flow of blood to different regions of the body.  When a tissue is
illuminated with the light source, i.e. light emitted by the led, it either reflects (a
finger tissue) or transmits the light (earlobe). Some of the light is absorbed by the
blood and the transmitted or the reflected light is received by the light detector. The

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amount of light absorbed depends on the blood volume in that tissue. The detector
output is in form of electrical signal and is proportional to the heart beat rate.

This signal is actually a DC signal relating to the tissues and the blood
volume and the AC component synchronous with the heart beat and caused by
pulsatile changes in arterial blood volume is superimposed on the DC signal. Thus
the major requirement is to isolate that AC component as it is of prime importance.
The fig. 4.2 shows the heart beat detection circuit.

Fig. 4.2 Heart Beat Detection Circuit

To achieve the task of getting the AC signal, the output from the detector is first
filtered using a 2 stage HP-LP circuit and is then converted to digital pulses using a
comparator circuit or using simple ADC. 

4.3 INFRARED SENSOR

Infrared radiation is the portion of electromagnetic spectrum having

wavelengths longer than visible light wavelengths, but smaller than microwaves,
i.e., the region roughly from 0.75µm to 1000 µm is the infrared region. Infrared
waves are invisible to human eyes. The wavelength region of 0.75µm to 3 µm is

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called near infrared, the region from 3 µm to 6 µm is called mid infrared and the
region higher than 6 µm is called far infrared. 

The physics behind "IR sensors" is governed by three laws:

1. Planck’s radiation law:

Every object at a temperature T not equal to 0 K emits radiation. Infrared
radiant energy is determined by the temperature and surface condition of an object.
Human eyes cannot detect differences in infrared energy because they are primarily
sensitive to visible light energy from 400 to 700 nm. Our eyes are not sensitive to
the infrared energy.
 
2. Stephan Boltzmann Law
The total energy emitted at all wavelengths by a black body is related to the
absolute temperature as

3. Wien’s Displacement Law

Wien’s Law tells that objects of different temperature emit spectra that peak
at different wavelengths. It provides the wavelength for maximum spectral radiant
emittance for a given temperature. The relationship between the true temperature of
the black body and its peak spectral exitance or dominant wavelength is described
by this law

The world is not full of black bodies; rather it comprises of selectively radiating
bodies like rocks, water, etc. and the relationship between the two is given by
emissivity (E).

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Emissivity depends on object colour, surface roughness, moisture content, degree
of compaction, field of view, viewing angle & wavelength.
 
4.4 ELEMENTS OF INFRARED DETECTION SYSTEM
A typical system for detecting infrared radiation is given in the fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3 Block Diagram for IR Sensors

4.4.1 Infrared Source
All objects above 00K radiate infrared energy and hence are infrared
sources. Infrared sources also include blackbody radiators, tungsten lamps, silicon
carbide, and various others. For active IR sensors, infrared Lasers and LEDs of
specific IR wavelengths are used as IR sources.

4.4.2 Transmission Medium

Three main types of transmission medium used for Infrared transmission
are vacuum, the atmosphere, and optical fibers.
The transmission of IR – radiation is affected by presence of CO2, water vapour
and other elements in the atmosphere. Due to absorption by molecules of water
carbon dioxide, ozone, etc. the atmosphere highly attenuates most IR wavelengths
leaving some important IR windows in the electromagnetic spectrum; these are
primarily utilized by thermal imaging/ remote sensing applications.

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 1. Medium wave IR (MWIR:3-5 µm)
2. Long wave IR (LWIR:8-14 µm)

4.4.3 Optical Components.

Often optical components are required to converge or focus infrared
radiations, to limit spectral response, etc. To converge/focus radiations, optical
lenses made of quartz, CaF2, Ge and Si, polyethylene Fresnel lenses, and mirrors
made of Al, Au or a similar material are used. For limiting spectral responses, band
pass filters are used. Choppers are used to pass/ interrupt the IR beams.

4.4.4 Infrared detectors

Various types of detectors are used in IR sensors. Important specifications
of detectors are Photosensitivity or Responsivity, Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)
and Detectivity (D*: D-star)
Responsivity is the Output Voltage/Current per watt of incident energy.
Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) represents detection ability of a detector and
is the amount of incident light equal to intrinsic noise level of a detector.
Detectivity (D*: D-star) is the photosensitivity per unit area of a detector. It
is a measure of S/N ratio of a detector. D* is inversely proportional to NEP. Larger
D* indicates better sensing element.
In addition, wavelength region or temperature to be measured, response
time, cooling mechanism, active area, no of elements, package, linearity, stability,
temperature characteristics, etc. are important parameters which need attention
while selecting IR detectors.

4.4.5 Signal Processing

Since detector outputs are typically very small, preamplifiers with
associated circuitry are used to further process the received signals.

4.5 NEAR- INFRARED

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 In NIR spectroscopy, the unknown substance is illuminated with a broad-
spectrum (many wavelengths or frequencies) of near infrared light, which can be
absorbed, transmitted, reflected or scattered by the sample of interest. The
illumination is typically in the wavelength range of 0.8 to 2.5 microns (800 to
2500nm). The light intensity as a function of wavelength is measured before and
after interacting with the sample, and the diffuse reflectance, a combination of
absorbance and scattering, caused by the sample is calculated. Light is absorbed in
varying amount by the sample at particular frequencies corresponding to the
combinations and overtones of vibrational frequencies of some bonds of the
molecules in the sample. Specifically, the bond vibrations between oxygen and
hydrogen (OH), carbon and hydrogen (CH), and nitrogen and hydrogen (NH) result
in NIR absorbance bands.

Not all compounds absorb infrared light, and it is only those that do
which can be measured by NIR. Water does, and so do organic compounds such as
protein, fat, starch, sugar and many others. These compounds can be measured by
NIR, as long as they are present at a level which is not too low. Due to
advancements in laser and detector technology, it has been known that light in the
near IR region in the range of 700–1400 nm, and even further from the visible
region, is the most efficient region for light to be transmitted through biological
tissues. This is called the “near infrared region,” also known as the “therapeutic
window”.

The most significant characteristics of NIR sensor, such as

1. Fast (one minute or less per sample)

2. Non-destructive
3. Non-invasive
4. With high penetration of the probing radiation beam
5. Suitable for in-line use

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 6. Nearly universal application (any molecule containing C-H, N-H, S-H
or O-H bonds)
7. With minimum sample preparation demands.
4.6 ADVANTAGES OF NEAR-INFRARED
1. Highly flexible form of analysis
2. Cost-effective
3. Capable of examining irregular surfaces
4. Non-destructive
5. Requires little or no sample preparation
4.7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) takes an analog input signal and

converts the input, through a mathematical function, into a digital output signal.
While there are many ways of implementing an ADC, there are three conceptual
steps that occur. The signal is sampled. Then sampled signal is quantized. The
quantized signal is digitally coded. The fig. 4.4 illustrate the MCP3208 pin
diagram.

4.7.1 Features of ADC – MCP3208

1. 12-bit resolution
2. ± 1 LSB max DNL
3. ± 1 LSB max INL (MCP3204/3208-B)
4. ± 2 LSB max INL (MCP3204/3208-C)
5. 4 (MCP3204) or 8 (MCP3208) input channels
6. Analog inputs programmable as single-ended or
7. Pseudo-differential pairs
8. SPI serial interface (modes 0,0 and 1,1)
9. Single supply operation: 2.7V - 5.5V
10. 100 ksps max. sampling rate at VDD = 5V
11. 50 ksps max. sampling rate at VDD = 2.7V
12. Low power CMOS technology:
i. 500 nA typical standby current, 2 μA max.

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 ii. 400 μA max. active current at 5V
13. Industrial temp range: -40°C to +85°C

Fig.4.4 MCP3208 Pin diagram

4.7.2 Functional Block Diagram

The fig. 4.5 illustrate the MCP3208 functional diagram

Fig.4.5 MCP3208 Functional Block Diagram

4.7.3 Description

The Microchip Technology Inc. MCP3204/3208 devices are successive

approximation 12-bit Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters with on-board sample
and hold circuitry. The MCP3204 is programmable to provide two pseudo-
differential input pairs or four single-ended inputs. The MCP3208 is programmable
to provide four pseudo-differential input pairs or eight single-ended inputs.

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Differential Nonlinearity (DNL) is specified at ±1 LSB, while Integral Nonlinearity
(INL) is offered in ±1 LSB (MCP3204/3208-B) and ±2 LSB (MCP3204/3208-C)
versions. Communication with the devices is accomplished using a simple serial
interface compatible with the SPI protocol. The devices are capable of conversion
rates of up to 100 ksps. The MCP3204/3208 devices operate over a broad voltage
range (2.7V - 5.5V). Low current design permits operation with typical standby and
active currents of only 500 nA and 320 µA, respectively. The MCP3204 is offered
in 14-pin PDIP, 150 mil SOIC and TSSOP packages. The MCP3208 is offered in
16-pin PDIP and SOIC packages.

4.7.4 Applications
1. Sensor Interface
2. Process Control
3. Data Acquisition
4. Battery Operated Systems

4.8 RASPBERRY PI
The Raspberry Pi is a credit-card sized computer that plugs into your TV
and a keyboard, which can be used for many of the things that your average
desktop does - spreadsheets, word-processing, games and it also plays high-
definition video. The Raspberry Pi Zero pin diagram is shown in fig. 4.6.

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 Fig.4.6 Raspberry Pi Zero Pin Diagram

4.8.1 Powering with Less than 5V

The Raspberry Pi zero runs at 3.3V, there is an on board voltage regulator

which creates this voltage from the 5V power input.  Whilst the Raspberry Pi is
generally specified as operating from 4.75V to 5.25V (the USB acceptable voltage
range), the processor runs at 3.3V.  No schematic is available at the current time for
the RPi zero, but as it is simply just the processor and SD card, which both run at
3.3V, there should be no reason not to be able to power it with a voltage below
4.75V.  It should be fine to power it with 3.3V directly via the IO connector 3V3
pin, or use its voltage regulator to create the 3.3V with an input voltage below
4.75V.  The running current will be higher than at 5V as its voltage regulator is

26
switch mode, but the voltage regulator should still do its job OK as long as there is
a bit of voltage headroom to its Vout (3.3V).

1. Powering with 3.5V, HDMI disabled, USB hub connected

2. Powers up fine.  3.3V rail looks fine on an oscilloscope.
3. RJ45 USB ethernet adaptor in the USB hub (powered by the USB
hub not the RPi) works fine, SSH connection fine.
4. Max power consumption during boot: 268mA (this was just by
watching PSU display readings by eye, most of the time was
< 180mA but peeked at times – using an inline max/min multi-meter
resistance caused too much voltage drop)
5. Power consumption idle: 98mA
6. Power consumption after sudo shutdown completes: 22mA
7. Powering with 3.4V, HDMI disabled, USB hub connected
8. Powers up fine.  3.3V rail looks fine on an oscilloscope.
9. RJ45 USB ethernet adaptor in the USB hub (powered by the USB
hub not the RPi) works fine, SSH connection fine.
10. Power consumption idle: 100mA
11. Power consumption after sudo shutdown completes: 22mA
12. Powering with 3.3V, HDMI disabled, USB hub connected
13. Powers up fine.  3.3V rail has a bit of wobble, min 3.16V
and type 3.29V on an oscilloscope.
14. RJ45 USB ethernet adaptor in the USB hub (powered by the USB
hub not the RPi) works fine, SSH connection fine.
15. Power consumption idle: 101mA
16. Power consumption after sudo shutdown completes: 22mA

27
4.8.2 Raspberry Pi Zero features and specifications

1. Processor: BCM 2835 SOC

2. Clock speed: 1GHz
3. RAM: 512MB
4. Memory: micro-SD
5. Display and Audio: mini-HDMI
6. USB Port: 1 x micro-B USB for data (with power too)
7. Power input: 1x micro-B USB for power (no data)
8. Camera interface: CSI camera connector (needs adaptor cable,
0.5mm pitch to pitch CSI)
9. GPIO: Unpopulated 40-pin GPIO connector
10. Dimensions: 65mm x 30mm x 5mm

4.8.3 Benefits of Raspberry Pi

1. Low cost
2. Consistent board format form
3. It has 10x faster processing
4. It has super connectivity

4.8.4 Applications of Raspberry Pi

1. It can be used in Low cost PC/tablet/laptop

2. It uses IoT applications for data transmission
3. It is also used in Robotics
4. It is also used in Industrial/Home automation also
5. It is also used for Security monitoring
6. Also used in Web camera
7. It uses Wireless access point

28
 CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Python is an interpreted high-level programming language for general-

purpose programming. It provides constructs that enable clear programming on
both small and large scales. Python features a dynamic type system and
automatic memory management. It supports multiple programming paradigms.

Python interpreters are available for many operating systems. CPython,

the reference implementation of Python, is source software and has a community-
based development model, as do nearly all of its variant implementations. CPython
is managed by the non-profit Python Software Foundation.

5.1.1 Statements and control flow

1. The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with

else and else if (a contraction of else-if).
2. The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each
element to a local variable for use by the attached block.
3. The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its
condition is true.
4. The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local
namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming.
5. The def statement, which defines a function or method.

29
5.1.2 Expressions

1. Addition, subtraction, and multiplication are the same, but the behaviour
division differs. There are two types of divisions in Python. They are floor
division and integer division. Python also added the ** operator for
exponentiation.
2. Python uses the words and, or, not for its Boolean operators rather than
used.
3. Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension.
4. Python has been successfully embedded in many software products
5. Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. Python is
used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit
development.
6. The Raspberry Pi single-board computer project has adopted Python as its
main user-programming language.

5.1.3 Setup

1. Use SD Formatter to format the micro SD card.

2. Extract the content of the program/zip to the micro SD card.
3. Insert the card into the Raspy
4. Power and boot the Raspy
5. This then will go through the setup
6. It takes about 15-20 minutes until all the files are installed
7. The system boots and the system is up-and-running

30
 CHAPTER 6
DISPLAY DEVICE

6.1 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is an electronically-modulated optical

device shaped into a thin, flat panel made up of any number of colour or
monochrome pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source
(backlight) or reflector. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices
because it uses very small amounts of electric power. LCD has material, which
continues the properties of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting
point, they have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as
mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered from
similar to a crystal. They are used in similar applications where LEDs are used.
These applications are display of display of numeric and alphanumeric characters
in dot matrix and segmental displays.
LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal materials
sandwiched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates is coated with
transparent electrodes which define in between the electrodes and the crystal, which
makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle. When a
potential is applied across the cell, charge carriers flowing through the liquid will
disrupt the molecular alignment and produce turbulence.
When the liquid is not activated, it is transparent. When the liquid is
activated the molecular turbulence causes light to be scattered in all directions and
the cell appears to be bright. Thus the required message is displayed. When the
LCD is in the off state, the two polarizer’s and the liquid crystal rotate the light
rays, such that they come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the
LCD appears transparent. The fig. 6.1 shows the LCD display.

31
 Fig. 6.1 LCD Display

6.2 WORKING OF LCD DISPLAY

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes the liquid crystal

molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through
the LCD would be rotated by the polarizer, which would result in
activating/highlighting the desired characters. The power supply should be of +5V,
with maximum allowable transients of 10mV. To achieve a better/suitable contrast
for the display the voltage (V) at pin 3 should be adjusted properly. A module
should not be removed from a live circuit.
The ground terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so that
voltage is induced in it. The module should be isolated properly so that stray
voltages are not induced, which could cause a flicking display. LCD is lightweight
with only a few, millimetres thickness since the LCD consumes less power, they
are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long
durations. LCD does not generate light and so light is needed to read the display.
By using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. LCDs have long life and a
wide operating temperature range. Before LCD is used for displaying proper

32
initialization should be done. LCD is used to display the blood group and blood
glucose level.
6.2.1 LCD Pin description
The function of each pins of LCD is described below VCC, VSS and VEE
while VDD and VSS provide +5V and ground, respectively, VEE is used for
controlling LCD contrast.
6.2.2 Register select
There are two important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for
selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction code register is selected, allowing the
user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home, etc. If RS=1 the data
register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.
6.2.3 Read/Write
R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read
information from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing.
6.2.4 Enable
The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented on its data
pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied to this
pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins.
6.2.5 D0 - D7
The 8-bit data pins, D0 – D7, are used to send information to the LCD or
read contents of the LCD’S internal registers. There are also instruction codes that
can be sent to the LCD to clear the display or force the cursor to the home position
or blink the cursor. RS=0 is used to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is
ready to receive information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W=1 and
RS=0, as follows: if R/W=1, RS=0.when D7=1, the LCD is busy taking care of
internal operation and will not accept any new information, when D7=0, the LCD is
ready to receive new information.

33
 Fig. 6.2 LCD Interfacing with Raspberry Pi Zero

6.3 PIN DESCRIPTION FOR LCD

The table 6.1 illustrate the pin descriptions of LCD.

Table: 6.1 Pin Descriptions of LCD

Pin No. Symbol Function
1 Vss Ground terminal of Module
2 Vdd Supply terminal of Module, +5v
3 Vo Power supply for liquid crystal drive
4 RS Register select

RS=0…Instruction register

RS=1…Data register

34
5 R/W Read/Write

R/W=1…Read

R/W=0…Write

6 EN Enable

7-14 DB0-DB7 Bi-directional Data Bus. Data Transfer

is performed once, through DB0-
DB7,incase of interface data length is 8-
bits;and twice, thru DB4-DB7 in the case
of interface data length is 4-bits.Upper
four bits first then lower four bits.

15 LAMP-(L-) LED or EL lamp power supply

terminals
16 LAMP+(L+) (E2) Enable

35
 CHAPTER 7
RESULTS

7.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The blood groups and blood glucose levels are determined non-invasively
without puncturing the skin. The fig. 7.1 shows the module of non-invasive
determination of blood group and blood glucose.

Fig. 7.1 Module of Non-Invasive Determination of Blood Group and Blood

Glucose

36
 The blood group (A, B, O) are identified by using intensity values. The
intensity values obtained experimentally are listed below in the table 7.1.

Table: 7.1 Intensity Range of Blood Group

BLOOD GROUP INTENSITY RANGE

(lux)
A 65-75
B 76-83
O 84-94

Blood glucose level is measured experimentally and compared with clinical

values in mg/dl. Correlation was observed to be 99% as listed in table 7.2.

Table: 7.2 Blood Glucose Level

S.NO BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL CORRELATION

(mg/dl) %
Clinical Values Experimental
Values
1 107 107 100
2 99 97 98
3 104 104 100
4 102 102 100
5 99 98 99
6 103 100 97
7 109 107 98
8 106 106 100
9 94 93 99
10 107 106 99
MEAN37 99
7.2 ADVANTAGES OF PROPOSED METHOD

1. Cost Effective

2. Wireless

3. Compact

4. No side effects

5. Less time consuming

6. No problem of invasiveness, since it does not make use of blood sample

7. Raspberry pi has fast processing speed

7.3 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

As a future work, mobile application can be developed with the help of

flashlight in mobile to identify the blood group and to measure blood glucose level.
These values can be stored in the cloud for future reference.

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The proposed system based on Raspberry pi is found to be more compact,
user friendly and less complex, which can readily be used in order to perform

38
several tedious and repetitive tasks. Though it is designed keeping in mind about
the need for hospital, it can be extended for other purposes such as commercial &
research applications. In this method blood group and blood glucose level are
identified within a short time and concluded that blood glucose level are 99%
correlated with clinical values for non-diabetic patients.

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